30/07/2015

Applied
Geotechnics
Soil Mechanics Revision
A/Prof Hadi Khabbaz
Email: hadi.khabbaz@uts.edu.au
Room CB11.11.224

What is soil?
A naturally occurring mixture of minerals,
organic matters, micro-organisms, water
and air that forms the surface of the land.

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SOIL TYPES
Soils are formed from the physical and chemical
weathering of rocks and organic matters
What are the common descriptive terms to
identify specific textures in soils?
What is the maximum size of soil?

SOIL?
Soil is made up of three main components:
1. Minerals that come from rocks below or nearby,
2. Organic matters which are the remains of plants
and animals
3. The living organisms that reside in soil.
Water & Air
Soil can form from the rocks below, or from
rocks a very long distance away; perhaps being
carried by wind or water.

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Soil Behaviour
Origin

of soils and rocks (Eng. Geology)

Phase

relationships and compaction

Stresses

in soil, effective stress concept

Consolidation

settlement and rate of

consolidation
Shear

strength of soils

ORIGIN OF
SOILS AND ROCKS
Minerals and Rocks

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Minerals and Their Properties

Colour

on fresh unweathered surface

Streak

colour of fine powder of the mineral

Hardness Mohs Scale (e.g. Quartz = 7)

Cleavage very close parallel plane of weakness (splitting)

Density

higher for mafic group

Lustre

light reflection e.g. Vitreous, metallic, pearly, dull

Habit

external form (prismatic, tabular)

Texture

manner in which minerals arranged next to

each other

Minerals and Their Properties

Hardness
Graphite
Fluorite
Quartz

=1
=4
=7

Gypsum = 2
Apatite
=5
Topaz
=8
??? = 10

Calcite
=3
Feldspar = 6
Corundum = 9

On the Mohs scale,

a pencil lead has a hardness of 1;
a fingernail, 2.2-2.5;
a copper penny, 3.2-3.5;
a pocket-knife 5.1;
a knife blade, 5.5;
a glass, 5.5-6.5; and
a steel file, 6.5.

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QUIZ

Write YES in cells of the following table if the mineral

can be scratched by the object. Otherwise write NO.

Object
Finger
Nail
Knife
Blade
Steel
File

Quartz

Mineral
Calcite Diamond

Gypsum

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Write YES in cells of the following table if the mineral

can be scratched by the object. Otherwise write NO.

Object
Finger
Nail
Knife
Blade

Quartz
no

Steel
File

Mineral
Calcite Diamond
no
no

Gypsum
yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

yes

no

yes

Rocks
Igneous:

??? (molten rock) rises to/near surface

crystallises to rock
Sedimentary:

Accumulation & hardening of soil, organics

(shells, plants), dissolved minerals precipitated
Metamorphic:

Pre-existing rocks altered by pressure and

temperature

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Weathering

QUIZ

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Weathering
Soils transported and deposited by
---- are called Alluvial or fluvial soils.
---- are called Glacial soils.
---- are called Aeolian soils.
---- are called Colluvial soils.
---- are called Fill.
---- are called Marine soils.

Weathering
Soils transported and deposited by
water are called Alluvial or fluvial soils.
ice are called Glacial soils.
wind are called Aeolian soils.
gravity are called Colluvial soils.
human are called Fill.
sea are called Marine soils.

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Phase
Relationships

Basic Phases in Soil

SOIL GRAINS

AIR

WATER

OIL,
CONTAMINANT,

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Phases

Soil consists of solid particles and voids

Voids

may be filled with water and/or air

Voids affect the engineering properties of soils
3 phases of soil
Air
Water

Soil grain

Geotechnical Engineering

Soil Behaviour Review

REVIEW:
Common
Volumetric
and
Gravimetric
Ratios
weight

volume
Va

Air

VW

Water

WW

VS

Soil Particles

WS

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RECAP
Solid

Water

Air

e n w Sr Gs

21

Remember these values:

w = 1 t / m3
g = 9.8 N/kg
Gs 2.65

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QUIZ

QUIZ

Mass (g)
Air
Water
Solids
Total

Vol. (cm3)
40

60
200

Use the above table provided for a soil sample to find the dry unit weigh of the
soil: (Assume the specific gravity of soil is 2.65)
a. 17.35 kN/m3 b. 19.3 kN/m3 c. 18.3 kN/m3 d. 26 kN/m3 e. 15.7 kN/m3

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QUIZ

Air
Water
Solids
Total

Mass (g)
0
60
530
590

Vol. (cm3)
40
60
200
300

Use the above table provided for a soil sample to find the dry unit weigh of the
soil: (Assume the specific gravity of soil is 2.65)
a. 17.35 kN/m3 b. 19.3 kN/m3 c. 18.3 kN/m3 d. 26 kN/m3 e. 15.7 kN/m3

SOIL
CLASSIFICATION

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Major Soil Types

Based on grain size:

Coarse grained (granular) soils:

Fine grained soils:

Visible to naked eyes: sands, gravels.

Silts, clays, and organic soils.

Based on major properties:

Cohesive soils

Clays

Highly plastic, poor drainage, compressible, soft.

Cohesionless soils

Sands, Gravels, Silts

Non-plastic, good drainage,

less compressible.

Major Soil Types

What is the minimum size of gravel and sand according to the
Australian Standards:
a. 60 m , 2 m

b. 2 mm , 60 m

c. 60 mm , 2 mm

d. 60 mm , 60 m

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Grain Size Distribution

100
90
W

80

Finer %

70

C
Hydrometer Sieve U

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0001

0.001
Clay

0.01
Silt

0.1

1
Sand

10

100

Gravel

Cobbles

Particle size (mm)

Plasticity Chart

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Soil Symbols
Soil Group

Descriptor

Gravel (G)
Sand (S)

Well-graded (W)
Poorly-graded (P)
Silty (M)
Clayey (C)

Silt (M)
Clay (C)
Organic (O)

Low plasticity (L)

High plasticity (H)
Medium plasticity (I)

Peat = Pt (more than 50% organic soils by weight)

Soil Symbol
Coarse Grained (AS1726)
Less than 5 fines,
GW

SW

GP

SP

GC

SC

GM

SM

More than 12 fines, but less than 50%

G: Gravel,

S: Sand, M: silt,

C: Clay,

W: Well-graded,

P: Poorly graded

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Soil Symbol
Coarse Grained (AS1726)
?% < fines < ?%
GW-GC

SW-SC

GW-GM

SW-SM

GP-GC

SP-SC

GP-GM

SP-SM

Poorly Graded: Uniform or Gap Graded

G: Gravel,

S: Sand, M: Silt,

C: Clay,

W: Well-graded,

P: Poorly graded

Soil Symbol
Fine Grained (AS1726)

More than 50% of soil passes 60m sieve.

Above A-Line

Below A-Line

CL

ML

CH

MH
OL
OH

M: Silt,

C: Clay,

O: Organic,

H: High plasticity,

L: Low Plasticity

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Shape of Grading Curve

Coefficient of uniformity
Coefficient of curvature

Cu > 6 & 1 < Cc < 3

Well graded (sand)

Cu > 4 & 1 < Cc < 3

Well graded (gravel)

Example
Soil #1:

70% retained on 2.36 mm sieve;

4% passed 0.075 mm sieve;
Cu = 12, Cc = 1.2
Fines had low dry strength

Solution:

Gravel: 70%
Sand: 26%
Fines: 4%

Well-graded sandy gravel with a trace of silt

AS1726 Symbol: GW

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Effective
Stresses
in Soil

Stresses in Dry Soil

q

=0

W = d z A
W

W = v A

v = d z +q
h
v

h = Ko v
Ko = Coefficient of lateral earth pressure
at rest

Ko = 1 sin

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Stresses in Saturated Soil

Effective stress concept:

v = v - u
Effective
stress

Total
stress

Pore water
pressure =w zw

h = Ko v
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest

h = h + u

Example
The conditions in the bed of a river consist of
1m of water over silty sand:
0 - 1m Water
1 - 10m Sand t = 20 kN/m3 = 37
Determine the total horizontal stress (h) at a
point in the soil 5 m below the surface of the
water in the river, which is 4 m below the top
of the soil layer.

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Solution of the Example

1m
4m
Silty sand

t = 20 kN/m3

Consolidation
and
Settlement

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Uniform
Loading

Surface
Loading

Concentrated
Loading

Stress Change

Settlement

Components of Settlement
S = Si + Sc + Ss

S = Total settlement
Si = Immediate settlement: (will not be covered here)

Sc = Primary consolidation settlement:

Important in granular soils;

Mostly recoverable;
Can be calculated based on theory of elasticity;
Important in fine grained soils with low permeability;
Time dependent; partially recoverable;

Ss = Secondary settlement:

Plastic rearrangement of soil particles occurs over a long

time under constant effective stress.

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RECAP (1)
Settlement

Compression Index

or

Recompression index
Rebound Index, or
Swell Index

RECAP (2)
Pre-consolidation Pressure

Normally consolidated soil (Cc)

Cr
e
pc

Over consolidated soil (Cr)

Cc

( log scale )

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RECAP (3)
Settlement

Settlement

RECAP (4)
Settlement

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Rate of
Settlement

Equation of Consolidation
Terzaghi (1923) developed a theory for consolidation:

cv = the coefficient of consolidation

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Solution of the Equation

m is a dummy integer number taking on values 1, 2, 3,

DP is the maximum drainage path of consolidating layer.
Tv is a non-dimensional time factor:

Average Degree of
Consolidation

Another method of settlement calculation is to use

the average degree of consolidation for the layer:

St = U S f

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U(%) vs. Tv

U (%)

Tv

10

0.0077

20

0.0314

30

0.0707

40

0.126

50

0.196

60

0.286

70

0.403

80

0.567

90

0.848

95

1.13

99

1.78

00

20

U (%)

40

60

80

99.9

2.71

100

infinity

0.196

100
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Dimensionless time, Tv

0.8

1.0

Approximate equations for

degree of consolidation

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Example on Consolidation
Given: as shown in the figure
Find: t 50 and t 100

2m Sand

cv = 810-7 m2/s

impermeable

4m
Clay
Sandstone

How many days would it take for 50% and 100% of the
total final settlement to occur?

Solution
2m Sand
cv =810-7 m2/s
4m
Clay
Sandstone
For 99.95 % consolidation
impermeable

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Shear Strength
of Soil

Mohr-Coulomb Criterion

Shear strength of soil has 2 components:

Friction
Cohesion

f = c + n tan
f = shear strength of soil
n = normal stress on failure plane
c = soil cohesion (unit of stress), a soil property

= friction angle of soil grains, a soil property

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Ultimate Stress
n3
n2
n1

Dense Sand

Shear (Horizontal) Displacement

Select Peak Stress values for determining the value of

and use Ultimate Stress values to find cv

Direct Shear Test

140

Shear stress (kPa)

120
100

Peak

80
60

Ultimate
40

cv

20
0

50

100

150

200

Normal stress (kPa)

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Direct Shear Test

Typical values of :
cv

(med. dense)

(Dense)

Uniform fine sand

26-30

30-34

32-36

Well graded sand

30-34

34-40

38-46

Non-plastic silt

26-30

28-32

30-34

Gravel

30-35

35-45

40-50

cv = constant volume friction angle

Recap: Cohesionless Soils

Equation of failure envelope
(Mohr-Coulomb Law)
Shear Strength Parameters:
c = cohesion, = friction angle
For Cohesionless Soils

Relationships between 1 and 3 at failure:

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Cohesive Soils

Strength is related to consolidation

process and loading speed.

The undrained and drained strengths are

the two extremes of soil shear strength.
Slow Shearing

Quick Shearing

Drained

Undrained

Drained Shear Strength

Used to assess soil strength a long time after loading
or where the failure is deemed to occur slowly.

Strength criterion

f = c + n tan

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Undrained Shear Strength

Used to assess soil strength immediately after
loading or where the failure is deemed to occur
quickly.

Strength criterion

f = cu + n tan u

cu

Recap: Cohesive Soils

Equation of failure envelope
(Drained Condition)
Equation of failure envelope
(Undrained Condition)
Relationships between 1 and 3 at
failure for undrained behaviour:

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Triaxial Test
Deviator load

Impervious
rubber
membrane

Soil

porous
stones

water

O-ring
Cell pressure

Drainage valve

Types of Triaxial Tests

Triaxial tests are designated by two letters
describing the drainage conditions of the 2
phases of loading.

The most commonly tests are:

UU

(Unconsolidated Undrained)

CU

(Consolidated undrained)

CD

(Consolidated Drained)

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UU Triaxial Test

Unconsolidated Undrained tests:

Cell pressure is applied while drainage valve is closed

Deviator load is applied while drainage valve is closed

Excess pore pressure exists, usually not measured.

Undrained friction angle for saturated clay, u, is zero.
cu is measured from total stress Mohr-circles:
(kPa)
cu

Range of cu:

(kPa)

0 for very soft clays to 200 kPa for very stiff clays.

CD Triaxial Test

Consolidated Drained tests:

Cell pressure is applied while drainage valve is open.

Deviator load is applied slowly while drainage valve is open

Excess pore pressure is zero.

c and are measured from effective stress Mohrcircles:

(kPa)

(kPa)

c = 0 for N.C. clays and about 0 - 20 kPa for O.C. clays.

is about 20o for high PI clay and 30o for low PI clay.

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CU Triaxial Test

Consolidated Undrained tests:

Cell pressure is applied while drainage valve is open.

Deviator load is applied while drainage valve is closed.

Excess pore pressure is developed during loading.

c and can be measured from effective stress
Mohr-circles (as the previous slide).
cu can be measured from total stress Mohr-circles:
(kPa)
cu3
cu2
cu1

(kPa)

Unconfined Compressive Strength

Unconfined Compressive Strength test:

A quick method of assessing undrained strength.

Soil is loaded quickly while cell pressure is zero.
The deviator stress at failure is defined as UCS of the soil:

(kPa)
UCS/2

3 = 0
Cu = R = (1- 3)/2
Cu = 1/2

3 = 0

1 = UCS

(kPa)

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Example
A vertical cut 5m deep has been made in a saturated clay. The
tide rises and falls on the cut face as shown and it may be
assumed that the water table in the clay
follows the tide. The following
P
4m
1m
clay properties are known:
t = 20 kN/m3
cu = 100 kPa
u = 0

Find the line load P that

causes rotational
undrained failure by the
circle centered on the top
of the slope.

4R/(3
5m
1 to 4m

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P = 780 kN/m

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