Pante, Joezel C.

BSCE 5th yr.

E3C GEOLOGY

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The sediment (the sand, mud and pebbles) that make up
Sedimentary rocks come from other rocks that have been worn
down by wind, rain and snow. When we find sedimentary rocks we
can work out what the environment was like when those rocks
were formed old sand dunes and river channels are preserved in
the rocks.
Sedimentary rock formed at or near the Earths surface by the
accumulation and lithification of sediment (detrital rock) or by the
precipitation from solution at normal surface temperatures
(chemical rock). Sedimentary rocks are the most common rocks
exposed on the Earths surface but are only a minor constituent of
the entire crust, which is dominated by igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering of preexisting
rocks and the subsequent transportation and deposition of
the weathering products. Weathering refers to the various
processes of physical disintegration and chemical decomposition
that occur when rocks at the Earths surface are exposed to the
atmosphere (mainly in the form of rainfall) and the hydrosphere.
These processes produce soil, unconsolidated rock detritus, and
components dissolved in groundwater and runoff. Erosion is the
process by which weathering products are transported away from
the weathering site, either as solid material or as dissolved
components, eventually to be deposited as sediment. Any
unconsolidated deposit of solid weathered material constitutes
sediment. It can form as the result of deposition of grains from
moving bodies of water or wind, from the melting of glacial ice,
and from the downslope slumping (sliding) of rock and soil

masses in response to gravity, as well as by precipitation of the

dissolved products of weathering under the conditions of low
temperature and pressure that prevail at or near the surface of
the Earth.
Sedimentary rocks are the lithified equivalents of sediments. They
typically are produced by cementing, compacting, and otherwise
solidifying preexisting unconsolidated sediments. Some varieties
of sedimentary rock, however, are precipitated directly into their
solid sedimentary form and exhibit no intervening existence as
sediment. Organic reefs and bedded evaporites are examples of
such rocks. Because the processes of physical (mechanical)
weathering and chemical weathering are significantly different,
they generate markedly distinct products and two fundamentally
different kinds of sediment and sedimentary rock: (1)
terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks and
(2) allochemical and orthochemical sedimentary rocks.
Clastic terrigenous sedimentary rocks consist of rock
and mineral grains, or clasts, of varying size, ranging from clay-,
silt-, and sand- up to pebble-, cobble-, and boulder-size materials.
These clasts are transported by gravity, mudflows, running water,
glaciers, and wind and eventually are deposited in various
settings (e.g., in desert dunes, on alluvial fans, across continental
shelves, and in river deltas). Because the agents of transportation
commonly sort out discrete particles by clast size, terrigenous
clastic sedimentary rocks are further subdivided on the basis of
average clast diameter. Coarse pebbles, cobbles, and boulder-size
gravels lithify to form conglomerate and breccia; sand becomes
sandstone; and silt and clay form siltstone, claystone,mudrock,
and shale.
Chemical sedimentary rocks form by chemical and organic
reprecipitation of the dissolved products of chemical weathering
that are removed from the weathering site. Allochemical
sedimentary rocks, such as many limestones and cherts, consist
of solid precipitated nondetrital fragments (allochems) that

undergo a brief history of transport and abrasion prior to

deposition as nonterrigenous clasts. Examples are calcareous or
siliceous shell fragments and oids, which are concentrically
layered spherical grains of calcium carbonate. Orthochemical
sedimentary rocks, on the other hand, consist of dissolved
constituents that are directly precipitated as solid sedimentary
rock and thus do not undergo transportation. Orthochemical
sedimentary rocks include some limestones,
bedded evaporite deposits of halite,gypsum, and anhydrite, and
banded iron formations.
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are confined to the Earths
crust, which is the thin, light outer solid skin of the Earth ranging
in thickness from 40100 kilometres (25 to 62 miles) in the
continental blocks to 410 kilometres in theocean basins. Igneous
and metamorphic rocks constitute the bulk of the crust. The total
volume of sediment and sedimentary rocks can be either directly
measured using exposed rock sequences, drill-hole data, and
seismic profiles or indirectly estimated by comparing the
chemistry of major sedimentary rock types to the overall
chemistry of the crust from which they are weathered. Both
methods indicate that the Earths sediment-sedimentary rock
shell forms only about 5 percent by volume of the terrestrial crust,
which in turn accounts for less than 1 percent of the Earths total
volume. On the other hand, the area of outcrop and exposure of
sediment and sedimentary rock comprises 75 percent of the land
surface and well over 90 percent of the ocean basins and
continental margins. In other words, 8090 percent of the surface
area of the Earth is mantled with sediment or sedimentary rocks
rather than with igneous or metamorphic varieties. The sedimentsedimentary rock shell forms only a thin superficial layer. The
mean shell thickness in continental areas is 1.8 kilometres; the
sediment shell in the ocean basins is roughly 0.3 kilometre.
Rearranging this shell as a globally encircling layer (and

depending on the raw estimates incorporated into the model), the

shell thickness would be roughly 13 kilometres.
Despite the relatively insignificant volume of the sedimentary
rock shell, not only are most rocks exposed at the terrestrial
surface of the sedimentary variety, but many of the significant
events in Earth history are most accurately dated and
documented by analyzing and interpreting the sedimentary rock
record instead of the more voluminous igneous andmetamorphic
rock record. When properly understood and interpreted,
sedimentary rocks provide information on ancient geography,
termedpaleogeography. A map of the distribution of sediments
that formed in shallow oceans along alluvial fans bordering rising
mountains or in deep, subsiding ocean trenches will indicate past
relationships between seas and landmasses. An accurate
interpretation of paleogeography and depositional settings allows
conclusions to be made about the evolution of mountain systems,
continental blocks, and ocean basins, as well as about the origin
and evolution of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Sedimentary
rocks contain the fossil record of ancient life-forms that enables
the documentation of the evolutionary advancement from simple
to complex organisms in the plant and animal kingdoms. Also, the
study of the various folds or bends and breaks or faults in the
strata of sedimentary rocks permits the structural geology or
history of deformation to be ascertained.
Finally, it is appropriate to underscore the economic importance of
sedimentary rocks. For example, they contain essentially the
worlds entire store of oil and natural gas, coal, phosphates, salt
deposits, groundwater, and other natural resources.
Several subdisciplines of geology deal specifically with the
analysis, interpretation, and origin of sediments and sedimentary
rocks. Sedimentary petrology is the study of their occurrence,
composition, texture, and other overall characteristics,

whilesedimentology emphasizes the processes by which

sediments are transported and deposited. Sedimentary
petrography involves the classification and study of sedimentary
rocks using the petrographic microscope. Stratigraphy covers all
aspects of sedimentary rocks, particularly from the perspective of
their age and regional relationships as well as the correlation of
sedimentary rocks in one region with sedimentary rock sequences
elsewhere. (For further information about these
fields, see geologic sciences.)
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
In general, geologists have attempted to classify sedimentary
rocks on a natural basis, but some schemes have genetic
implications (i.e.,knowledge of origin of a particular rock type is
assumed), and many classifications reflect the philosophy,
training, and experience of those who propound them. No scheme
has found universal acceptance, and discussion here will centre
on some proposals.
The book Rocks and Rock Minerals by Louis V. Pirsson was first
published in 1908, and it has enjoyed various revisions.
Sedimentary rocks are classified there rather simplistically
according to physical characteristics and composition into detrital
and nondetrital rocks.

Pante, Joezel C.
BSCE 5th yr.
E3C GEOLOGY

MINERAL RESOURCES
Minerals provide the material used to make most of the
things of industrial- based society; roads, cars, computers,
fertilizers, etc. Demand for minerals is increasing world wide as
the population increases and the consumption demands of
individual people increase. The mining of earths natural
resources is, therefore accelerating, and it has accompanying
environmental consequences.

A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in

the earths crust. All of the Earths crust, except the rather small
proportion of the crust that contains organic material, is made up
of minerals. Some minerals consist of a single element such as
gold, silver, diamond (carbon), and sulphur.

More than two-thousand minerals have been identified and most

of these contain inorganic compounds formed by various
combinations of the eight elements (O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and
Mg) that make up 98.5% of the Earths crust. Industry depends on
about 80 of the known minerals.
A mineral deposit is a concentration of naturally occurring solid,
liquid, or gaseous material, in or on the Earths crust in such form
and amount that its extraction and its conversion into useful
materials or items are profitable now or may be so in the future.
Mineral resources are non-renewable and include metals (e.g.
iron, copper, and aluminum), and non-metals (e.g. salt, gypsum,
clay, sand, phosphates).
Minerals are valuable natural resources being finite and nonrenewable. They constitute the vital raw materials for many basic
industries and are a major resource for development.
Management of mineral resources has, therefore, to be closely
integrated with the overall strategy of development; and

exploitation of minerals is to be guided by long-term national

goals and perspectives.
Types of Mineral Resources:
Minerals in general have been categorized into three classes fuel,
metallic and non-metallic. Fuel minerals like coal, oil and natural
gas have been given prime importance as they account for nearly
87% of the value of mineral production whereas metallic and nonmetallic constitutes 6 to 7%.
(A) Fuel Minerals:
Coal, oil and natural gas are the basic fossil fuel. We have good
reserves for coal but are very poor in more essential fuel oils
and natural gas.

(i) Coal:
Proven coal reserves of the country as on January 1994
(estimated by GSI) is about 68 billion tonnes. We are mining about
250 tonnes annually and this rate is expected to go by 400 450
tonnes by 2010 A.D. If we could maintain our mining rate of 400
tonnes per year then the coal reserves might last for about 200
years taking proven reserves as 80 billion tonnes.
The calorific value of coal varies with percentage of
carbon present in it. Coal depending upon variation in
percentage carbon, can be divided into three categories

as follows (bituminous / anthracite type is the most

abundant form present in Indian coal):

Table 2.3: Categories of Coal

%
%

Volatile

Type

Carbon Matter

Moisture

Lignite

38

19

43

65

10

25

Bituminou
s

Anthracite 96

(ii) Crude Oil (Petroleum):

It is believed that petroleum has been formed over a period of
millions of years, through conversion of remains of micro
organisms living in sea, into hydrocarbon by heat, pressure and
catalytic action. The petroleum on fractional distillation and
further processing provides us numerous products and byproducts.

Some of the common products obtained on fractional distillation

are given in Table 2.4, along with the temperature (just below the
boiling point) at which they tend to liquefy after crude oil feed at
the base is heated to about 400C. One million tonne of crude oil
on fractional distillation provides about 0.8 million tonnes of
petroleum products.
The percentage composition varies with the quality of crude oil or
it could be varied up to a certain limit depending upon the
requirement or demand. On an average the percentage
composition of the common product with their number of carbon
atoms is given in table 2.4.
Table 2.4.: Average % Composition of Petroleum products
(with no. of C atoms) obtained through fractional
distillation.

No. of
carbon
S.

atoms with

Compositio Name of

average

No. n

products value

1.

25

Petrol

C6-C12 (C8)

2.

45-60

Diesel &

C6 C22 (C14)

Kerosene

3.

15-20

Naphtha

4.

8- 10

Fuel oil

C30 C80(C40)

5.

2-5

Asphalt

C50 -C100(C100)

We have very poor reserves for petroleum just limited to 700

million tonnes. About 40% of the total consumption of the overall
petroleum products of the country is used in road transport sector
(in case of diesel, consumption of road transport sector is to the
extent of 70% of the total diesel consumption of the country).
Rest 60% of the petroleum products are used in industries
including power generation, domestic and for miscellaneous
purposes. In view of rapid growth of these vital sectors, the
consumption of petroleum products has been increasing
consistently over a period of last few years and is bound to
increase at rapid pace in near future.
(iii) Natural Gas:
The proven reserve for natural gas on April 1993 works out to be
approx. 700 billion cubic meter (BCM). As regard to production vis
a vis utilization aspect in earlier years, more than half of gas
coming out of the wells remained unutilized. However, in recent

years, we have achieved a utilization rate of 80 90%. Keeping in

view the future demands and proven gas reserves, it is unlikely
that our gas reserves might last for more than 20 years.
(B) Metallic and Non-metallic Minerals:
India is poorly endowed with mineral wealth. Except for iron ore
and bauxite our share of world reserves of every other mineral is
one percent or less. However, there has been a phenomenal
growth in production since independence. As per estimates if the
present trend of production continues, we will exhaust our
reserves of all the important minerals and fuels, except coal, iron
ore, limestone and bauxite, in 25 to 30 years.
Use and Exploitation:
The use of minerals varies greatly between countries. The
greatest use of minerals occurs in developed countries. Like other
natural resources, mineral deposits are unevenly distributed
around on the earth. Some countries are rich in mineral deposits
and other countries have no deposits. The use of the mineral
depends on its properties. For example aluminum is light but
strong and durable so it is used for aircraft, shipping and car
industries.

Recovery of mineral resources has been with us for a long time.

Early Paleolithic man found flint for arrowheads and clay for
pottery before developing codes for warfare. And this was done
without geologists for exploration, mining engineers for recovery
or chemists for extraction techniques. Tin and copper mines were
necessary for a Bronze Age; gold, silver, and gemstones adorned
the wealthy of early civilizations; and iron mining introduced a
new age of man.
Human wealth basically comes from agriculture, manufacturing,
and mineral resources. Our complex modern society is built
around the exploitation and use of mineral resources. Since the
future of humanity depends on mineral resources, we must
understand that these resources have limits; our known supply of

minerals will be used up early in the third millennium of our

calendar.
Furthermore, modern agriculture and the ability to feed an
overpopulated world is dependent on mineral resources to
construct the machines that till the soil, enrich it with mineral
fertilizers, and to transport the products.
We are now reaching limits of reserves for many minerals. Human
population growth and increased modern industry are depleting
our available resources at increasing rates. The pressure of
human growth upon the planets resources is a very real problem.
The consumption of natural resources proceeded at a phenomenal
rate during the past hundred years and population and production
increases cannot continue without increasing pollution and
depletion of mineral resources.
The geometric rise of population as shown in Fig. 2.3 has been
joined by a period of rapid industrialization, which has placed
incredible pressure on the natural resources. Limits of growth in
the world are imposed not as much by pollution as by the
depletion of natural resources.

As the industrialized nations of the world continue the rapid

depletion of energy and mineral resources, and resource-rich lessdeveloped nations become increasingly aware of the value of
their raw materials, resource driven conflicts will increase.
In Fig. 2.4., we see that by about the middle of the next century
the critical factors come together to impose a drastic population
reduction by catastrophe. We can avert this only if we embark on
a planet-wide program of transition to a new physical, economic,
and social world that recognizes limits of growth of both
population and resource use.

In a world that has finite mineral resources, exponential growth

and expanding consumption is impossible. Fundamental
adjustments must be made to the present growth culture to a
steady-state system.
This will pose problems in that industrialized nations are already
feeling a loss in their standard of living and in non-industrialized
nations that feel they have a right to achieve higher standards of
living created by industrialization. The population growth
continues upward and the supply of resources continues to
diminish. With the increasing shortages of many minerals, we
have been driven to search for new sources.

Pante, Joezel C.
BSCE 5th yr.
E3C GEOLOGY

THE EARTH
(The preservation of planet earth)
Earth is our home planet. Scientists believe Earth and its
moon formed around the same time as the rest of the solar
system. They think that was about 4.5 billion years ago. Earth is
the fifth-largest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is about

8,000 miles. And Earth is the third-closest planet to the sun. Its
average distance from the sun is about 93 million miles. Only
Mercury and Venus are closer.
Earth has been called the "Goldilocks planet." In the story of
"Goldilocks and the Three Bears," a little girl named Goldilocks
liked everything just right. Her porridge couldn't be too hot or too
cold. And her bed couldn't be too hard or too soft. On Earth,
everything is just right for life to exist. It's warm, but not too
warm. And it has water, but not too much water.
Earth is the only planet known to have large amounts of liquid
water. Liquid water is essential for life. Earth is the only planet
where life is known to exist.
What Does Earth Look Like?
From space, Earth looks like a blue marble with white swirls and
areas of brown, yellow, green and white. The blue is water, which
covers about 71 percent of Earth's surface. The white swirls are
clouds. The areas of brown, yellow and green are land. And the
areas of white are ice and snow.
The equator is an imaginary circle that divides Earth into two
halves. The northern half is called the Northern Hemisphere. The
southern half is called the Southern Hemisphere. The
northernmost point on Earth is called the North Pole. The
southernmost point on Earth is called the South Pole.
How Does Earth Move?
Earth orbits the sun once every 365 days, or one year. The shape
of its orbit is not quite a perfect circle. It's more like an oval,
which causes Earth's distance from the sun to vary during the
year. Earth is nearest the sun, or at "perihelion," in January when
it's about 91 million miles away. Earth is farthest from the sun, or
at "aphelion," in July when it's about 95 million miles away.
At the equator, Earth spins at just over 1,000 miles per hour.
Earth makes a full spin around its axis once every 24 hours, or

one day. The axis is an imaginary line through the center of the
planet from the North Pole to the South Pole. Rather than straight
up and down, Earth's axis is tilted at an angle of 23.5 degrees.
Why Do We Have Day and Night?
At all times, half of Earth is lighted by the sun and half is in
darkness. Areas facing toward the sun experience daytime. Areas
facing away from the sun experience nighttime. As the planet
spins, most places on Earth cycle through day and night once
every 24 hours. The North Pole and South Pole have continuous
daylight or darkness depending on the time of year.
Why Does Earth Have Seasons?
Earth has seasons because its axis is tilted. Thus, the sun's rays
hit different parts of the planet more directly depending on the
time of year.
From June to August, the sun's rays hit the Northern Hemisphere
more directly than the Southern Hemisphere. The result is warm
(summer) weather in the Northern Hemisphere and cold (winter)
weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
From December to February, the sun's rays hit the Northern
Hemisphere less directly than the Southern Hemisphere. The
result is cold (winter) weather in the Northern Hemisphere and
warm (summer) weather in the Southern Hemisphere.
From September to November, the sun shines equally on both
hemispheres. The result is fall in the Northern Hemisphere and
spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
The sun also shines equally on both hemispheres from March to
May. The result is spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall in
the Southern Hemisphere.
What Are Earth's Different Parts?
Earth consists of land, air, water and life. The land contains

mountains, valleys and flat areas. The air is made up of different

gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen. The water includes oceans,
lakes, rivers, streams, rain, snow and ice. Life consists of people,
animals and plants. There are millions of species, or kinds of life,
on Earth. Their sizes range from very tiny to very large.
Below Earth's surface are layers of rock and metal. Temperatures
increase with depth, all the way to about 12,000 degrees
Fahrenheit at Earth's inner core.
Earth's parts once were seen as largely separate from each other.
But now they are viewed together as the "Earth system." Each
part connects to and affects each of the other parts. For example:

Clouds in the air drop rain and snow on land.

Water gives life to plants and animals.

Volcanoes on land send gas and dust into the air.

People breathe air and drink water.

Earth system science is the study of interactions between and
among Earth's different parts.
Why and How Does NASA Study Earth?
NASA studies Earth to learn about how the planet changes.
Earth's parts - land, air, water and life - are always changing.
Some of the changes are natural and some are caused by
humans. Scientists want to understand how Earth has changed in
the past and how it is changing now. This information helps them
predict how Earth might change in the future.
NASA studies Earth using satellites. Satellites look toward Earth
from space. They take pictures of, and collect information about,
all of Earth's parts. NASA satellites are especially good for
observing clouds, oceans, land and ice. They also measure gases
in the atmosphere, such as ozone and carbon dioxide. They

measure how much energy enters and leaves Earth's atmosphere.

And they monitor wildfires, volcanoes and their smoke.
Information gathered by NASA satellites helps scientists predict
weather and climate. It also helps public health officials track
disease and famine. It helps farmers decide when to plant crops
and what kinds to plant. And it helps emergency workers respond
to natural disasters.
The more people know about Earth and its current and predicted
changes, the better decisions they can make.

Preservation of Planet EARTH

The Preserve Planet Earth committee of the Rotary Club of
Portland promotes the protection of our planet and the use of
sustainable practices that improve our environment. The
committee accomplishes these goals through awareness of
issues, recognition of preservation achievements, and
participations in projects with local environmental groups.
Awareness
The Preserve Planet Earth committee sponsors field trips for
members to learn about sustainable environmental practices and
activities to protect the environment. In the past, the committee
has sponsored the Red, White, and Green tour to green wineries
to learn about sustainable practices in wine making; a field trip to
Mount St. Helens; and an excursion to learn about the geology of
the Columbia Gorge and the Columbia Land Trust's focus on land
preservation.
Recognition
Annually, the Preserve Planet Earth committee takes nominations
from Rotary members and presents the Rotary Club of Portland
Environmental Achievement Award. Begun in 1997, the award is

presented to a business, organization, community, neighborhood,

or individual that has made an outstanding contribution to
preserving planet Earth. Projects promoting recycling,
improvement of air or water quality, conservation, or otherwise
protecting the environment and promoting awareness of
environmental needs are eligible for consideration. The
Environmental Achievement Award serves to keep the club
abreast of environmental issues, as well as to champion
purveyors of sustainable environmental practices.
Participation
The Preserve Planet Earth committee partners with local
environmental organizations to identify projects where Rotary
members can work to improve the environment. The Club
recycles electronic waste through Goodwill Industries of the
Columbia Willamette and actively solicits bicycle donations for the
Community Cycling Center during Environmental Awareness
Month. Recently, over twenty Rotary members worked with
Oregon Trout to plant more than 3,000 trees on the Deschutes
River, as part of Oregon Trouts effort to promote river restoration.
By partnering with established community organizations, Rotary
works to get things done in the most efficient and effective
manner for its member volunteers.
Humanity has the opportunity this year to take a huge step in
transforming our current course for the better.
In the run-up to COP21, more conversations have shifted to the
nexus of food, water and energy, and about poverty, climate
change and risk. It's become a familiar story and the mid-century
projections are well documented. By 2050, the planet faces the
challenges of providing for more than 9 billion people, including:

A food supply that will need to double.

As much as a 40 percent deficit in clean water compared
with anticipated demand .

Expanded urban infrastructure to support three out of four

people living in cities.

Nearly 2 billion more people with electricity.

The need to maintain economic growth while reducing

carbon pollution.
All of this discussion boils down to one word: development. [What
11 Billion People Mean for the Planet ]
Sustainable development needs sustainable conservation
When businesses, governments and pundits talk about developing
"sustainably," we've tended to provide adequate detail and clarity
around the material things we need, and then caveat those needs
with the vague recognition that we must do it all "within the
boundaries of what nature can provide." It's almost as if the
"sustainable" in sustainable development has been an
afterthought.
But the new U.N. Sustainable Development goals represent
progress in recognizing that the success of the 21st-century
development story increasing economic growth and prosperity
while solving poverty, disease, hunger, climate change and
inequality depends in no small part on what people do with the
natural world.
Despite the ominous facts and figures, this is a story about
opportunity to be smarter about farming and ranching
practices ; where and how to set up mining, oil, gas and
renewable energy activities; and preserving the services of crucial
natural infrastructure as a central part of expanding urban
spaces.
And to understand the opportunity, we need to understand the
risks. Until now, there hasn't been a great picture of how
expected future development will affect nature's future.
A new study from The Nature Conservancy our Global
Development Risk Assessment now offers that glimpse. It's the
most complete look, to date, at the potential impact global growth

will have on forests, grasslands and other natural ecosystems that

people depend on worldwide.
Bottom line: a full 20 percent, or nearly 2 billion hectares, of the
world's remaining natural lands could be developed by just the
middle of this century. That's an area double the size of the United
States.
If nations do this poorly, this development could drastically
change the lives of long-standing human communities that have
lived in harmony with their lands for millennia. The planet will lose
clean water and critical climate regulation. And, we will lose iconic
plants, animals, savannas and forests. All priceless ingredients of
a sustainable future, and nearly irrecoverable once they're gone.
South America and Africa will be ground zero. According to our
study, the amount of natural land converted to working land in
South America could double, while in Africa it is set to triple.
These two continents stand to look wildly different than they do
today.
Even more staggering: Only 5 percent of natural lands considered
to be at the highest risk for development are under protection
today.

This key finding tells us two important things:

1.
2.

These critical places are completely vulnerable, and

Conservationists must think beyond traditional land
protection to find solutions that work with development we
must do more.