Sirat-ur-Rasool (SAW) Ki Tahzeebi-o-Saqafti Ahmiyyat - (Urdu)

  
  
 
 
   

   

042-111-140-14 0 5168514     
    -365
  
042-7237695          
www.Minhaj.org - sales@Minhaj.org
www.MinhajBook s.com    

   

        
     
   
        

       

   
               
 
     
     
            
   
   
            
 
          
    
                 
  
   
     

   
   
 
   
         

    
  
  
     
     
Res earch.co m.pk      

    

       
2007      
 
1,100  
 130/-     

       
            
                 
          

        
sales @minhaj.o rg

   
   
 
   
         

    
  
  
   
 
     
Res earch.co m.pk      

    

       
2007   

    
1,100  
 100/-   

       
            
                 
          

        
sales @minhaj.o rg

   

 
  
      
     

       
 

     
 Sumeric 
Civilization  
  Egyptian   

 Hittite 
Civilization    



    
Phoenician Civilization  
 Greek  
Civilization     
 Iranian  
Civilization    
  Indian   
www.MinhajBooks.com    
  
        
 
 Roman   
 Byzantinian Civilization    
 
     
 
    
  
 
      
 
    
    

 
   
       
   
  
 
   
     
       
     
     
  
  
 
        
   
 
     
    
    

    
  
   
    
       
     

        
     
 
      
    
   
        
   
 
  

             
                
                   
              
             
    
                 


 

  
             
   
   
         
  
               
        
     
         
                  
                   
                        
         
                  
       
          
   
              
      
              
               

      
  
         

     
    
  
             
             
     
                 
                   

                 
                  
  
   
             
           
      
          

   
            
       
   
 

   
 

  

               
             
       
         
            
            
      
                 
                
        
       
    
             
                 
              
         
        
                   
             
   
               
     
           
               
                  
  
         
                 

            
   
    
The ter m cult ur e is often used to cover the whole
r ange of man's ac ti vi ti es when these ar e vi ewed
psychologically. The anthr opologist applies the ter m
to t he wor k of p r i mi ti v e man i n making t ools,
baskets, boats and the like; these ar e r efer r ed to as
for ms of mater ial cultur e. The popular mind thinks of
cultur e in ter ms of polite society, wher e it connotes
good manner s and gr ammati cal speech. The c r ude
per son who lac ks t hese, even t hough he be f ar
super ior to the savage with his "cultur e", is r efer r ed
to as "uncultur ed", meaning unr efined. J ust as the
ter m ani mal is used to cover v ar ious f auna fr om a
tiny insect to a lar ge mammal, so the ter m cultur e is
often extended to the glimmer ings of intelligence in
pr imitive men and the gr aces of those who move in
the best cir cles of ur ban society. It will be seen at
once that we cannot make headway in the analysis of
cultur al types among moder n nations if we apply the
ter m so indiscr iminately. (1)
        

  
     
      
       
   
       
        
                
(1) Char les Gr ay Shaw , Tren ds of Civilization an d Culture, p.

75.
  
       
             
             
            
      
               

            
         
        
  
            
     
    
         
                  
                  
                  
                       
                 
 
                
    
             
 
                   

             
   
                   
         
          
             
                
  
         
          
         
               
   
      
      
    
Wher ever human beings for m communities, a cultur e
comes into existence. Cultur es may be constr ucted
on a number of levels: in village or city locations, or
acr oss family, clan, ethnic, and national gr oups. All
communi ti es pr oduce a li ngui st ic , lit er ar y , and
ar tistic genr e, as well as beliefs and pr actices that
char act er iz e soc ial lif e and i ndi cate how soci ety
should be r un. Cultur e tr ansc ends i deology , and is
about the substance of identity for individuals in a
soc iet y . An awar eness of a c ommon language,
ethnicity, histor y, r eligion, and landscape r epr esent
the building blocks of cultur e. (1)
               
     
     
             
  
            
               
 
         
       
(1) Simon Mur den, Culture in World Affairs in John Baylis &
Steve Smith's The Globalization of Wor ld Politics, p. 457.
  
       

        
       
  
  
            
          
   
         
      
     
  
             
                
         
       
                  
               
                
                   
  
    
Cultur e can help us under stand why humans act in
t he way t hey d o, and what si mi lar i t i es and
differ ences exist amongst them. The wor ld is divided
int o di st inc t communi t ies, and a taxonomy of
belonging and exclusion is the vital job that cultur al
analysis can under take. (1)
               

               
       
        
Steve Smith's The Globalization of Wor ld Politics, p. 457.
  
         
      
             
           
     
                
      
       
           
    
                
                 

                 
  
        
   

 
   
                
                     
   
             
                 
             
  
                     
                   
                   
                  
     
      
          
  
     
   
      
    
  
       
                  
                    
                      
                  
                 
    
                 
 
             
     
                   
               
    
                   
                  
               
         

  

  
   

The confusion in the use of the ter m cultur e is that
whic h ar ises when i t i s c losely assoc iat ed wi th
civilization, so closely associated as to be identified
with it. The ter m when it is used in its most gener al
sense i s oft en made t o i nc lude both cult ur e and
civilizati on. (1)
(1) Char les Gr ay Sh aw , Tren ds of Civi liza tion an d Cult ure,

Amer ican Book, 1931, p. 76 .
  
         
           
     
     
     
   
   
        
    

            
                
                
             
        
    
           
           
   
      
         
                   
                
       
           
 
              
    
                 
                  
      

  
            
              
  
                
 
               
  
       
                     
                     
                 

        
          
              
                 
                
                    
            
        
               
                  
                 
                
                      
              
     
     
            

         
      
    
       
         
      
           
     
              
  
         
                 
   
                 
                
     
 
          
        
       
           
      
   
  
               
           
      
      
  
   
       
  
        
                
       
           
             
 
  
            
       

            

                
  
           

               
 
                

  
       
   
  
       
    
  
         
                

                      
            
     
                    
                
                     

                
              
           
          
         
            

    
    
       
    
                 
      

       
         
            
            
  
         
                  
           



   
           
 
                

                  
       super powers           
 
               
                 
             
      
                

       
         
  
                     
                   
 
                
    
               
              

                
  
            

  
       
            
 
           
        
 

                  
 
 
      
     
             
 
        
  
                  
                 
                
                  
               
                 
          
 
      
       
            
 
                   

          
    
       
     
     
           
      
            
         
     
               
  
         
                      
                  

  (Robert Briffault)
               
             
    
    
               

                

               
  

                 
      
                  

             
       
                   
             

                   
                   
               

           
             
                
 
     
              
 
(1) Rober t Br iffault, The M akin g of Human ity, p. 164.
  
       

      
           
          
    
   
               
                  
       
 
Sumeric Civilization 
    
              
                
            
     
        
  
Egyptian Civilization 
         
        
        
       
                     
                      
                   
                      
(1) Ar nold J, Toynbee, A Study of Histor y, Abr idgement by

D.C. Somer vell, 1947, p.27.
  
         
                 
   

      

  
Hittite Civilization 
               
                 
                 
  
            
   
                 
               


 
Phoenician Civilization    

   
              


               

                   
                  
                      
                    
            
(1) Ar nold J, Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement by
  
       
  
Greek Civilization    
                
                     
                    
             
      
         
    
              
               
                  

             
 
  
Iranian Civilization   

                    

                   
    
               
               
         
       
 
 
           
             
     
         
                  
  
         
      
         
  
                  

                   
 
            
    
        
     
    
           
                  
    

            

      
       
     
    
 
            
   
    
             

             
      

D.C. Somer vell, 1947, p.15, 112.
         
       
  
       
   
              
     
                
               
   
    
 


              

             
                

          
   

  
          
   
  
  
Indian Civilization 
               
 
       
          
      
         
    

     
          
                     
       
        
   
               
            
       
                  
   
       
  
         
                  

            
        


                
         
     

                
     
               
  
    
          
         
        

     
              
 
       
              
              
  
  
               
            
      


                   
               
  
                
                    
   
               
                    

D.C. Somer vell, 1947, p.389, 425.
  
       
 
Roman Civilization 
               
             
                 
  
 
         
         
   
            
              
    
                 

     
                
             
Byzantinian Civilization   
 
        
          
             
               
                
                
  
    
              

             
      
            
                
  
         
    
             
 
                  
            
               
  
     
   
  
            
       
        
  
         
     
               

              
           
          

        

   
                  
             
  
       
     
(1) Di mi t r i Gu t as , Gr ee k T ho ug h t-A ra b ic C ul t u r e , Th e
Gr a eco-Ar a bi c tr an sla ti on m ov eme nt i n Ba gh da d and
ea r ly Ab ba s i d s o ci e t y , Rou t le dg e , L o n do n , 1 9 9 9,
p.18 5-1 88.
        
  
       
    
              
               
               

                
 
   
              

               
              
 

                  
     

 
                 

              
              
       
       
         
   
   
             

           
                   
               
                 
   
                
                
  
         
                    
                
     


          
                   
                   
           
        
               
      Theodocius    
           
   
              
          
      
                  
            
  
       
         Cyril       
               
          
 
      
    Hypatia  
      

     
     
               
 
   
            
  
       
     
         
        

             

          
              
               
                
                   
                  
             
       
           

  
               
             
                 
      
       
               
             
                
                  
                 
  
         
      
       
   


             
             
                
                   
                    
              
               
 
     
         
    
 
           
           
    
      
        
     


    

                

    
      
     
    
                  
  
              
(1) Dr aper , His tor y of In t ellect ual De velopm en t of E urope ,

vol. II, p. 42.
  
       
    

         
       
     
    
  
    
   
 
         
              
        
            

                
    
 
                
                 
          
 
            
   
              
 
          
    
    
        
        

        
       
        
  
         
     

         
     
            
           
     
         
  
   
 
             

               
                  
   
 
   
      
    


                 
  
               
   
 
  
 
 
             
   
   
                  

         
      
     
 
                   
                 
    
      
  
       
      
                        
       
         
  
     
      
       
                
         
           
                
 
 

  
      
       
  
       
       
 

    
                
                   
               
    
             
                   
                  
                   
    
             
     
       
      
       
            
     

       
     
  
         
            
 
         
   
      
    
              
                     

               
         
      
         
        
     
   
         
 

      
 
       
                 
        
         
            
             
       

vol. II, p. 42.
vol. II, p. 30.
vol. II, p. 34.
  
       
        
     Arnold   
 
 
             
                 
                  
      
           
           
   
            
       
              
        
   
      
            
        
       
          
  

                 
   
      
          
   
                
      
 
    
 
     
                 

(1) Ar nold, Legacy of Is lam , p. 377.
vol. II, p. 36.
  
         
               
 
            
     

    
             
   
                

              
   
   
                 
             
         
  
        
   
    

On W est er n Chr istendom the ef fec t of t his impact
was wholly good, and Wester n cultur e in the Middle
Ages owed much to Muslim Ib er ia. O n B yz anti ne
Chr istendom the impact was excessive and evoked a
cr ushing r e-er ection of the Roman Empir e under Leo
the Syr ian. The case of Abyssinia, a Chr istian 'fossil'
in a fastness encir cled by the Muslim Wor ld, is also
noti ced. (2)
       
        
             
vol. II, p. 37.
(2) Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement of
Volumes I-VI By D. C. Somer vell, Ox for d Univer sity Pr ess,
1947, p. 574 .
  
       
      
      
      

  
           
          
 
              
       

       
     
In t he cr eativ e soul of Muhammad the r adiation of
Judaism and C hr i st ianit y was t r ansmut ed i nt o a
spi r it ual for ce whic h di schar ged i tself i n the new
'higher r eligion' of Islam. ()
               

                
  
 
 
        

       
   
          
The Syr iac Society had to wait for the emer gence of
Islam in or der to lay its hand upon a r eligion which
was capable of ser ving as an effective instr ument for
casting Hellenism out... (2)

1947, p. 411 .
1947, p. 391 .
  
         
  
    
          
             
   
 
   
  



    
The Ar ab onslaught upon the infant civilization of the
West was an i nci dent i n the final S yr iac r eact ion
agai nst the long Hellenic intr usion upon the Sy r iac
domain; for when the Ar abs took up the task in the
str ength of I slam t hey d id not r est unt il they had
r ec ov er ed for t he Sy r i ac Soci et y t he whole of its
for mer domain at its widest extension. (1)
    
           

           

    
              
                 
  
     
  
       
   
The Emper or Her aclius himself was condemned not to
taste of death until he had seen 'Umar the Successor
of Muhammad the Pr ophet coming into his kingdom to
undo, ut ter ly and f or ev er , the wor k of all t he
Helleni z er s of S y r iac d omai ns f r om A lexand er
onwar ds. For Islam succeeded wher e its pr edecessor s

1947, p. 124 .
  
       
had failed. It complet ed the evi ction of Hellenism
fr om the Syr iac Wor ld. (1)

                
           
               
  
               


      
            
  
    
   


          
 
T he sc ho lar s of M us li m S p a i n c ont r i b ut ed
unintentionally t o the p hilosophic al edi fice er ected
by the med ieval Wester n Chr isti an schoolmen, and
some of t he wor ks of t he Helleni c phi losop her
Ar ist otle fir st r eac hed the Wester n C hr istian Wor ld
thr ough Ar abic tr anslations. It is also tr ue that many
'Or iental' influences on Wester n cultur e which have
been attr ibuted to infiltr ation thr ough the Cr usader s'
pr inc ip ali t ies in S y r i a r eally came f r om M uslim
Iber ia. (2)
              


           

 

1947, p. 144.
1947, p. 160-1 .
  
         
               
           
            
        
      
              
           
     
    
      
 
              
  
         
        
              
               
        
          
   
In t he cr eativ e soul of Muhammad the r adiation of
Judaism and C hr i st ianit y was t r ansmut ed i nt o a
spi r it ual for ce whic h di schar ged i tself i n the new
'higher r eligion' of Islam. (1)
               

  
        
     
  
 
1947, p. 411 .
  
       
  
         
              
     
             
               
               
  
                   
            
The next living society that we have to examine is
Islam; and when we sc an t he backgr ound of t he
Islamic Society we discer n ther e a univer sal state, a
univer sal chur ch and a V ölker wander ung. (1)
                     

       
        
           
  
 
      
    
 
    
       
    
           
   
   
  
            
                    

1947, p. 15.
  
         
             
   
             
 

    
            
          
                   
           
      
                    
                     
      
                
    
                     
                  

                   
                   
                    
                  
                  
      

           o           o    

  o   
     
  o  
          
   o        
        o      
     
 : 
  
       
  o        o  
   
            
        
Ther e wer e two featur es in t he soc ial li fe of the
Roman Empir e in Muhammad's day that would make a
par t ic ular ly deep i mp r essi on on t he mind of an
Ar abian obser ver because, in Ar abia, they wer e both
consp ic uous by t heir ab senc e. T he fi r st of these
featur es was monotheism in r eligion. The second was
law and or der in gover nment. Muhammad's life-wor k
consisted in tr anslating each of these elements in the
soci al f ab r i c of ' R? m' i nto an Ar ab ian ver nac ular
ver si on and i ncor por at i ng b ot h hi s Ar abi ani z ed
monot heism and his A r abi anized i mp er i um into a
si ngle mast er ? i nst i t ut i on- t h e all- emb r ac i ng
inst it ut i on of I slam- t o whic h he suc ceed ed in
imp ar ting such ti tani c dr i vi ng- for c e that the new
dispensation, which had been designed by its author
to meet the needs of the bar bar ians of Ar abia, bur st
the bounds of the peninsula and c apt iv at ed t he
entir e Syr iac Wor ld fr om the shor es of the Atlantic to
the coasts of the Eur asian Steppe. (1)
              

                
  
            

1947, pp. 227-8 .
  
         
             
                 
                
        
    
                  
             
          
      

                 
                   
          
  

        
     
 
            
         
                    
               
                   
         
       


          
        
     
         
                
                
  
  
       
                  
                  
                     

  
       
  
         
   
       

  o               
   
               
  o 

                   
  society                   
 
    

                  
               
  
                  
                   
                  
          
    
              
         
        
    
                 
    
   
   
  
         
                   
           
 
       
  
   
 
   
   
           
            

  

            
                  
                   
                  
                 

                
                     

    
        
          
      
 
                                       
  o           
                
        
      
     
  
       
  o   
   
     
           
                          
       
     
    

  
   

   o                        
 
                 
  o  
   
     

                                    
  o                             
   
       
             
                
  o               
     
    

  o               o          
     
 
   o    
    
      
     

     
    
      
  
         
  o    
    

        
      
     
      
         
     
   
  
   

   
         
 
    
     
           
    

       
        
                                 

                                    
  o       
                   

              
                  
                   
  o       
        
   
                         
   o                         
 
          
          
   
   
  
       
            
     

               

  
                                       

  o                             
               

                
 
               
  o   
                                   
                                 
                           
                          
           
                                  
                                 
               
   o    

                
               
                  
   

     
  
         
                    
  
 
                   

                    
              
                   
                 
          
        
 
        
              
  o   
           
 
  
         
       
                   
               
   
    
           

   
 
  
                 
 
                
                   
  
              

                 
          
  
       
              

            
     
       
       
 


                
  
               

        
         

              
         
 
               
                     
                   
           
         
           
          
                  
     
            

        
                  

 
       
         
  
         
Cont r ar y t o wi desp r ead C hr i st ian noti ons, I slam
nor mally did not for ce conver sion. (1)
    
         
  
 
       
         

Society in the Muslim wor ld for med a definite social
pyr amid. Dur ing the Umayyad per iod, descendents of
the old B edoui n clans wer e on top, f ollowed by
mawali c onv er ts f r om other r eli gi ons. Once t he
Abb asid es took p ower , this d isti nc ti on c eased to
exist. (2)
    
          
          
        
       
  
     

               
 
  
 
These non- Ar ab c onver t s to I slam mad e i t into a
hi ghly c osmop oli tan, mult i ethni c r eli gion and
civilizati on. (3)
(1) Philip J. Adler , Randall L. Pouw els, World Civilization s ,

p . 194.
p . 195.
p . 194.
  
       
   
          

  
 
     
 
              
         
      
     
                    
               
       
                 
                  
     
       
 
             
      
       
                   
                      
      
 
     
           
                  

       
                  
   
                    

                  
www.MinhajBooks.com   
   
         
               
       
         
      
     
               
          
           
                
                 
                 
                    
              
                    

        
   
          

               
         

             
                 
      
               
              
 
                   
      
              
                   
  
       
  
   
         

         
          
 
                      

 

       
       
  

    
     
   
          
 
    
          
  
     
    
    
   
     
                
 
                   
       
 
                  
       
    
      
 
  
   

   
   
   
         
                       
              

      
  o     
  
              

               
          
      
  o    
              
    
        

                    
         
        
                     
  o            

            
             
           
   
  o

                     
     

     
   
  
       
   
  o 
  
        
               
                      
  o       
                        

                        
                       
   o       
           

                
           
          

                    
                 
     
               
               
                  
            
  
  o  
                      
                          
    

     
   
         
                        
  o                
 
                      
                  
                
          
           
          
        

               
  o        
  
               

                 
               
       
          
                   
     
     
  
         
          
                  

    

                

   

     
  
       
  
   
 
     
   
  
         
     
              

 
        

    
  
                  
             
                   


    
       
 
               
     
                  

    
          
                   
     
        
           
        
        
        
           
   
         
                  

   
   
               

   
 
                 

    
            
         

       
                

   
                   

               

                   

               
         

           
         
                  

            
               
  
       
              
              
                

   
               

                   
                
      
                


               
          
     

               
     
                

                     

         
         
                    
     
                     
       
         
   
         
             

       
                


            
  
          
    
  
               
     
              


    
  
               
    
              


   
      
                
                
        
       
                    

          
        
        
  
       
       
              


               
    
                   
              
         
               


                 
        
     
  
    
        
               
           
        
      

                
          
           
              

           
         
   
         
  
                

               

    
              
   
   
    
 
             
               
                 


               
         
    
            

               
      
                    


                  

           

          
           
           
        
                     

        
  
       
                   
       

         

   
   
                  

            
            
            
                  
        
         
                  
                 
    
            
    
            
                 

              
              
              
       

          
       
       
   
         
   
             

     

               
  
                 
                   
          
               
                
                 
         
    
                   

                
                   
             
             
                
            
           
           
        
        
           
             
  
       
       
                



             
 
               
      
             

 
              
                
            
    
            
               

                   
                  
                 
                
             
 
            
      
          
     
              
   
                 
                     

           
   
         
   

             

                   
        
         
                  

                  
                
                  
     
            

          
    
                 
                  
            
                  
   
                  
                
               

 
   
   
         
                
        
           
                  
  
       
      
  
     
                   
     
  
  
             
               
        
  
             
                
                     
  
             
                
                
 
  
  
           
               
                
              
   
      
   
                    
           
 
                 
                    
  
   
         
             

            
                     
             

     

                  

      
             
 
         
   
    
     
        
                     
 
     
                

               
               
                 
    
                    

           
          
        
           
         
  
       
         
       
              
          
    
      
                

             
                
              


           
   
 
 
                
 
      
Asid e fr om thei r milit ar y mer i ts, their str ength
inc lud ed ext r aor di nar y ar t i st i c sensi t i v i t y i n
lit er at ur e, ar chit ec tur e and symboli c i mager y : a
commitment to justice for all, no matter how weak,
a toler ance for non-believer s that was unusual for its
time …. In economic and administr ative affair s, the
Ottomans had a far mor e ef fic ient tax syst em and
better contr ol of their pr ovincial author ities than any
Eur opean gover nment of t he four teent h thr ough
sixteenth centur ies. (1)
          

        
       
           
(1) Philip J. Adler , Randall L. Pouw els, World Civilization s,
p . 495 .
   
         
                 
              
            
   
            
                 
              
   
   
  
    
             
                   


  
                  
  
           
        
      
  
              
              
     
          

                  
                    
               
   
  
       
    
       
 
        
  
       
        
                 
                   
               

              
               
         

    
    

                
 
              
           
                
     
  

                        

                 
  
                   

           
           
        
          
   
         
              

         
        
                   

            
 

                  

      
        
 
             
  
      
     
  
               

                    
       

         
             
  
            
           
          
           
      
        
         
       
                     
       
  
       
  
                 
              
                     
 
                  
              
                     
     
                  
                 
                    

       
    
                
                

  
       
      
  
              

                    
                 


          

       
       
   
         
        
       
        
               
                

    
               

       
                 


              
   
                

   
      
            

                  

        
          
        
            
        
         
           
          
        
  
       
       
                  

   
     
   
           

       

               

                  
                   
    
            
  
   
                
    
               

         
   
                    

   
               

            
          
           
          
       
   
         
              
                 
 

            
 
  

           
       
   
  
                    
                 

     
      

           
     
            
 
           
      
             
 
              
     
         

                     

                  

         
               
  
       
       
   
     
         
  
           
                  
                     
                    
     
 
        
         
  
            
               
 

    

              

          
                


        
        
         
      
                  
   
                   

                   
   
         
                 

         
     
       
  
          
Muhammad pr escr ib ed t he r eligious toler at ion of
Jews and C hr i st i ans who had mad e p oli t i c al
submission to the secular ar m of Islam, and he gave
this r uli ng expr essly on the gr ound t hat t hese two
non-M usli m r eligious communi ties, like the Muslims
themselv es, wer e ' P eop le of t he B ook' . I t i s
signi fi cant of the toler ant spi r i t whic h animat ed
Pr imitive Islam that, without expr ess sanction fr om
the P r op het hi mself , a si mi lar t oler at i on was
after war ds extended in pr actice to the Zor oastr ians
who came under Muslim r ule. (1)
                  

             
               
                 
   
                  
   
          
           
1947, p. 300.
  
       
              
              
  
        
   
  
                
                     
  
                  
 
                         
                
     
       
    
    
  
                   
  o    
               
      

        
        
o 
             
  
     
   
   
         
              

      
    
           

           
  o   

        
            
                
 

  o    
      
 
       

 
                           
                    
                    
            
           
                             
                       
        

    

                 
       
                     
      
  
       
           
            
             
                   
               
             
      
                 
                   

                     
           
   
   
   

           
                    

                   

            
     


        
      

              
  
       
           
                     
    
          
         
       
   
         
   
                   
                 

              
               

   
       
   
  
            
   
    
                 
        
  
 
      
     
   
      
              
                

               
           
                   
         
                      
   
          
     
  
       
    
         
   
  

        
         

         

    
            
 
              
              
            
   
     
  

   
               
    
           
    
           
   
                       

                      
                   
   
                
   
   
         
                      
  o         
  


                
                
                  
                 
  

                
                  
                
               
                   
              
o 
  
        
      
                        

  o       
 
           
    
     
  o      
   
  
       
   

     
  
       
  
      

                

                  
                   
            
          
        
 
               

             
             
     
      
   

          
     
        
           
              
                     
           o         
  o      
     
     
              
         

      
   
         
    
                

                 o   
     
        
  o     
    
          
    
             
    
                           

                
              

   
     
             
              
             
     

                

                 


     
            

 
            
         
     
   
     
     
   
  
       
           
       
     
         
      
        
  o      
  
  
          
        
  o   
  
   
           
      
      o   o   

    
   o 
       o           


   o
                
  o    
          
  
   
 
The A r ab ic c ult ur e is of a si ngular int er est t o the
student of human t r adi ti ons i n gener al, to t hose
whose gr eat est task i t seems t o t hem is t he
r ebuilding of human integr ity in the face of national
   

     
   
         
and i nter nati onal disaster s, b ecause it was, and to
some ext ent sti ll i s, a br i dge, the main br id ge
between East and West. It is thr ough that br idge that
the Hindu numer als, sines and chess, and the Chinese
silk, p ap er , and p or celain r eac hed Eur op e. Lat in
cult ur e was W ester n, Chinese cult ur e was East er n,
but Ar abic cultur e was both, for it extended all the
way fr om the Maghr ib al-aqsa' to the Mashr iq al-aqsa.
Latin cultur e was Mediter r anean and Atlantic, Hindu
cultur e was bathed in the Indian Ocean, Far Easter n
cult ur e in the P acif ic; the A r abi c sailor s, howev er ,
wer e as ubiq uit ous in all t he oc eans of t he Mid dle
Ages as the English ar e in those of to-day. The Latin
and Gr eek c ultur es wer e C hr ist ian, Hebr ew cultur e
was Jewi sh, Easter n Asia was B udd hist ; the A r abi c
cultur e was pr imar ily but not exclusively Islamic; it
was st r etc hed out bet ween t he Chr ist iani sm of t he
West and t he Budd hi sm of t he East and touc hed
both. (1)
              

 
      
         
                 

                
           
           
(1) Geor ge Sar ton, A Guide to the His tory of Scien ce: A Firs t
Gui de f or t he St ud y of t he Hi s t or y of Scie n ce, w i th
Intr oductor y Essays on Science and Tr adition, Chr onica
Botanica, 1952, p . 29.
  
       
            
                

            
                   
      
     
             

   
       

    
  
      
            
                   
                 

                
                   
              
 
                  

                       
                               
                    
  o    
    
              
     
   
         
              
            
          
                   
                   
                    
               
o 
       
    
    

              
                 
      
  
             
   
    
 
 

  
       
     
      
  
               
  
                 
                   
   
  
       
              
       
           
 
             
  
 

               


                  

                    
                 
                      
           
        
    


                  
          
             

   
  

                
           
      

                  

                 
   
         
      

                    
                

  

          
             
                


              
 
                
   

                   
 
                    

                   


    
     
        
  

  
  
               
             
  
      

 

       
             
 
             
   
    


  
        
                  
 
 

 
          
              
    
  
           
        
     
        
Some of the giants of mediaeval times belonged to
the Ar abic cultur e, mathematicians and astr onomer s
li ke AL- K HW A RI Z MI , A LFA R G HA NI , AL- B AT TA NI ,
A B U- L- W A FA , UM A R K HA Y YA M , A L- B ER UNI ;
philosop her s like AL-FA RA B I, AL- GHA ZZ A LI , I B N
RUSHD, IBN KHALDUN, physicians like AL-RAZI, ISHAQ
AL-ISRAILI,' ALI IBN 'ABBAS, ABU-AL-QASIM, IBN SINA,
MA IM ONIDES . T hi s enumer at ion c ould b e gr eat ly
extended. Few of these men wer e Ar abs and not all
of t hem wer e M usli ms, but t hey all b elonged
essenti ally to the same cult ur al gr oup, and their
language was Ar abic. This illustr ates the absur dity of
tr ying to appr aise mediaeval thought on the basis of
Latin wr itings alone. For centur ies the Latin scientific
books har dly count ed ; they wer e out- of -date and
outlandish. Ar abic was the inter national language of
science to a degr ee which had never been equalled
by another language befor e (except Gr eek) and has
never been r epeated since. It was the language not
of one p eop le, one nation, one f ait h, b ut of many
peoples, many nations, many faiths. (1)
Gui de f or th e Stu dy of th e H is to ry o f Sci en ce, w i th
Botanica, 1952, p. 28.
   
         
               
                 
     
               
               
                
             

              
 
            
   
                
                 
             
            
  
          
 
         

The best Ar abic scientists wer e not satisfied with the
Gr eek and Hindu science which they inher ited. They
ad mi r ed and r esp ec t ed the t r easur es whi ch had
fallen int o t heir hand s, b ut t hey wer e just as
"moder n" and gr eedy as we ar e, and wanted mor e.
T he y c r i t i c i z e d E UC LI D, A P O L LO NI O S an d
ARCHIMEDES, di scussed PT OLEM Y, tr i ed to imp r ove
the astr onomical tables and to get r id of the causes
of er r or lur ki ng in t he ac c ep ted t heor i es. T hey
facilitated the evolution of algebr a and tr igonometr y
  
        
and pr epar ed the way for the Eur opean algebr aists of
the sixteenth centur y. Occasionally they wer e able to
define new concepts, to state new pr oblems, to tie
new knots in the networ k of ear lier tr aditions. (1)
               

            
          
      
                 
           
    
              
               
                    
             
       
  

            
         
      
               
       
          
             
   
          
 
                  
  
  
         
       
                     

               
     
                   

 
    

             
        Syllogism       
        Ana log y   Induction
                     
                 

      

             

      


            

                  
   
            
            
    Parallel Postulate    
         Playfair's Axiom     

   
            
 
(1) Ar nold, Legacy of Is lam, p. 37 5.
  
        
       
            
              
  
                 
         

Two inter secting str aight lines cannot be par allel to
one and the same.
       
                
      
     
  

         
  Geodetic Survey  
  

Ar ea of ABC=S(S-a)(S-b)(S-c)
Wher e S= a+b+c/2
          

                 
   
             
    
             
        
              
                    
                  
      
  
         

   
Sine A/a=Sine B/b= Sine C/c
               

     Napier's Analogy     
 
   
                
   
  
     
 
              
 
            
     
             
                   
                     
    
              
        
          
               
    
 
                
 
                        
              
                 


                     
 
 
    
  
        
      

   
 
  
           

             
  o          
               

               
  o   
            


                      
  o        
   
  

                   
                
  o      
  
    

                 
 
                
    

                 

           
      
     

     
  
         
                
        
        

          
      
  
                  

          
    
        

  
                
                
           
    
                   
     
   
                         
  o      

                    
     
           
                
  o    
  
 
    
       
                      
        

     
    
  
        
                      
  o    
 
                    
                   
                   
  o        
     
 
        
           
     
    
 
   
                  
   o        
        
 
         
         
                  
    
      
        
        
      
 
 
       
    
    
              
         
  o  
   

     
     
  
          
             
                  
 

  o   
            
       
           
     

   
   
       
    
 
 
                     

                o      
     o                   
                    

               o    
  o             

      
            
  
   
                
 o 
                
                    

 
           
 
     

     
  
        
            
  
                  o
     
             
                  
              o     
             
  o           

         
   
    
  
                          

                     
  o        
  

           
  
     
                
                   
               
   

              

 
  o 
     
                  
 
          o       
    
     
  
          
   o    
            
        

                 
          
    
  
  
        
        

                      

        
   
   

  
          

         
                
                
   
                         
           
 
      
     
       o             
         o      
        
                    
   
          
             
   
  
        
  o       
       
   
   o             
                  
     o      
               
   
         
      
      
         
o 
   
         

               
   
     
 o           o         
  o       o  
                  
                  
                o  
       o         
         o            
  o          
     

     
  
         
          
    
              
 
  o            
 
  o          
  
           
                 
 
  
        

   o
   
       
        
  

         
    
 
    Na t u r a l H i s t o r y     
     Zoology 
  

                     

 
                    
 
      
  o
      
      
    
           
                   
   
    
   
  
        
                 
                  

  o   
  
   Physiolog ical 
  
      

    
  
                           
            
  o  
                
             
  
             
  o  
    
 
        
                  
           
   o
          

    
           
             
     
o 
   
          
    
     
  
          
    
  
           
 
   
   
          
        
          
                          
  o  

                 
  o   
         
    
            
                
           
 
  

                   
                       

               

     
  o 
 
              
 
           
    

     
   
  
        
                  

                
                  
        
          

  o    
                 
               
             
   
               
          
         
                
     
          
    
             
     
       
    
 
        

    
  o      

                  
  o   
    
              
 
      
  
          
          
                  
                       

   
               
                 

      
 
          
   
       
     
   

    
     
           
  
     
              

  
               
 
       
    
    
    

           
      

            
    
      

      
  
        
    
          
       
      
         
               
            
    
                
                
 
            
         
                   
       
 
         
   
       
            
 
 
    
            
         
               
     
  o   
   
 
               
     
               
                

               
   
  
         
  o     

                         
  o       
                

                
 
  o     
                          
  o                     
                     

             o         
    
       
                 
  o      
      

                    

                 
  
              
    
                  o
o       
          
                  
               
                   
     
   
  
        
  o      
      
  
         
                

          
        

      
               
   
                  
             
                

        
  
             
      
        

          
                 
   
                   
       
        
          
  
          
                   

                   
                

           
     

  
                
        
     
                  
              
               
            
          
                

    
          
        
           
                      
    
            
           
          
  
        
                
    
      
         
 
               
              
                  
                  
            
                 

                
             

            
           
  
  
              

          
       
                   

                  

       
          
              
       
  
          
        
      
         
      
       
               
               
               
        
For Islam di d suc ceed i n b ec oming the uni ver sal
chur ch of a dissolving Syr iac Society in spite of having
been politically compr omised at an ear lier stage and
in an appar ently mor e decisive way than any of the
r eligi ons t hat we hav e passed in r eview up t o thi s
poi nt . Indeed, I slam was poli ti cally c ompr omi sed
within the lifetime of its founder by the action of no
less a per son t han t he found er hi mself. The pub lic
car eer of the P r ophet Muhammed f alls into two
shar p ly d i st i nc t and seemi ngly c ont r ad i c t or y
chapter s. In the fir st he is occupied in pr eaching a
r eli g i ous r e v elat i on b y m et hod s of p ac i f i c
evangelization; in the second chapter he is occupied
in building up a political and militar y power and in
usi ng this power in the v er y way which, i n other
cases, has tur ned out disastr ous f or a r eligi on that
takes to it. In this Medinese chapter Muhammed used
his new-f ound mater ial power for the pur pose of
enfor cing confor mit y wi th at any r ate the outwar d
obser vances of the r eligion which he had founded in
the pr ev ious c hapt er of his c ar eer , b efor e hi s
  
        
momentous withdr awal f r om M ecc a to M edi na. O n
this showing, the Hijr ah ought to mar k the date of
the r uin of Islam and not the date since consecr ated
as that of its foundation. How ar e we to explain the
har d fact that a r eligion which was launched on the
wor ld as the militant faith of a bar bar ian war -band
should have suc ceeded in b ecomi ng a univ er sal
chur ch, in spite of havi ng st ar ted under a spir itual
handi cap t hat mi ght hav e been exp ec ted, on all
analogies, to pr ove pr ohibitive?(1)
                    

              
              
                 
             
           
         
        
                
               
 
                 
              
             
  
           

1947, p. 488.
  
          
       
     
   
         
   
             
          
   
 
        
     
     
  
         
         
         
 
         
                

               
                   
                  

  
      
             
        
 
      
           
                
         
                    
   
                

  
        
          
 
                

               
             

  
   
     
 
     
                     
           
              

           
                  
           

         
                      

         
          
                   

         
         
           
          
  
          

                 
               
            
             
   

        
    
                
             
            

               

    
     
      
                  
             
  

                    
          
             
       
       
       
  
        
     
   
 
                
               
  
                      
                   
                 
                 
              
    
               
               
               
          
     
         
            
                  
       
               
        
               
  
  
             
      
  
         
                
 
                
               
                
               
          
 
            
                
        
       
         
         
 
              
  

                 
 
     
         
    
  
       
   
  
 
That networ k, Or iental-Gr eek-Ar abic, is our networ k.
The neglect of Ar abic science and the cor r esponding
misunder standing of our own -med iaev al tr aditi ons
was par tly due to the fact that Ar abic studies wer e
consider ed a par t of Or iental studi es. The A r abi sts
(1) Will Dur ant, Age of Faith, p. 297.
           
  
        
wer e lef t alone or else i n the comp any of other
or ientali sts, such as Sanskr i t , C hi nese or M alay
scholar s. That was not wr ong but highly misleading.
It is tr ue the networ k, our networ k, included other
Or iental elements than the Ar abic or Hebr ew, such as
the Hindu ones to which r efer ence has alr eady been
made, but the lar gest par t for centur ies was woven
wi t h A r ab i c t hr ead s. I f all t hese t hr ead s wer e
pluc ked out , t he net wor k would br eak i n t he
midd le. (1)
                
     
                 
    
        
       
   
              
            
                  
              
   
                 
        
 

 
Much in the field of or ientalism is definitely exotic as
far as we ar e concer ned, but the r eligious Hebr ew
Intr o duct or y Essa ys o n Science an d Tr adit ion, Chr onica
  
          
tr adi ti ons and the sci enti fi c A r abi c ones ar e not
exoti c, they ar e an integr al p ar t of our net wor k
today, t hey ar e par t and p ar cel of our spi r i tual
existence. The Ar abic side of our cultur e cannot even
be called East er n, for a subst ant ial p ar t of i t was
defi nitely West er n. The M usli m I BN RUSHD and the
Jew MAIMONIDES wer e bor n in Cor dova within a few
year s of one another (1126, 1135); AL-IDRISI (XII-2),
bor n i n Ceuta, f lour ished i n S ic ily; IB N K HA LDUN
(X IV -2), was a T unisian; IB N BA TUTT A ( XI V - 2) , a
Mor occan. The list of Moor ish scientists and scholar s
is a ver y long one. Spain is pr oud of them but without
r ight, for she tr eated them, like a har sh stepmother ,
without justice and without mer cy.(1)
             

               
                 
             
  
              
                
               
  
                
             
              
Gui de f or t he St ud y of th e Hi s t or y o f Scie n ce, w i th
  
        
              
                 
            
    
                 
              
  
         

        
     
                     
               
                     
                
                     
 
               
                 
                 
        
    
                      
                 
             
         

                
                        
                 

  
          
             
           
     
    
Muslims had r ealiz ed t he need of sc ience, mainly
Gr eek science, in or der to establish their own cultur e
and to consolidate their dominion, even so the Latins
r ealized the need of science, Ar abic science, in or der
to b e ab le t o fi ght I slam wit h equal ar ms and
vi nd ic at e t hei r own asp ir at i ons. For t he most
intelligent Spaniar ds and Englishmen the obligat ion
to know Ar abic was as clear as the obligation to know
English, Fr ench or Ger man for the Japanese of the
Meiji er a. Science is power . The Muslim r uler s knew
that f r om t he beginni ng, t he Latin lead er s had to
lear n it, somewhat r eluctantly, but they finally did
lear n i t . T he pr est i ge of Ar abi c sc ience began
r elat i vely lat e i n t he West, say i n t he t welf t h
centur y, and it incr eased gr adually at the time when
Ar ab ic sc ience was alr ead y degener at ing. The t wo
movements, the Ar abic pr ogr ess and the Latin one,
wer e out of phase. This is a gener al r ule of life, by
the way, r ather than an exception, and it applies to
ind ivi duals as well as to nat ions. A man gener ally
does his best in compar ative obscur ity and becomes
famous only when his vigor is diminishing; that is all
r ight as far as he is concer ned, for it is clear that
solitude and silence ar e the best conditions of good,
endur ing, wor k.(1)
Gui de fo r th e Stu dy o f t he H is to ry o f Sci en ce
, w it h
  
        
              
   
            

                
           
               
             
                  
              
             
             
            
      
              
 
              

             
   
                  
                 
                    
             
                
   
             

  
          
   
          
  
    
The scientific tr adition as it was pour ed fr om Ar abic
vessels into Latin ones was often per ver ted. The new
tr anslat or s di d not have the adv ant age whic h t he
Ar abic tr anslator s had enjoyed; the latter had been
able to see Gr eek cult ur e in t he per sp ect iv e of a
thousand year s or mor e; the Latin tr anslator s could
not see t he A r abi c nov elt i es f r om a suf fi c ient
di st anc e, and t hey c ould not always c hoose
intelligently between them. As to the Gr eek classics
they came to them with a double pr estige, Gr eek and
Ar abic. It is as if the Gr eek tr easur es, of which Latin
sc holar s wer e now d imly consc ious, wer e mor e
valuable in thei r Ar abi c for m; they had cer t ainly
become mor e glamor ous. T he tr anslati on of t he
Almagest made c. 1175 by GERARD OF CREMONA fr om
the Ar ab ic, sup er sed ed a t r anslati on made dir ectly
fr om the Gr eek in Sicily fifteen year s ear lier ! (1)
             

              
  
         
    
         
    
         
    
  
        
           
      
            
   
              
               
               
  
         
 
To r etur n to t he Ar abi c wr iti ngs (as d ist inct f r om
Ar ab ic tr anslati ons of G r eek wr it ings) some of the
b est wer e t r ansla t ed suc h as t he wo r ks of
AL-KHWARIZMI, AL-RAZI, AL-FARGHANI, AL-BATTANI,
IBN SINA ; ot her s of equal value escaped attention,
e.g., some books of ' UMAR ALKHAYYAM, AL-BERUNI,
NASSIR AL-DIN AL-TUSI; other s still appear ed too late
to be consider ed, this is the case of the gr eat Ar abic
author s of the four teenth centur y. By that time Latin
sc i en c e h ad b ec om e i n d e p e nd en t of t he
contempor ar y A r abic wr it ings and c ontemptuous of
them. O n the ot her hand, t he Lati n (and Hebr ew)
tr anslat ions f r om the Ar ab ic i nclud e a shoc ki ngly
lar ge mass of ast r ological and alchemical tr eatises
and ot her r ub bi sh. S ome of t he astr ologic al and
alchemical wr itings, it should be noted, ar e valuable
or contain valuable mater ials and ar e to some extent
the f or er unner s of our own astr onomic al and
chemical liter atur e, but many other s ar e wor thless,
or r at her wor se t han wor thless, d anger ous and
subver sive. Even so we should not be too sever e in
judgi ng those ab er r at i ons, for we have not y et
succ eed ed i n ov er c oming them and b ut f or t he
  
          
contr ol of sci entif ic soci et ies and academies, t he
incessant cr iti cism comi ng fr om the sci entif ic pr ess
and the univer sity chair s, our own civilization would
soon be over r un and smother ed by super stitions and
lies. (1)
                

           
           

             
              
        
           

  
           
              
           
                
       
       

     
An Ar chimedian monogr aph on the r egular heptagon
was pr eser ved in the Ar abic tr anslation of Thabit ibn
Qur r a (IX-2) and this was discover ed in a Cair o MS.
and published in 1926 by CARL SCHOY.In other wor ds,
lost tr eatises of ARCHIMEDES wer e r evealed only in
  
        
1906 and 1926. It is possible that other lost tr eatises
may st ill b e d isc over ed , c hief ly in the second
manner . The G r eek p ali mpsest s have been p r et ty.
well examined and ther e is little hope of r epeating
HEI BERG' S str oke of geni us and luck, b ut ther e is
muc h hop e on t he c ont r ar y of f i ndi ng Ar ab i c
tr anslati ons of lost Gr eek scientifi c books, bec ause
many Ar abic libr ar ies ar e still unexplor ed and many
Ar abic MSS, undescr ibed.(1)

                    
 
         
                    
             
       
              

           
   
                 

        
  
  
 
          
                 
   
               
 
  
          
  
Botanica, 1952, p. 141.
  
          
Our judgment of mediaeval science in gener al must
alway s be temp er ed b y the c onsid er at ions whi ch
hav e j ust b een of fer ed and b y d ue and pr of ound
humili ty . W e may b e gr eat sc ientists (I mean, we
moder n men), but we ar e also gr eat bar bar ians. We
know, or seem t o know, ev er y thing, exc ep t the
essential. We have thr own r eligion out of door s but
allowed super stitions, pr ejudices and lies to come in
thr ough the windows. We dr um our chests in the best
gor illa fashion saying (or thinking) "We can do this 
we can do that  yea, we can even blow the wor ld
to smither eens," but what of it? Does that pr ove that
we ar e civilized? Mater ial power can be as danger ous
as it is useful; it all depends on the men using it and
on t heir manner of using it . Good or evi l ar e in
our selves; mater ial power does not cr eate it but can
multiply it indefinitely.(1)
     
             
          
    
        
    
           
             
    
            
               
                
(1 ) Geor ge Sar ton, A Guide to the His tory of Scien ce: A Firs t
Gui de f or t he St ud y of th e Hi s t or y o f Scie n ce, w i th
  
        
                    
                  
                  
                
      
             
   
       
  
          
           
                
          
       
           
    
                 
                     
                  

        
         
 
     
           
   
                
             
     
                 

             
       
               
    
  
         
  
            
               
   
            


For Hunt ington, c ultur e wor ked at the level of
mot i v at i on. S t at es r emai ned key ac t or s, b ut
civi lizational politic s b ecame r eal when states and
peoples identified with each other 's cultur al concer ns
or r allied ar ound the 'cor e state' of a civilization. The
Or thodox, Hind u, Si nic , and Jap anese ci vilizations
wer e clear ly center ed in power ful unitar y states. The
West had a c losely li nked cor e t hat i nc luded t he
United States, Ger many, Fr ance, and Br itain. Islam
was without a clear cor e state, and for this r eason
exper ienced muc h mor e int r a-c ivili zational conflict
as a number of contender s-Tur key, Ir an, Ir aq, Egypt,
Saudi Ar abia-competed for influence. The fact that
Islam was di vi ded d id not r efute the id ea that a
pan-Islamic consciousness existed. (1)
  


             

        
               
            
             
            

Steve Smith's The Globalization of World Politics, OUP,
200 1, p. 462 .
  
        
            
        
     
              
               
           
  
           
    
            
    
Civilizat ions r epr esent coher ent tr adit ions, but ar e
dynamic over time and place. For instance, medieval
C hr i s t end om d r e w on anc i ent a nd eas t er n
ci v ili z at i ons f or many of i t s p hilosop hic al and
technologic al advances; sub sequently, Chr istendom
was r emold ed i nto a Eur opean ci vi li zati on based
ar ound the nation-state and, finally, was expanded
and adapted in Nor th Amer ica, and r e-designated as
Wester n civilization. (1)

           
   
                
             
   
   
  
  
200 1, p . 458 .
  
         
            

    
              
   
          
 
              
The Islamic wor ld r ep r esent s an examp le p ar
exc ellenc e of t he exp er i enc e of al most all
non-W ester n cult ur es i n the mod er n age. I slami c
peoples have had to deal with the geopolitical and
cultur al hegemony of the West since the eighteenth
centur y. The collapse of the Ottoman empir e at the
end of the Fi r st Wor ld War her ald ed a new er a in
whi ch the secular , nationali st , and aut hor i tar ian
state b ecame t he d omi nant f or m of or ganiz ati on.
Moder niz er s ar gued that Islam was t he cause of
backwar dness and decline, and that moder nization
r equir ed the i mitation of Wester n for ms of cult ur e
and or ganization. In Tur key, the Ottoman Caliphate
was ab oli shed in 1924, and W est er n f or ms of law,
scr ip t, and dr ess enfor c ed. Women wer e for c ibly
unveiled. A similar model was ad opted i n Ir an and
the Ar ab wor ld, although t he att ac k on I slam was
never quite so thor oughly pur sued. Islam was divided
by Tur kish, Ir anian, and Ar ab nationalism.(1)
             


 
200 1, p. 463 .
  
        
              
           
           
   
                
  
            
               
                 
          
    
  
      
     
                
              

         
       
  
                
    
              

           
              
              
              
            
            
             
  
          
            

                
          
          
             
               
              
         
             
                 
                   
              
           
               
            
             
              

           
         
           

             
  
        
              
                
                    
                 
                
                   
              
                 
 
                  
                
         
             
                   
               
                       
                
             
                
                
                
            
   
                   
  
                    
                  
  
          
              
               
  
            
        
                 
             
  
                
    
       
      
         
        
            
     

  
  

     
               
            
                 

     
      
               
 
     

               
      
                
         
    
                 
               
 
                 
           
          
                    
       
            
  
         
            

              
                
      
                  
               
            

          
                       
            
    
                    
          
     
               
                 
       
                     
             
 
   
              
   

   
                      
      
   
     
 
                


     
      
                 
             
                  
  
      
  
                     
             

                   
                  
          
         

           
 
       
           
             
             
      
                  
 
    

                     
 
                   
  
         
             

 
       
 
                 
               

                    

            
                  
      
        
                   
       
            
   
                   
 
   
                
                 


        
    
           
               
 
 
                     
           
   
   
     
 
                   


         
              

                    
                 
                  
                
   
  
            
                 
  
                       
             
                       
             
                 
         
      
                     
              
 
            
           
  
         
              
    
        
    
               
 
                    
              

  
                   
         
      
                 
           
       
               
    
              
          
        
       
                    
         


                     
        
     
       
          
   
      


                     
              
 
                   
         
    
    
54. Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, Abridgement of
Volu mes I- VI By D. C. Somervell, O xfor d Univ er sity
Pr ess, 1947.
55. Char les Gr ay Shaw, Trends of Civilization and Culture
,
Amer ican Book, 1931, p-76
56. Dimit r i Gutas, Greek Thought-A rab ic Cu ltu re, T he
Graeco-Arab ic tran slation movement in B aghdad and
early A b basid society, R outledge, London, 1999,
p.185-88.
57. Dr aper , His tory of I n tellectu al Dev elop men t of
Europ e.
58. Geor ge Sar ton, A Guide to the History of Science : A
Fir st G ui de f or the St udy of the Hist or y of Sc ience,
wit h I nt r od uc tor y Essay s on S ci enc e and Tr ad iti on,
Chr onica Botanica, 1952.
59. P hi l i p J . A d ler , R a nd al l L. P ou wels , W o r l d
Civ iliz ation s, Thomas Lear ni ng I nc ., Hi gh Holb or n
House, 50-51 Bedfor d Row, Lond on, W CIR 4LR, UK,
2006.
60. Simon Mur den, Culture in World Affairs in John Baylis
& Stev e Smith's The G lobalization of World Politics
,
OUP, 2001.
61. Thomas Ar nold & A. Guillaume, The Legacy of Islam,
OUP, 1931.
  
         
62. Will Dur ant, The Age of Faith: A Histor y of Medieval
Ci v ili zat ion C hr i st i an, I slamic , and Jud ai c -- f r om
Const ant i ne t o Dant e: A . D. 325- 1300, Si mon &
Schuster , NY, 1950
   

Sirat-ur-Rasool (SAW) Ki Tahzeebi-o-Saqafti Ahmiyyat - (Urdu)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sirat-ur-Rasool (SAW) Ki Tahzeebi-o-Saqafti Ahmiyyat - (Urdu)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

  

   

www.MinhajBook s.com    

        

www.MinhajBook s.com    

www.MinhajBook s.com    

         

www.MinhajBook s.com    

         

www.MinhajBook s.com    

        

(1) Char les Gr ay Shaw , Tren ds of Civilization an d Culture, p.

               

(1) Char les Gr ay Sh aw , Tren ds of Civi liza tion an d Cult ure,

            

            

      

                  

(1) Rober t Br iffault, The M akin g of Human ity, p. 164.

(1) Ar nold J, Toynbee, A Study of Histor y, Abr idgement by

            

             

(1) Ar nold J, Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement by

              

                

               

          

                 

             

           

(1) Dr aper , His tor y of In t ellect ual De velopm en t of E urope ,

    

            

        

     

      

(1) Dr aper , His tor y of In t ellect ual De velopm en t of E urope ,

               

(1) Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement of

(1) Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement of

              

(1) Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement of

               

                     

(1) Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement of

           o           o    

              

(1) Ar nold J. Toynbee, A Study of His tory, Abr idgement of

     

   

                                 

                   

               

   

           

                  

(1) Philip J. Adler , Randall L. Pouw els, World Civilization s ,

                  

   

     

    

                  

   