WilliamShakespeare

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

WilliamShakespeare(/ekspr/[1]26April1564(baptised)23April
1616)[nb1]wasanEnglishpoet,playwright,andactor,widelyregardedas
thegreatestwriterintheEnglishlanguageandtheworld'spreeminent
dramatist.[2]HeisoftencalledEngland'snationalpoet,andthe"Bardof
Avon".[3][nb2]Hisextantworks,includingcollaborations,consistof
approximately38plays,[nb3]154sonnets,twolongnarrativepoems,anda
fewotherverses,someofuncertainauthorship.Hisplayshavebeen
translatedintoeverymajorlivinglanguageandareperformedmoreoften
thanthoseofanyotherplaywright.[4]
ShakespearewasbornandbroughtupinStratforduponAvon,
Warwickshire.Attheageof18,hemarriedAnneHathaway,withwhomhe
hadthreechildren:Susanna,andtwinsHamnetandJudith.Sometime
between1585and1592,hebeganasuccessfulcareerinLondonasan
actor,writer,andpartownerofaplayingcompanycalledtheLord
Chamberlain'sMen,laterknownastheKing'sMen.Heappearstohave
retiredtoStratfordaround1613,atage49,wherehediedthreeyearslater.
FewrecordsofShakespeare'sprivatelifesurvive,whichhasstimulated
considerablespeculationaboutsuchmattersashisphysicalappearance,
sexuality,andreligiousbeliefs,andwhethertheworksattributedtohim
werewrittenbyothers.[5]
Shakespeareproducedmostofhisknownworkbetween1589and
1613.[6][nb4]Hisearlyplayswereprimarilycomediesandhistories,and
theseareregardedassomeofthebestworkeverproducedinthesegenres.
Hethenwrotemainlytragediesuntilabout1608,includingHamlet,
Othello,KingLear,andMacbeth,consideredsomeofthefinestworksin
theEnglishlanguage.[2]Inhislastphase,hewrotetragicomedies,also
knownasromances,andcollaboratedwithotherplaywrights.

WilliamShakespeare
Shakespeare.jpg

TheChandosportrait,artistandauthenticity
unconfirmed.CourtesyoftheNationalPortrait
Gallery,London.
Born

StratforduponAvon,Warwickshire,
England

Baptised

26April1564

Died

23April1616(aged52)
StratforduponAvon,Warwickshire,
England

Resting
place

ChurchoftheHolyTrinity,Stratford
uponAvon

Occupation Playwright,poet,actor

Manyofhisplayswerepublishedineditionsofvaryingqualityand
accuracyduringhislifetime.In1623,however,JohnHemingesandHenry
Condell,twofriendsandfellowactorsofShakespeare,publishedamore
definitivetextknownastheFirstFolio,aposthumouscollectededitionof
hisdramaticworksthatincludedallbuttwooftheplaysnowrecognisedas
Shakespeare's.[7]ItwasprefacedwithapoembyBenJonson,inwhich
Shakespeareishailed,presciently,as"notofanage,butforalltime".[7]
Inthe20thand21stcenturies,hisworkshavebeenrepeatedlyadaptedand
rediscoveredbynewmovementsinscholarshipandperformance.Hisplays
remainhighlypopular,andareconstantlystudied,performed,and
reinterpretedindiverseculturalandpoliticalcontextsthroughouttheworld.

Contents
1 Life

Era

Elizabethanera

Movement EnglishRenaissance
Spouse(s)
Children

AnneHathaway (m.15821616)
SusannaHall
HamnetShakespeare
JudithQuiney
Signature
WilliamShakespeare
Signature.svg

1.1 Earlylife
1.2 Londonandtheatricalcareer
1.3 Lateryearsanddeath
2 Plays
2.1 Performances
2.2 Textualsources
3 Poems
3.1 Sonnets
4 Style
5 Influence
6 Criticalreputation
7 Works
7.1 Classificationoftheplays
8 SpeculationaboutShakespeare
8.1 Authorship
8.2 Religion
8.3 Sexuality
8.4 Portraiture
9 Seealso
10 Notes
10.1 Footnotes
10.2 Citations
11 References
12 Externallinks

Life
Earlylife
WilliamShakespearewasthesonofJohnShakespeare,analdermanandasuccessfulgloveroriginallyfromSnitterfield,and
MaryArden,thedaughterofanaffluentlandowningfarmer.[8]HewasborninStratforduponAvonandbaptisedthereon
26April1564.Hisactualdateofbirthremainsunknown,butistraditionallyobservedon23April,SaintGeorge'sDay.[9]This
date,whichcanbetracedbacktoan18thcenturyscholar'smistake,hasprovedappealingtobiographers,because
Shakespearediedon23April1616.[10]Hewasthethirdchildofeightandtheeldestsurvivingson.[11]
Althoughnoattendancerecordsfortheperiodsurvive,mostbiographersagreethatShakespearewasprobablyeducatedatthe
King'sNewSchoolinStratford,[12]afreeschoolcharteredin1553,[13]aboutaquartermile(400m)fromhishome.Grammar
schoolsvariedinqualityduringtheElizabethanera,butgrammarschoolcurriculawerelargelysimilar:thebasicLatintext
wasstandardisedbyroyaldecree,[14]andtheschoolwouldhaveprovidedanintensiveeducationingrammarbasedupon
Latinclassicalauthors.[15]

JohnShakespeare'shouse,believedto
beShakespeare'sbirthplace,in
StratforduponAvon

Attheageof18,Shakespearemarried26yearoldAnneHathaway.Theconsistory
courtoftheDioceseofWorcesterissuedamarriagelicenceon27November1582.
Thenextday,twoofHathaway'sneighbourspostedbondsguaranteeingthatnolawful
claimsimpededthemarriage.[16]Theceremonymayhavebeenarrangedinsome
haste,sincetheWorcesterchancellorallowedthemarriagebannstobereadonce
insteadoftheusualthreetimes,[17]andsixmonthsafterthemarriageAnnegavebirth
toadaughter,Susanna,baptised26May1583.[18]Twins,sonHamnetanddaughter
Judith,followedalmosttwoyearslaterandwerebaptised2February1585.[19]Hamnet
diedofunknowncausesattheageof11andwasburied11August1596.[20]

Afterthebirthofthetwins,Shakespeareleftfewhistoricaltracesuntilheismentioned
aspartoftheLondontheatrescenein1592.Theexceptionistheappearanceofhis
nameinthe"complaintsbill"ofalawcasebeforetheQueen'sBenchcourtat
WestminsterdatedMichaelmasTerm1588and9October1589.[21]Scholarsreferto
theyearsbetween1585and1592asShakespeare's"lostyears".[22]Biographers
attemptingtoaccountforthisperiodhavereportedmanyapocryphalstories.Nicholas
Rowe,Shakespeare'sfirstbiographer,recountedaStratfordlegendthatShakespeare
fledthetownforLondontoescapeprosecutionfordeerpoachingintheestateoflocal
squireThomasLucy.ShakespeareisalsosupposedtohavetakenhisrevengeonLucy
bywritingascurrilousballadabouthim.[23]Another18thcenturystoryhas
Shakespearestartinghistheatricalcareermindingthehorsesoftheatrepatronsin
London.[24]JohnAubreyreportedthatShakespearehadbeenacountry
schoolmaster.[25]Some20thcenturyscholarshavesuggestedthatShakespearemay
havebeenemployedasaschoolmasterbyAlexanderHoghtonofLancashire,a
Catholiclandownerwhonamedacertain"WilliamShakeshafte"inhiswill.[26]Little
evidencesubstantiatessuchstoriesotherthanhearsaycollectedafterhisdeath,and
ShakeshaftewasacommonnameintheLancashirearea.[27]

Londonandtheatricalcareer
ItisnotknowndefinitivelywhenShakespearebeganwriting,butcontemporary
allusionsandrecordsofperformancesshowthatseveralofhisplayswereonthe
Londonstageby1592.[29]Bythen,hewassufficientlyknowninLondontobe
attackedinprintbytheplaywrightRobertGreeneinhisGroatsWorthofWit:
...thereisanupstartCrow,beautifiedwithourfeathers,thatwith
hisTiger'sheartwrappedinaPlayer'shide,supposesheisaswell
abletobombastoutablankverseasthebestofyou:andbeingan
absoluteJohannesfactotum,isinhisownconceittheonlyShake
sceneinacountry.[30]

Shakespeare'scoatofarms,asit
appearsontheroughdraftofthe
applicationtograntacoatofarmsto
JohnShakespeare.Itfeaturesaspear
asapunonthefamilyname. [nb5]

"Alltheworld'sastage,
andallthemenandwomenmerelyplayers:
theyhavetheirexitsandtheirentrances
andonemaninhistimeplaysmanyparts..."
AsYouLikeIt,ActII,Scene7,13942[28]

ScholarsdifferontheexactmeaningofGreene'swords,[31]butmostagreethatGreenewasaccusingShakespeareofreaching
abovehisrankintryingtomatchsuchuniversityeducatedwritersasChristopherMarlowe,ThomasNasheandGreene
himself(thesocalled"universitywits").[32]Theitalicisedphraseparodyingtheline"Oh,tiger'sheartwrappedinawoman's
hide"fromShakespeare'sHenryVI,Part3,alongwiththepun"Shakescene",clearlyidentifyShakespeareasGreene'starget.
Asusedhere,JohannesFactotum("Jackofalltrades")referstoasecondratetinkererwiththeworkofothers,ratherthanthe
morecommon"universalgenius".[31][33]
Greene'sattackistheearliestsurvivingmentionofShakespeare'sworkinthetheatre.Biographerssuggestthathiscareermay
havebegunanytimefromthemid1580stojustbeforeGreene'sremarks.[34]After1594,Shakespeare'splayswereperformed
onlybytheLordChamberlain'sMen,acompanyownedbyagroupofplayers,includingShakespeare,thatsoonbecamethe
leadingplayingcompanyinLondon.[35]AfterthedeathofQueenElizabethin1603,thecompanywasawardedaroyalpatent
bythenewKingJamesI,andchangeditsnametotheKing'sMen.[36]
In1599,apartnershipofmembersofthecompanybuilttheirowntheatreonthesouthbankoftheRiverThames,whichthey
namedtheGlobe.In1608,thepartnershipalsotookovertheBlackfriarsindoortheatre.ExtantrecordsofShakespeare's
propertypurchasesandinvestmentsindicatethathisassociationwiththecompanymadehimawealthyman,[37]andin1597
heboughtthesecondlargesthouseinStratford,NewPlace,andin1605,investedinashareoftheparishtithesin
Stratford.[38]

SomeofShakespeare'splayswerepublishedinquartoeditions,beginningin1594,andby1598,hisnamehadbecomea
sellingpointandbegantoappearonthetitlepages.[39]Shakespearecontinuedtoactinhisownandotherplaysafterhis
successasaplaywright.The1616editionofBenJonson'sWorksnameshimonthecastlistsforEveryManinHisHumour
(1598)andSejanusHisFall(1603).[40]Theabsenceofhisnamefromthe1605castlistforJonson'sVolponeistakenbysome
scholarsasasignthathisactingcareerwasnearingitsend.[41]TheFirstFolioof1623,however,listsShakespeareasoneof
"thePrincipalActorsinallthesePlays",someofwhichwerefirststagedafterVolpone,althoughwecannotknowforcertain
whichrolesheplayed.[42]In1610,JohnDaviesofHerefordwrotethat"goodWill"played"kingly"roles.[43]In1709,Rowe
passeddownatraditionthatShakespeareplayedtheghostofHamlet'sfather.[44]Latertraditionsmaintainthathealsoplayed
AdaminAsYouLikeIt,andtheChorusinHenryV,[45]thoughscholarsdoubtthesourcesofthatinformation.[46]
Throughouthiscareer,ShakespearedividedhistimebetweenLondonandStratford.In1596,theyearbeforeheboughtNew
PlaceashisfamilyhomeinStratford,ShakespearewaslivingintheparishofSt.Helen's,Bishopsgate,northoftheRiver
Thames.[47][48]HemovedacrosstherivertoSouthwarkby1599,thesameyearhiscompanyconstructedtheGlobeTheatre
there.[47][49]By1604,hehadmovednorthoftheriveragain,toanareanorthofStPaul'sCathedralwithmanyfinehouses.
ThereherentedroomsfromaFrenchHuguenotnamedChristopherMountjoy,amakerofladies'wigsandotherheadgear.[50]

Lateryearsanddeath
Rowewasthefirstbiographertorecordthetradition,repeatedbyJohnson,thatShakespeareretiredtoStratford"someyears
beforehisdeath".[51][52]HewasstillworkingasanactorinLondonin1608inananswertothesharers'petitionin1635
CuthbertBurbagestatedthatafterpurchasingtheleaseoftheBlackfriarsTheatrein1608fromHenryEvans,theKing'sMen
"placedmenplayers"there,"whichwereHeminges,Condell,Shakespeare,etc.".[53]However,itisperhapsrelevantthatthe
bubonicplagueragedinLondonthroughout1609.[54][55]TheLondonpublicplayhouseswererepeatedlyclosedduring
extendedoutbreaksoftheplague(atotalofover60monthsclosurebetweenMay1603andFebruary1610),[56]whichmeant
therewasoftennoactingwork.Retirementfromallworkwasuncommonatthattime.[57]Shakespearecontinuedtovisit
Londonduringtheyears16111614.[51]In1612,hewascalledasawitnessinBellottv.Mountjoy,acourtcaseconcerningthe
marriagesettlementofMountjoy'sdaughter,Mary.[58]InMarch1613heboughtagatehouseintheformerBlackfriars
priory[59]andfromNovember1614hewasinLondonforseveralweekswithhissoninlaw,JohnHall.[60]After1610,
Shakespearewrotefewerplays,andnoneareattributedtohimafter1613.[61]Hislastthreeplayswerecollaborations,
probablywithJohnFletcher,[62]whosucceededhimasthehouseplaywrightoftheKing'sMen.[63]
Shakespearediedon23April1616,attheageof52.[64]Hediedwithinamonthofsigninghiswill,adocumentwhichhe
beginsbydescribinghimselfasbeingin"perfecthealth".Noextantcontemporarysourceexplainshoworwhyhedied.Halfa
centurylater,JohnWard,thevicarofStratford,wroteinhisnotebook:"Shakespeare,DraytonandBenJonsonhadamerry
meetingand,itseems,dranktoohard,forShakespearediedofafevertherecontracted",[65][66]notanimpossiblescenario,
sinceShakespeareknewJonsonandDrayton.Ofthetributesfromfellowauthors,onereferstohisrelativelysuddendeath:
"Wewondered,Shakespeare,thatthouwent'stsosoon/Fromtheworld'sstagetothegrave'stiringroom."[67]
Hewassurvivedbyhiswifeandtwodaughters.Susannahadmarriedaphysician,JohnHall,in1607,[68]andJudithhad
marriedThomasQuiney,avintner,twomonthsbeforeShakespeare'sdeath.[69]Shakespearesignedhislastwillandtestament
on25March1616thefollowingdayhisnewsoninlaw,ThomasQuineywasfoundguiltyoffatheringanillegitimatesonby
MargaretWheeler,whohaddiedduringchildbirth.Thomaswasorderedbythechurchcourttodopublicpenance,which
wouldhavecausedmuchshameandembarrassmentfortheShakespearefamily.[70]
ShakespearebequeathedthebulkofhislargeestatetohiselderdaughterSusanna[71]understipulationsthatshepassitdown
intactto"thefirstsonofherbody".[72]TheQuineyshadthreechildren,allofwhomdiedwithoutmarrying.[73]TheHallshad
onechild,Elizabeth,whomarriedtwicebutdiedwithoutchildrenin1670,endingShakespeare'sdirectline.[74]Shakespeare's
willscarcelymentionshiswife,Anne,whowasprobablyentitledtoonethirdofhisestateautomatically.[75]Hedidmakea

point,however,ofleavingher"mysecondbestbed",abequestthathasledtomuch
speculation.[76]SomescholarsseethebequestasaninsulttoAnne,whereasothersbelievethat
thesecondbestbedwouldhavebeenthematrimonialbedandthereforerichin
significance.[77]
ShakespearewasburiedinthechanceloftheHolyTrinityChurchtwodaysafterhisdeath.[78]
Theepitaphcarvedintothestoneslabcoveringhisgraveincludesacurseagainstmovinghis
bones,whichwascarefullyavoidedduringrestorationofthechurchin2008:[79]
GoodfrendforIesvssakeforbeare,
Todiggthedvstencloasedheare.
Blestebe man sparesthesstones,
Andcvrstbehe movesmybones.[80][nb6]
(Modernspelling:Goodfriend,forJesus'sakeforbear,
/Todigthedustenclosedhere./Blessedbetheman
thatsparesthesestones,/Andcursedbehethatmoves
mybones.)

Shakespeare'sfunerary
monumentinStratford
uponAvon.

Sometimebefore1623,afunerarymonumentwas
erectedinhismemoryonthenorthwall,withahalf
effigyofhimintheactofwriting.Itsplaquecompares
himtoNestor,Socrates,andVirgil.[81]In1623,in
conjunctionwiththepublicationoftheFirstFolio,the
Droeshoutengravingwaspublished.[82]

Shakespeare'sgrave,nexttothoseof
AnneShakespeare,hiswife,and
ThomasNash,thehusbandofhis
granddaughter.

Shakespearehasbeencommemoratedinmanystatuesandmemorialsaroundtheworld,includingfuneralmonumentsin
SouthwarkCathedralandPoets'CornerinWestminsterAbbey.[83][84]

Plays

ProcessionofCharactersfromShakespeare'sPlaysbyanunknown19thcenturyartist

Mostplaywrightsoftheperiodtypicallycollaboratedwithothersatsomepoint,andcriticsagreethatShakespearedidthe
same,mostlyearlyandlateinhiscareer.[85]Someattributions,suchasTitusAndronicusandtheearlyhistoryplays,remain
controversial,whileTheTwoNobleKinsmenandthelostCardeniohavewellattestedcontemporarydocumentation.Textual
evidencealsosupportstheviewthatseveraloftheplayswererevisedbyotherwritersaftertheiroriginalcomposition.
ThefirstrecordedworksofShakespeareareRichardIIIandthethreepartsofHenryVI,writtenintheearly1590sduringa
vogueforhistoricaldrama.Shakespeare'splaysaredifficulttodate,however,[86]andstudiesofthetextssuggestthatTitus
Andronicus,TheComedyofErrors,TheTamingoftheShrewandTheTwoGentlemenofVeronamayalsobelongto
Shakespeare'searliestperiod.[87]Hisfirsthistories,whichdrawheavilyonthe1587editionofRaphaelHolinshed's
ChroniclesofEngland,Scotland,andIreland,[88]dramatisethedestructiveresultsofweakorcorruptruleandhavebeen

interpretedasajustificationfortheoriginsoftheTudordynasty.[89]Theearlyplayswereinfluencedbytheworksofother
Elizabethandramatists,especiallyThomasKydandChristopherMarlowe,bythetraditionsofmedievaldrama,andbythe
playsofSeneca.[90]TheComedyofErrorswasalsobasedonclassicalmodels,butnosourceforTheTamingoftheShrewhas
beenfound,thoughitisrelatedtoaseparateplayofthesamenameandmayhavederivedfromafolkstory.[91]LikeTheTwo
GentlemenofVerona,inwhichtwofriendsappeartoapproveofrape,[92]theShrew'sstoryofthetamingofawoman's
independentspiritbyamansometimestroublesmoderncriticsanddirectors.[93]
Shakespeare'searlyclassicalandItalianatecomedies,containingtightdoubleplotsand
precisecomicsequences,givewayinthemid1590stotheromanticatmosphereofhis
mostacclaimedcomedies.[94]AMidsummerNight'sDreamisawittymixtureof
romance,fairymagic,andcomiclowlifescenes.[95]Shakespeare'snextcomedy,the
equallyromanticMerchantofVenice,containsaportrayalofthevengefulJewish
moneylenderShylock,whichreflectsElizabethanviewsbutmayappearderogatoryto
modernaudiences.[96]ThewitandwordplayofMuchAdoAboutNothing,[97]the
charmingruralsettingofAsYouLikeIt,andthelivelymerrymakingofTwelfthNight
completeShakespeare'ssequenceofgreatcomedies.[98]AfterthelyricalRichardII,
Oberon,TitaniaandPuckwith
writtenalmostentirelyinverse,Shakespeareintroducedprosecomedyintothe
FairiesDancing.ByWilliamBlake,
historiesofthelate1590s,HenryIV,parts1and2,andHenryV.Hischaracters
c.1786.TateBritain.
becomemorecomplexandtenderasheswitchesdeftlybetweencomicandserious
scenes,proseandpoetry,andachievesthenarrativevarietyofhismaturework.[99]
Thisperiodbeginsandendswithtwotragedies:RomeoandJuliet,thefamousromantictragedyofsexuallycharged
adolescence,love,anddeath[100]andJuliusCaesarbasedonSirThomasNorth's1579translationofPlutarch'sParallel
Liveswhichintroducedanewkindofdrama.[101]AccordingtoShakespeareanscholarJamesShapiro,inJuliusCaesar"the
variousstrandsofpolitics,character,inwardness,contemporaryevents,evenShakespeare'sownreflectionsontheactof
writing,begantoinfuseeachother".[102]
Intheearly17thcentury,Shakespearewrotethesocalled"problemplays"Measure
forMeasure,TroilusandCressida,andAll'sWellThatEndsWellandanumberofhis
bestknowntragedies.[103]ManycriticsbelievethatShakespeare'sgreatesttragedies
representthepeakofhisart.ThetitularheroofoneofShakespeare'smostfamous
tragedies,Hamlet,hasprobablybeendiscussedmorethananyotherShakespearean
character,especiallyforhisfamoussoliloquywhichbegins"Tobeornottobethatis
thequestion".[104]UnliketheintrovertedHamlet,whosefatalflawishesitation,the
heroesofthetragediesthatfollowed,OthelloandKingLear,areundonebyhasty
errorsofjudgement.[105]TheplotsofShakespeare'stragediesoftenhingeonsuchfatal
Hamlet,Horatio,Marcellus,andthe
errorsorflaws,whichoverturnorderanddestroytheheroandthoseheloves.[106]In
GhostofHamlet'sFather.Henry
Othello,thevillainIagostokesOthello'ssexualjealousytothepointwherehemurders
Fuseli,17805.KunsthausZrich.
theinnocentwifewholoveshim.[107]InKingLear,theoldkingcommitsthetragic
errorofgivinguphispowers,initiatingtheeventswhichleadtothetortureand
blindingoftheEarlofGloucesterandthemurderofLear'syoungestdaughterCordelia.AccordingtothecriticFrank
Kermode,"theplayoffersneitheritsgoodcharactersnoritsaudienceanyrelieffromitscruelty".[108]InMacbeth,theshortest
andmostcompressedofShakespeare'stragedies,[109]uncontrollableambitionincitesMacbethandhiswife,LadyMacbeth,to
murdertherightfulkingandusurpthethrone,untiltheirownguiltdestroystheminturn.[110]Inthisplay,Shakespeareaddsa
supernaturalelementtothetragicstructure.Hislastmajortragedies,AntonyandCleopatraandCoriolanus,containsomeof
Shakespeare'sfinestpoetryandwereconsideredhismostsuccessfultragediesbythepoetandcriticT.S.Eliot.[111]
Inhisfinalperiod,Shakespeareturnedtoromanceortragicomedyandcompletedthreemoremajorplays:Cymbeline,The
Winter'sTaleandTheTempest,aswellasthecollaboration,Pericles,PrinceofTyre.Lessbleakthanthetragedies,thesefour
playsaregraverintonethanthecomediesofthe1590s,buttheyendwithreconciliationandtheforgivenessofpotentially

tragicerrors.[112]Somecommentatorshaveseenthischangeinmoodasevidenceofamoresereneviewoflifeon
Shakespeare'spart,butitmaymerelyreflectthetheatricalfashionoftheday.[113]Shakespearecollaboratedontwofurther
survivingplays,HenryVIIIandTheTwoNobleKinsmen,probablywithJohnFletcher.[114]

Performances
ItisnotclearforwhichcompaniesShakespearewrotehisearlyplays.Thetitlepageofthe1594editionofTitusAndronicus
revealsthattheplayhadbeenactedbythreedifferenttroupes.[115]Aftertheplaguesof15923,Shakespeare'splayswere
performedbyhisowncompanyatTheTheatreandtheCurtaininShoreditch,northoftheThames.[116]Londonersflocked
theretoseethefirstpartofHenryIV,LeonardDiggesrecording,"LetbutFalstaffcome,Hal,Poins,therest...andyouscarce
shallhavearoom".[117]Whenthecompanyfoundthemselvesindisputewiththeirlandlord,theypulledTheTheatredown
andusedthetimberstoconstructtheGlobeTheatre,thefirstplayhousebuiltbyactorsforactors,onthesouthbankofthe
ThamesatSouthwark.[118]TheGlobeopenedinautumn1599,withJuliusCaesaroneofthefirstplaysstaged.Mostof
Shakespeare'sgreatestpost1599playswerewrittenfortheGlobe,includingHamlet,OthelloandKingLear.[119]

ThereconstructedGlobeTheatre,
London.

AftertheLordChamberlain'sMenwererenamedtheKing'sMenin1603,theyentered
aspecialrelationshipwiththenewKingJames.Althoughtheperformancerecordsare
patchy,theKing'sMenperformedsevenofShakespeare'splaysatcourtbetween1
November1604and31October1605,includingtwoperformancesofTheMerchantof
Venice.[120]After1608,theyperformedattheindoorBlackfriarsTheatreduringthe
winterandtheGlobeduringthesummer.[121]Theindoorsetting,combinedwiththe
Jacobeanfashionforlavishlystagedmasques,allowedShakespearetointroducemore
elaboratestagedevices.InCymbeline,forexample,Jupiterdescends"inthunderand
lightning,sittinguponaneagle:hethrowsathunderbolt.Theghostsfallontheir
knees."[122]

TheactorsinShakespeare'scompanyincludedthefamousRichardBurbage,William
Kempe,HenryCondellandJohnHeminges.Burbageplayedtheleadingroleinthe
firstperformancesofmanyofShakespeare'splays,includingRichardIII,Hamlet,Othello,andKingLear.[123]Thepopular
comicactorWillKempeplayedtheservantPeterinRomeoandJulietandDogberryinMuchAdoAboutNothing,among
othercharacters.[124]Hewasreplacedaround1600byRobertArmin,whoplayedrolessuchasTouchstoneinAsYouLikeIt
andthefoolinKingLear.[125]In1613,SirHenryWottonrecordedthatHenryVIII"wassetforthwithmanyextraordinary
circumstancesofpompandceremony".[126]On29June,however,acannonsetfiretothethatchoftheGlobeandburnedthe
theatretotheground,aneventwhichpinpointsthedateofaShakespeareplaywithrareprecision.[126]

Textualsources
In1623,JohnHemingesandHenryCondell,twoofShakespeare'sfriendsfromtheKing'sMen,publishedtheFirstFolio,a
collectededitionofShakespeare'splays.Itcontained36texts,including18printedforthefirsttime.[127]Manyoftheplays
hadalreadyappearedinquartoversionsflimsybooksmadefromsheetsofpaperfoldedtwicetomakefourleaves.[128]No
evidencesuggeststhatShakespeareapprovedtheseeditions,whichtheFirstFoliodescribesas"stol'nandsurreptitious
copies".[129]NordidShakespeareplanorexpecthisworkstosurviveinanyformatallthoseworkslikelywouldhavefaded
intooblivionbutforhisfriends'spontaneousidea,afterhisdeath,tocreateandpublishtheFirstFolio.[130]
AlfredPollardtermedsomeofthepre1623versionsas"badquartos"becauseoftheiradapted,paraphrasedorgarbledtexts,
whichmayinplaceshavebeenreconstructedfrommemory.[131]Whereseveralversionsofaplaysurvive,eachdiffersfrom
theother.Thedifferencesmaystemfromcopyingorprintingerrors,fromnotesbyactorsoraudiencemembers,orfrom
Shakespeare'sownpapers.[132]Insomecases,forexampleHamlet,TroilusandCressidaandOthello,Shakespearecouldhave
revisedthetextsbetweenthequartoandfolioeditions.InthecaseofKingLear,however,whilemostmoderneditionsdo
conflatethem,the1623folioversionissodifferentfromthe1608quartothattheOxfordShakespeareprintsthemboth,
arguingthattheycannotbeconflatedwithoutconfusion.[133]

Poems
In1593and1594,whenthetheatreswereclosedbecauseofplague,Shakespeare
publishedtwonarrativepoemsoneroticthemes,VenusandAdonisandTheRapeof
Lucrece.HededicatedthemtoHenryWriothesley,EarlofSouthampton.InVenusand
Adonis,aninnocentAdonisrejectsthesexualadvancesofVenuswhileinTheRapeof
Lucrece,thevirtuouswifeLucreceisrapedbythelustfulTarquin.[134]Influencedby
Ovid'sMetamorphoses,[135]thepoemsshowtheguiltandmoralconfusionthatresult
fromuncontrolledlust.[136]Bothprovedpopularandwereoftenreprintedduring
Shakespeare'slifetime.Athirdnarrativepoem,ALover'sComplaint,inwhichayoung
womanlamentsherseductionbyapersuasivesuitor,wasprintedinthefirsteditionof
theSonnetsin1609.MostscholarsnowacceptthatShakespearewroteALover's
Complaint.Criticsconsiderthatitsfinequalitiesaremarredbyleadeneffects.[137]The
PhoenixandtheTurtle,printedinRobertChester's1601Love'sMartyr,mournsthe
deathsofthelegendaryphoenixandhislover,thefaithfulturtledove.In1599,two
earlydraftsofsonnets138and144appearedinThePassionatePilgrim,published
underShakespeare'snamebutwithouthispermission.[138]

Sonnets

TitlepageoftheFirstFolio,1623.
CopperengravingofShakespeareby
MartinDroeshout.

Publishedin1609,theSonnetswerethelastof
Shakespeare'snondramaticworkstobeprinted.
Scholarsarenotcertainwheneachofthe154sonnetswascomposed,butevidencesuggests
thatShakespearewrotesonnetsthroughouthiscareerforaprivatereadership.[139]Evenbefore
thetwounauthorisedsonnetsappearedinThePassionatePilgrimin1599,FrancisMereshad
referredin1598toShakespeare's"sugredSonnetsamonghisprivatefriends".[140]Few
analystsbelievethatthepublishedcollectionfollowsShakespeare'sintendedsequence.[141]He
seemstohaveplannedtwocontrastingseries:oneaboutuncontrollablelustforamarried
womanofdarkcomplexion(the"darklady"),andoneaboutconflictedloveforafairyoung
man(the"fairyouth").Itremainsunclearifthesefiguresrepresentrealindividuals,orifthe
authorial"I"whoaddressesthemrepresentsShakespearehimself,thoughWordsworth
believedthatwiththesonnets"Shakespeareunlockedhisheart".[142]
The1609editionwasdedicatedtoa"Mr.W.H.",
creditedas"theonlybegetter"ofthepoems.Itis
"ShallIcomparetheetoasummer'sday?
notknownwhetherthiswaswrittenby
Thouartmorelovelyandmoretemperate..."
Shakespearehimselforbythepublisher,
LinesfromShakespeare'sSonnet18. [143]
ThomasThorpe,whoseinitialsappearatthefootofthededicationpagenorisit
knownwhoMr.W.H.was,despitenumeroustheories,orwhetherShakespeare
evenauthorisedthepublication.[144]CriticspraisetheSonnetsasaprofoundmeditationonthenatureoflove,sexualpassion,
procreation,death,andtime.[145]
Titlepagefrom1609edition
ofShakeSpearesSonnets.

Style
Shakespeare'sfirstplayswerewrittenintheconventionalstyleoftheday.Hewrotetheminastylisedlanguagethatdoesnot
alwaysspringnaturallyfromtheneedsofthecharactersorthedrama.[146]Thepoetrydependsonextended,sometimes
elaboratemetaphorsandconceits,andthelanguageisoftenrhetoricalwrittenforactorstodeclaimratherthanspeak.The
grandspeechesinTitusAndronicus,intheviewofsomecritics,oftenholduptheaction,forexampleandtheverseinThe
TwoGentlemenofVeronahasbeendescribedasstilted.[147]

Soon,however,Shakespearebegantoadaptthetraditionalstylestohisownpurposes.TheopeningsoliloquyofRichardIII
hasitsrootsintheselfdeclarationofViceinmedievaldrama.Atthesametime,Richard'svividselfawarenesslooksforward
tothesoliloquiesofShakespeare'smatureplays.[148]Nosingleplaymarksachangefromthetraditionaltothefreerstyle.
Shakespearecombinedthetwothroughouthiscareer,withRomeoandJulietperhapsthebestexampleofthemixingofthe
styles.[149]BythetimeofRomeoandJuliet,RichardII,andAMidsummerNight'sDreaminthemid1590s,Shakespearehad
beguntowriteamorenaturalpoetry.Heincreasinglytunedhismetaphorsandimagestotheneedsofthedramaitself.
Shakespeare'sstandardpoeticformwasblankverse,composedin
iambicpentameter.Inpractice,thismeantthathisversewasusually
unrhymedandconsistedoftensyllablestoaline,spokenwithastress
oneverysecondsyllable.Theblankverseofhisearlyplaysisquite
differentfromthatofhislaterones.Itisoftenbeautiful,butitssentences
tendtostart,pause,andfinishattheendoflines,withtheriskof
monotony.[151]OnceShakespearemasteredtraditionalblankverse,he
begantointerruptandvaryitsflow.Thistechniquereleasesthenew
powerandflexibilityofthepoetryinplayssuchasJuliusCaesarand
Hamlet.Shakespeareusesit,forexample,toconveytheturmoilin
Hamlet'smind:[152]
Sir,inmyhearttherewasakindoffighting
Thatwouldnotletmesleep.MethoughtIlay
Worsethanthemutinesinthebilboes.Rashly
Andprais'dberashnessforitletusknow
Ourindiscretionsometimesservesuswell...

PitybyWilliamBlake,1795,TateBritain,isan
illustrationoftwosimilesinMacbeth:
"Andpity,likeanakednewbornbabe,
Stridingtheblast,orheaven'scherubim,hors'd
Uponthesightlesscouriersoftheair."[150]

Hamlet,Act5,Scene2,48[152]
AfterHamlet,Shakespearevariedhispoeticstylefurther,particularlyinthemoreemotionalpassagesofthelatetragedies.
TheliterarycriticA.C.Bradleydescribedthisstyleas"moreconcentrated,rapid,varied,and,inconstruction,lessregular,
notseldomtwistedorelliptical".[153]Inthelastphaseofhiscareer,Shakespeareadoptedmanytechniquestoachievethese
effects.Theseincludedrunonlines,irregularpausesandstops,andextremevariationsinsentencestructureandlength.[154]In
Macbeth,forexample,thelanguagedartsfromoneunrelatedmetaphororsimiletoanother:"wasthehopedrunk/Wherein
youdressedyourself?"(1.7.3538)"...pity,likeanakednewbornbabe/Stridingtheblast,orheaven'scherubim,hors'd/
Uponthesightlesscouriersoftheair..."(1.7.2125).Thelistenerischallengedtocompletethesense.[154]Thelateromances,
withtheirshiftsintimeandsurprisingturnsofplot,inspiredalastpoeticstyleinwhichlongandshortsentencesareset
againstoneanother,clausesarepiledup,subjectandobjectarereversed,andwordsareomitted,creatinganeffectof
spontaneity.[155]
Shakespearecombinedpoeticgeniuswithapracticalsenseofthetheatre.[156]Likeallplaywrightsofthetime,hedramatised
storiesfromsourcessuchasPlutarchandHolinshed.[157]Hereshapedeachplottocreateseveralcentresofinterestandto
showasmanysidesofanarrativetotheaudienceaspossible.ThisstrengthofdesignensuresthataShakespeareplaycan
survivetranslation,cuttingandwideinterpretationwithoutlosstoitscoredrama.[158]AsShakespeare'smasterygrew,hegave
hischaractersclearerandmorevariedmotivationsanddistinctivepatternsofspeech.Hepreservedaspectsofhisearlierstyle
inthelaterplays,however.InShakespeare'slateromances,hedeliberatelyreturnedtoamoreartificialstyle,which
emphasisedtheillusionoftheatre.[159]

Influence
Shakespeare'sworkhasmadealastingimpressiononlatertheatreandliterature.Inparticular,heexpandedthedramatic
potentialofcharacterisation,plot,language,andgenre.[160]UntilRomeoandJuliet,forexample,romancehadnotbeen
viewedasaworthytopicfortragedy.[161]Soliloquieshadbeenusedmainlytoconveyinformationaboutcharactersorevents
butShakespeareusedthemtoexplorecharacters'minds.[162]Hisworkheavilyinfluencedlaterpoetry.TheRomanticpoets

attemptedtoreviveShakespeareanversedrama,thoughwithlittlesuccess.Critic
GeorgeSteinerdescribedallEnglishversedramasfromColeridgetoTennysonas
"feeblevariationsonShakespeareanthemes."[163]
ShakespeareinfluencednovelistssuchasThomasHardy,WilliamFaulkner,and
CharlesDickens.TheAmericannovelistHermanMelville'ssoliloquiesowemuchto
ShakespearehisCaptainAhabinMobyDickisaclassictragichero,inspiredbyKing
Lear.[164]Scholarshaveidentified20,000piecesofmusiclinkedtoShakespeare's
works.TheseincludetwooperasbyGiuseppeVerdi,OtelloandFalstaff,whose
criticalstandingcompareswiththatofthesourceplays.[165]Shakespearehasalso
inspiredmanypainters,includingtheRomanticsandthePreRaphaelites.TheSwiss
RomanticartistHenryFuseli,afriendofWilliamBlake,eventranslatedMacbethinto
German.[166]ThepsychoanalystSigmundFreuddrewonShakespeareanpsychology,
inparticularthatofHamlet,forhistheoriesofhumannature.[167]
MacbethConsultingtheVisionofthe
ArmedHead.ByHenryFuseli,1793
94.FolgerShakespeareLibrary,
Washington.

InShakespeare'sday,Englishgrammar,spellingandpronunciationwereless
standardisedthantheyarenow,[168]andhisuseoflanguagehelpedshapemodern
English.[169]SamuelJohnsonquotedhimmoreoftenthananyotherauthorinhisA
DictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,thefirstseriousworkofitstype.[170]Expressions
suchas"withbatedbreath"(MerchantofVenice)and"aforegoneconclusion"(Othello)havefoundtheirwayintoeveryday
Englishspeech.[171]

Criticalreputation
Shakespearewasnotreveredinhislifetime,buthereceivedalargeamountof
praise.[173]In1598,theclericandauthorFrancisMeressingledhimoutfromagroup
"Hewasnotofanage,butforalltime."
ofEnglishwritersas"themostexcellent"inbothcomedyandtragedy.[174]The
BenJonson[172]
authorsoftheParnassusplaysatStJohn'sCollege,Cambridgenumberedhimwith
Chaucer,GowerandSpenser.[175]IntheFirstFolio,BenJonsoncalledShakespeare
the"Souloftheage,theapplause,delight,thewonderofourstage",thoughhehadremarkedelsewherethat"Shakespeare
wantedart".[176]
BetweentheRestorationofthemonarchyin1660andtheendofthe17thcentury,classicalideaswereinvogue.Asaresult,
criticsofthetimemostlyratedShakespearebelowJohnFletcherandBenJonson.[177]ThomasRymer,forexample,
condemnedShakespeareformixingthecomicwiththetragic.Nevertheless,poetandcriticJohnDrydenratedShakespeare
highly,sayingofJonson,"Iadmirehim,butIloveShakespeare".[178]Forseveraldecades,Rymer'sviewheldswaybut
duringthe18thcentury,criticsbegantorespondtoShakespeareonhisowntermsandacclaimwhattheytermedhisnatural
genius.Aseriesofscholarlyeditionsofhiswork,notablythoseofSamuelJohnsonin1765andEdmondMalonein1790,
addedtohisgrowingreputation.[179]By1800,hewasfirmlyenshrinedasthenationalpoet.[180]Inthe18thand19th
centuries,hisreputationalsospreadabroad.AmongthosewhochampionedhimwerethewritersVoltaire,Goethe,Stendhal
andVictorHugo.[181]
DuringtheRomanticera,ShakespearewaspraisedbythepoetandliteraryphilosopherSamuelTaylorColeridgeandthe
criticAugustWilhelmSchlegeltranslatedhisplaysinthespiritofGermanRomanticism.[182]Inthe19thcentury,critical
admirationforShakespeare'sgeniusoftenborderedonadulation.[183]"ThatKingShakespeare,"theessayistThomasCarlyle
wrotein1840,"doesnotheshine,incrownedsovereignty,overusall,asthenoblest,gentlest,yetstrongestofrallyingsigns
indestructible".[184]TheVictoriansproducedhisplaysaslavishspectaclesonagrandscale.[185]Theplaywrightandcritic
GeorgeBernardShawmockedthecultofShakespeareworshipas"bardolatry",claimingthatthenewnaturalismofIbsen's
playshadmadeShakespeareobsolete.[186]

Themodernistrevolutionintheartsduringtheearly20thcentury,farfromdiscarding
Shakespeare,eagerlyenlistedhisworkintheserviceoftheavantgarde.The
ExpressionistsinGermanyandtheFuturistsinMoscowmountedproductionsofhis
plays.MarxistplaywrightanddirectorBertoltBrechtdevisedanepictheatreunderthe
influenceofShakespeare.ThepoetandcriticT.S.EliotarguedagainstShawthat
Shakespeare's"primitiveness"infactmadehimtrulymodern.[187]Eliot,alongwithG.
WilsonKnightandtheschoolofNewCriticism,ledamovementtowardsacloserreading
ofShakespeare'simagery.Inthe1950s,awaveofnewcriticalapproachesreplaced
modernismandpavedthewayfor"postmodern"studiesofShakespeare.[188]Bythe
1980s,Shakespearestudieswereopentomovementssuchasstructuralism,feminism,
NewHistoricism,AfricanAmericanstudies,andqueerstudies.[189][190]Ina
comprehensivereadingofShakespeare'sworksandcomparingShakespeareliterary
accomplishmentstoaccomplishmentsamongleadingfiguresinphilosophyandtheology
aswell,HaroldBloomhascommentedthat,"ShakespearewaslargerthanPlatoandthan
St.Augustine.Heenclosesus,becauseweseewithhisfundamentalperceptions."[191]

Works
Classificationoftheplays
Shakespeare'sworksincludethe36playsprintedintheFirstFolioof1623,listed
accordingtotheirfolioclassificationascomedies,historiesandtragedies.[192]Twoplays
notincludedintheFirstFolio,TheTwoNobleKinsmenandPericles,PrinceofTyre,are
nowacceptedaspartofthecanon,withtoday'sscholarsagreeingthatShakespeare
mademajorcontributionstothewritingofboth.[193]NoShakespeareanpoemswere
includedintheFirstFolio.
Inthelate19thcentury,EdwardDowdenclassifiedfourofthelatecomediesas
romances,andthoughmanyscholarsprefertocallthemtragicomedies,Dowden's
termisoftenused.[194]In1896,FrederickS.Boascoinedtheterm"problemplays"to
describefourplays:All'sWellThatEndsWell,MeasureforMeasure,Troilusand
CressidaandHamlet.[195]"Dramasassingularinthemeandtempercannotbestrictly
calledcomediesortragedies",hewrote."Wemaythereforeborrowaconvenient
phrasefromthetheatreoftodayandclassthemtogetherasShakespeare'sproblem
plays."[196]Theterm,muchdebatedandsometimesappliedtootherplays,remainsin
use,thoughHamletisdefinitivelyclassedasatragedy.[197]

Arecentlygarlandedstatueof
WilliamShakespeareinLincoln
Park,Chicago,typicalofmany
createdinthe19thandearly20th
century.

ThePlaysofWilliamShakespeare.By
SirJohnGilbert,1849.

SpeculationaboutShakespeare
Authorship
Around230yearsafterShakespeare'sdeath,doubtsbegantobeexpressedabouttheauthorshipoftheworksattributedto
him.[198]ProposedalternativecandidatesincludeFrancisBacon,ChristopherMarlowe,andEdwarddeVere,17thEarlof
Oxford.[199]Several"grouptheories"havealsobeenproposed.[200]Onlyasmallminorityofacademicsbelievethereisreason
toquestionthetraditionalattribution,[201]butinterestinthesubject,particularlytheOxfordiantheoryofShakespeare
authorship,continuesintothe21stcentury.[202]

Religion

SomescholarsclaimthatmembersofShakespeare'sfamilywereCatholics,atatimewhenpracticingCatholicisminEngland
wasagainstthelaw.[203]Shakespeare'smother,MaryArden,certainlycamefromapiousCatholicfamily.Thestrongest
evidencemightbeaCatholicstatementoffaithsignedbyhisfather,JohnShakespeare,foundin1757intheraftersofhis
formerhouseinHenleyStreet.Thedocumentisnowlost,however,andscholarsdifferastoitsauthenticity.[204]In1591the
authoritiesreportedthatJohnShakespearehadmissedchurch"forfearofprocessfordebt",acommonCatholicexcuse.[205]
In1606,thenameofWilliam'sdaughterSusannaappearsonalistofthosewhofailedtoattendEastercommunionin
Stratford.[205]Asseveralscholarshavenoted,whateverhisprivateviews,Shakespeare"conformedtotheofficialstate
religion",asParkHonanputit.[206][207]Also,Shakespeare'swillusesaProtestantformula,andhewasaconfirmedmember
oftheChurchofEngland,wherehewasmarried,hischildrenwerebaptized,andwhereheisburied.Otherauthorsarguethat
thereisalackofevidenceaboutShakespeare'sreligiousbeliefs.ScholarsfindevidencebothforandagainstShakespeare's
Catholicism,Protestantism,orlackofbeliefinhisplays,butthetruthmaybeimpossibletoprove.[208]

Sexuality
FewdetailsofShakespeare'ssexualityareknown.At18,hemarried26yearoldAnneHathaway,whowaspregnant.
Susanna,thefirstoftheirthreechildren,wasbornsixmonthslateron26May1583.Overthecenturies,somereadershave
positedthatShakespeare'ssonnetsareautobiographical,[209]andpointtothemasevidenceofhisloveforayoungman.
Othersreadthesamepassagesastheexpressionofintensefriendshipratherthanromanticlove.[210]The26socalled"Dark
Lady"sonnets,addressedtoamarriedwoman,aretakenasevidenceofheterosexualliaisons.[211]

Portraiture
NowrittencontemporarydescriptionofShakespeare'sphysicalappearancesurvives,andnoevidencesuggeststhatheever
commissionedaportrait,sotheDroeshoutengraving,whichBenJonsonapprovedofasagoodlikeness,[212]andhisStratford
monumentprovideperhapsthebestevidenceofhisappearance.Fromthe18thcentury,thedesireforauthenticShakespeare
portraitsfuelledclaimsthatvarioussurvivingpicturesdepictedShakespeare.Thatdemandalsoledtotheproductionof
severalfakeportraits,aswellasmisattributions,repaintingsandrelabellingofportraitsofotherpeople.[213]

Seealso
OutlineofWilliamShakespeare
EnglishRenaissancetheatre
SpellingofShakespeare'sname
WorldShakespeareBibliography

Notes
Footnotes
1.DatesfollowtheJuliancalendar,usedinEnglandthroughoutShakespeare'slifespan,butwiththestartoftheyearadjustedto
1January(seeOldStyleandNewStyledates).UndertheGregoriancalendar,adoptedinCatholiccountriesin1582,Shakespearedied
on3May(Schoenbaum1987,xv).
2.The"nationalcult"ofShakespeare,andthe"bard"identification,datesfromSeptember1769,whentheactorDavidGarrickorganised
aweeklongcarnivalatStratfordtomarkthetowncouncilawardinghimthefreedomofthetown.Inadditiontopresentingthetown
withastatueofShakespeare,Garrickcomposedadoggerelverse,lampoonedintheLondonnewspapers,namingthebanksofthe
Avonasthebirthplaceofthe"matchlessBard"(McIntyre1999,412432).
3.Theexactfiguresareunknown.SeeShakespeare'scollaborationsandShakespeareApocryphaforfurtherdetails.
4.Individualplaydatesandprecisewritingspanareunknown.SeeChronologyofShakespeare'splaysforfurtherdetails.
5.Thecrestisasilverfalconsupportingaspear,whilethemottoisNonSanzDroict(Frenchfor"notwithoutright").Thismottoisstill
usedbyWarwickshireCountyCouncil,inreferencetoShakespeare.
6.Inthescribalabbreviationsyeforthe(3rdline)andytforthat(3rdand4thlines)theletteryrepresentsinfactth:seearticlethorn.

Citations