Writing a Philosophy Essay

Many students encounter the challenge of writing a philosophical essay for the first time
at IHPST. It can be daunting. This brief overview is intended principally, but not
exclusively, for those of you who have never written a philosophy essay before. It will
introduce you to what a philosophical essay is supposed to do, and how you can go about
writing one.
1. The Objective of a Philosophical Essay
Your objective in writing a philosophical essay is to assert a thesis and to give the reader
the best available reason for believing it. The basic tool of the philosophical essay is
argument. A philosophical essay is judged on the cogency of its argument. Everything in
a philosophical essay is there in the service of the argument, which, in turn, is there solely
to support the thesis. The fun in writing a philosophical essay, and the challenge, are
found not so much in creating an exciting structurephilosophical essays are not thrillers
nor in crafting aesthetically pleasing languagethey arent poemsbut in formulating
and defending the argument.
2. The Structure of a Philosophical Essay
The structure of the essay should serve the essays goals of presenting a thesis and
supporting it with a compelling argument. The structure should be evident to the reader. It
should guide the reader through your essay. If the structure of your paper is unclear, it
will detract from the impact of your argument. You want the readers efforts will be
expended in understanding and assessing your argument, and not in discerning your
papers structure.
There probably isnt a single template that applies equally well to all
philosophical essays. But the following, generalized schema might help guide you
through construction of a good philosophical essay.
I. Introduction:
I.i A little background:
Say what the issue is and motivate your choice of topic. Is this a contentious
issue? If so, what are the positions one might reasonably take (very briefly). (You
will have a chance to say more about this later).
I. i Anticipate your thesis. In this essay I intend to argue that ...
There may well be prominent philosophers who agree with your view. At this
point you should say who they are. There will also be philosophers who disagree
with your view. You should say who they are too.
Are you proposing a new argument for the thesis, or are you going to lend some
novel support to an old argument for the thesis.
Perhaps you are going to suggest a way to reconcile what are thought to be
opposing views? Or perhaps you intend to split the difference between two
opposing views? This is the place to say.

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Introductions are difficult to write (see below). They need to be short. The reader simply
needs to know what you are going to say, how you are going to support it, and why it is
important.
II. The Thesis and the Argument:
Think of this section as the engine of your essay. After this section the reader should
understand what your central claim is and what considerations you will bring to bear in
its support.
II.i State your thesis.
Make it as simple and precise as you can
II.ii Make your argument.
Your argument will have premises and a conclusion. These should be laid out as
clearly and succinctly as possible. The easier it is for the reader to follow the
structure of the argument, the easier it will be for her to engage with it.
II.iii Explain the Premises
Say what the premises mean. All new terms in the premises should be defined.
II.iv Disclose your Assumptions.
If you are making substantive assumptions, this is the time to put them on the
table.
The remainder of the essay is pretty much all written in the service of this section. It
should be clear to the reader how each subsequent part of the essay relates to this part.
The reader should be able to return to this part to remind herself what you are arguing for.
III. Justify the Argument
This section provides the reader with a reason for believing your argument. This is often
much harder to do than it seems. You may be convinced of your thesis, but the uninitiated
or resistant reader may need further persuasion. Try to hold your argument at arms
length. See it as a disinterested party would. You typically have good reasons for (at least
many of) the things you believe, reasons that should motivate others as well as they
motivate you. This is the place to marshal them.
III.i Outline the Relation Between Premises and Conclusion
Discuss how the premises support the conclusion. If the argument is a deductive
one, show that it is valid. If your argument is inductive, show its strength
III.ii Support the Premises
Of course you need to do more than just demonstrate the relation between the
premises and the conclusion. You must also give the reader a good reason to
believe the premises. The reader may have some difficulty interpreting them, so
say what they mean. If there are inferences that might be drawn from the premise
but shouldnt be, caution the reader against doing so here.

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This is an important section. It is this section that will give the reader confidence in your
thesis, or at least will mitigate any reluctance on their part to accept it.
IV. The Context
Ideally, your thesis and argument are situated in an ongoing debate. You will already have
adverted to this context in your introduction. This is your opportunity to discuss the
context in more details, and to weigh the strength of opposing views and arguments
against your own.
IV.i Opposing Views
What are the opposing views in the field? What are the arguments for them?
Where do they go wrong?
You should treat opposing views and arguments with the same respect, and weigh them
against the same standards, as your own. Nothing is gained by being evasive, dismissive
or otherwise unfair. If you do not give the oppositions views their due, you will simply
invite the reader to do so. You may not be able to do justice to all the opinions in the
field. Pick a prominent one. Say why you are concentrating upon it, and advert, briefly, to
the others.
IV.ii Other Considerations
Are there any other pieces of evidence that you can adduce for your thesis? You
might want to introduce them here.
At this point you will have established your thesis as the best amongst the alternatives, or
at least as good as them.
V. Objections and Replies
This is your opportunity to anticipate and deflect any objections there might be to your
thesis.
How might someone respond to your argument? How might a proponent of the
other (or another) position respond to your central claims? When resisting these
objections, say as clearly as possible why they are wrong. Do they misapply a
principle of reason that you have used? Do they misconstrue a premise? Do they
conflate one concept with another?
Be sure to subject your thesis to as rigorous a test as you can. The better the objections
you anticipate, and the more compelling your response, the stronger will be the
impression that your thesis leaves on the reader.
VI. Implications
At this point the hard work is done. You may feel like taking a little time to reap the
rewards. This is your opportunity to discuss, briefly, some of the implications of your
view.
VI.i Significance and Scope.

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Why is your thesis important? Does it require your opponents to make significant
changes to their point of view? How does it augment what we already know about
the thesis you are supporting? Does it link your view on this matter to other
important debates in philosophy?
VI.ii Novel Consequences
Are there any surprising consequences, or tantalizing suggestions about how to
extend your position.
This section is not obligatory.
VII Conclusion
Short and to the point. Nothing new or surprising should crop up here. If there is one
thing that you wish the reader to take from your paper this is your chance to make sure
that they do.
3. What your Essay Should Include
Use the simplest language possible. Rely on non-technical terms as much as possible,
without compromising precision. Short sentences are easier to follow than long ones.
Use lots of signposting. If a thesis follows from a particular passage, signify this
(it follows that ). If you are attributing a view to someone else, make it clear that you
are not speaking in your own voice (Smith has argued that ). Keep the reader
apprised of where you are in the overall structure of the essay (Having argued in the
previous section that that p, I now wish to show that this is incompatible with q).
If you are introducing a new or unfamiliar idea, try to illuminate it with an
example. Examples are really helpful in a philosophical essay. They give the reader the
chance to apply the concepts that you are introducing. They may give you a chance to
show how your argument works applied to a less contentious issue.
Apart from the thesis and the argument, of course, you will need to cite the
sources that have helped you. Be generous and fair in your use of citations. If someone
has beaten you to the best argument, so be it; acknowledge that.
4. What your Essay Should Exclude
Too much background and too much ancillary verbiage can obscure an otherwise good
argument. Supply only the background that the reader needs in order to follow your
argument and to see where it fits in the philosophical debate.
Cite only the sources that you actually use in your essay. You will probably read
many more articles and explore many more sources than you need for writing your essay.
You do not need to demonstrate a grasp of the entire history of your subject.
Try to minimise the use of long quotations. (Short ones are fine) Quote only what
is required to make your point. There is a temptation to rely on numerous and long
quotations when you feel insecure about your grasp of the material. The over reliance on
the words of others will simply betray this insecurity.

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5. How to Proceed
The hallmark of a philosophical paper may be simplicity and clarity, but these simple
virtues are hard won.
5.1 Preparation
Start early. Give yourself time to ruminate. You will probably find that while doing the
background reading you will become confused, first about what the issue is and then
about what position you should take. Thats natural. If the debate is well conducted in the
philosophical literature you will be drawn first one way and then the other by the various
arguments. It may take a long time, and much re-reading, for you to formulate your own
view on the matter. If you are convinced by an argument that you later come to doubt, try
to remember why you found it so compelling. This will help you to persuade others who
may have been taken in in the same way.
When approaching a debate in the philosophical literature, try to get to the heart
of the disagreement. Attend to the quality of the various arguments on offer. Ask yourself
whether an authors argument really does support her position. Ask yourself whether the
proponents of the various views are really addressing the same issue. Are they talking
past one another?
Discuss your subject matter informally with friends and colleagues.
Once you have even a vague idea of what position you would like to present, start
to write.
5.2 Writing
Write and write again. In philosophy, and probably many other disciplines too, writing is
not merely the process of summing up the research once it has been conducted. Writing is
part of the research process itself. The best way to formulate your argument is to write it
downover and over again. You will probably be surprised how much a philosophical
essay changes between drafts. This is natural; let the changes happen.
5.3 Introduction
The introduction may be the most difficult part of your essay to write. It must be short
and informative and devoid of any extraneous stuff. Write it last.
5.3 Editing
Your paper should go through a number of revisions. Be prepared to edit rigorously and
unsentimentally. What you write in your early drafts has genuine didactic valuefor you.
It teaches you about your thesis and about your argument. It may be of less value to your
reader. If so, be prepared to let it go; it has already done its work.
5.4 Final Draft
By the time you come to write your final draft you should have a very clear concept of
your essays structure. Write an outline with headings and sub-headings and stick to it. If
you find that a certain passage doesnt fit into your outline, it probably doesnt belong in
your essay.

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5.5 Proof Reading

This is extremely important, but also remarkably difficult. You will find that by the time
you have finished the final draft of your essay you practically have it memorized. So, it is
very difficult to approach it anew, in the way that the reader will. Read your paper slowly
and carefully, out loud if possible. It is really helpful if you can have a colleague proof
read your work.
Finally, remember that philosophy is really difficult. Try not to be too intimidated by that.
I take some solace in the thought that those who find it easy probably arent doing it
right. Also, bear in mind that you have the advantage of being a member of a community
that has in it some exceptionally good philosophers, both students and faculty. Feel free
to make the most of this valuable resource.
Sources:
There are numerous sources for guidance on writing an essay.
Here is an example of a paradigm of philosophical essay writing:
Gettier, E. (1963) Is justified true Belief Knowledge? Analysis 23: 121-123
It is probably a little too short to act as a model for your own term paper, but it has many
of the elements discussed above.
The classic style guide for academic writing is:
Strunk, W. and E.B. White (2009) Elements of Style. Wilder Publications.
I have found the following sources very helpful in compiling this guide
Martinich, A. (2005) Philosophical Writing: An Introduction. 2nd edition. Malden Ma:
Blackwell Publishing.
The following, quite beautiful, guide is available from the Harvard Writing Center:
http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic564564.files/Philosophical_Writing.pdf
Peter Horben has produced the following short and very good guide:
http://www.sfu.ca/philosophy/writing.htm
James Pryors guide for undergraduates has much of value:
http://www.jimpryor.net/teaching/guidelines/writing.html