TIME LINE

The Rise and fall of the Indus valley Civilization

"one of the most enigmatic whodunits of antiquity concerns

the decline and fall of the Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization"

-Famous Archeologist and acamedician George Franklin Dales

Since the time the first of these sites were excavated 100 years back, the whole idea around the
beginnings, the existence and the demise of this civilization has been shrouded in mystery. This
discourse would attempt to dig into the confusion that exists in the answers, because even the
experts have failed to conclude and so to conclude is not in my capacity.

It is important to understand the background in which these conclusions were made. If nothing,
it will at least help us vaguely understand the experts and their dilemmas.
1842 AD, Charles Masson mentions the existence of a city 13 cosses long (app. 25
miles) as told by the locals in his book: Narratives of various journeys in Balochistan,
Afghanistan and the Punjab.

1856 AD, John and William Brunton are looking to procure ballast for the East India
Railway Company Line between Lahore and Karachi. They bless the gods for finding one whole
abandoned city close to Brahminabad completely constructed of burnt bricks, an inexhaustible
source of "ballast".

Few months later, they find another such site close to Harappa. These two sites provided ballast
for 150 km of the railway line between Karachi and Lahore. But Bruntons were not archeologists
and thus they are forgiven. And besides, nobody can really say for sure though, but it is legible to
suggest that the bricks, were already in use by locals around the sites, for they were in such good
condition.
1972-75 AD, General Alexander Cunningham publishes the first Harappan Seal.
1912 AD, More seals found by J. Fleet.

1921 AD , John Marshall discovers/ recognizes the civilization at Harappa.

1931 - Present day , Excavations catch pace and several sites and patterns are
discovered which covers a region between Baluchistan and Uttar Pradesh, from the lower tip of
Afghanistan to Surat in Gujarat.
Unfortunately, all the sites lie in an area that which has remained under political, regional and
religious strife since independence.

8000 BC

A group of hunter gatherers reach the valleys of Saraswati, where they are welcomed by Green
alluvial soil and plenty of game. They decide to go no further. And in that decision, they sow the
seeds of a Great civilization.
It is fairly logical to suggest a time for the beginning, as certain elements found in sites have
dated back to 7500 BC ( Kalibangan, 220 km from Delhi among others) but suggestions of the
location are only intuitive, for nobody knows for sure, if they were travelers in the first place.

There are several theories, some of which suggest that they were Elamites. So they belonged to a
region as far as Elam/Persia /Medes in ancient Iran.
There are facts that support this. One of which is the similarity between the language of Elam
and the Proto-Dravidian Languages. Other similarities lie in their Apparels and Clothing.
There is not much to speak (or rather speculate) between 8000 BC and 4300 BC where the
Chalcolithic age starts in India.

5500-3300 BC

There was a flurry of growth of settlements, throughout the Sarawati Plains, The Gangetic
Plains and the Narmada valley. They include the:
Ahar Banas culture in Rajasthan.
Kayatha culture in Chambal

Malwa culture around Narmada

Svalda Culture near Dhulia, Maharashtra

Prabhas and Rangpur Culture. Rangpur is 50 km from Ahmedabad

Though, there are similarities amongst these settlements, contrary to popular understanding,
only Prabhas and Rangpur show any true resemblance to the Harappan cultures. Though, the
other cultures were nowhere far behind in their complexity and maturity compared to Prabhas
and Rangpur if not ahead of them. Also, at 4300 BC, we are looking at an era that is PreHarappan. What it suggests is that, as per archeological evidence, only the cultures of Prabhas
and Rangpur and their Likes (one is Kalibangan), saw a continuous growth of more than 2500
years, whereas the others were left behind and faced demise.
Conquest alert? No, not really, archeological evidence suggests that the Harappans were peace
loving people and possibly never controlled an army.
The use of copper tools, albeit rare, is evident as is characteristic of the Chalcolithic era. In the
years to come, the use of copper and bronze would increase.

The next Milestone in the Indus valley Civilization will be the Rise of the cities of Harappa and
Mohen-Jo-Daro.

3500-2700 BC ,

This Era is usually divided in most papers in two parts: The Ravi aspect of the Hakra phase
(3300-2800) and the Early Harappan/Kot Diji Phase.

This Era was characterized by growth throughout the realm in Technology and Art. The
characteristic grey pottery found its true character in this era, though found in abundance later
on.

Mohen-jo-Daro also has it's beginnings in this Era. This city like many cities that developed
together(Kot Diji, Mehrgarh) show an inclination to orthogonal planning. It is often suggested
that the idea of orthogonal planning was an intuitive take on the method of planning. As for the
societal structure, there is often a significant variation between cities. Some historians have even
said that there really was no similarity.
However, weights and measures, brick sizes and units of lengths were extraordinarily
systemized. The brick sizes are found to be uniform throughout the culture.

The structure of the society is not completely understood as any attempt to decipher the
harappan script has all but failed . ("in studying the earliest urban settlement of South Asia, we
do not have written documents that describe the structural and social organization of a city.
Consequently, our understanding of the urban process is sketchy" (Kenoyer 1991: 29)).
Yet excavated evidences often tell stories that shed light on the culture. One such instance is the
use of seals as told by Walter Ashlin Fairservis in his book, The Harappan civilization and it's
writing(page 5 " The seal Tablets). As per his theory, he suggests that seals are a very common
find in the excavations of the Harappan and are wrongly termed as seals. There is never much
wear visible on the seals as one would expect. Mr. Walter suggests that the "seals" were rather
used as badges that one had to wear in the cities or villages. It might also be the beginnings of
the tradition of marriage tali followed in certain parts of Rajasthan today.
This Era also sees the beginnings of the city of Lothal. Excavations of the port city of Lothal
suggest that the city was not initially inhabited by Harappans. The city had existed long before
yet urbanization took place much later.

2600-1900 BC,

The Mature Period. This era is also called the integration Era. Smaller cultures came together
and followed the way of urbanization. There definitely spurred extraordinary growth in the
cities, yet it can be speculated, that it also increased the upkeep of the cities and its facilities and
eventually resulted in its demise. (As is the case with Lothal)
The Character of the Mature Harappan period is defined by the following: (courtesy: Demise of
utopia, Chris J.D. Kotsman)

Essentially polar-aligned pre-planned urban settlements, usually divided into a lower

town and an incorrectly labeled "citadel."
Frequent architectural use of mudbrick platforms.

Almost fanatical, attention to water control, including a plethora of hydraulic features

such as drains, wells, sump pits, baths, and bathrooms.
Consistent binary system of weights and measures and its application in architectural
features such as brick size.
Pottery unique in terms of manufacturing technique, decoration, shape, and style.
Distinctive animal and human figurine assemblage.
Unique and still undeciphered script.

Essentially a complete lack of any military-related materials, both in terms of weapons

and, probably, fortifications.

Several volumes can be written as a discourse on the mysteries, discoveries and glory of this Era.
The problem with this era is that almost all cities were at there peek ( The Harappan III and
Kalibangan II being the most mentioned in the books). It is just noteworthy that around this era
(rather in the early parts) the Harappans had trade relations with Mesopotamia and Egypt. In
the Mesopotamian scriptures, there exist a mention of a civilization called Meluha whose
location was close to the geographic whereabouts of the Harappan Civilization (Lothal to be
closer) . Possibly the Harappans called themselves Meluhans, just speculations though.

2000-1900 BC , DEMISE

This brings the chapter to an end. Era is also called the Localization Era. This Era saw the Fall of
the entire Harappan civilization in a short span of time. There are several suggestions and
theories ranging from self inflicted catastrophes to "acts of god".
Here is the list (courtesy: Demise of utopia, Chris J.D. Kotsman)

"The famous" Invading hordes of Aryans / Indo-Europeans (Dales 1964, Fairservis 1971,
Srivastava 1984).
Seasonal flooding of Mohenjo Daro and other sites in Sind (Dales 1966, Raikes 1965,
Dales and Raikes 1977).
Tectonic uplift along the Makran coast which landlocked many coastal settlements
(Dales 1966).

The "death from natural causes" of Kalibangan and other sites in the Yamuna river
channel due to shifts in the river course (Raikes 1968).

The desertification of Cholistan / Bahawalpur due to shifts in the Hakra River course
(Mughal 1982, 1984).
Climatic changes (Misra 1984).

Ecological degradation, i.e., "wearing out the landscape" (Gupta 1980).

The sharp decrease in trade with Mesopotamia at the end of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur
(Ghosh 1980).

Cultural process, i.e., societal evolution/devolution (Gupta 1980, Fairservis 1971 and
1979, Schaffer 1982).

It is often said that the reason for demise was a combination of several of these factors.

The Aryan Theory : The theory has been taken for ages as a reasonable explanation for the fall of
the Aryans.

"The story has been repeated for millennia, sung in temples, chanted in halls, told by word and
actions of how a warrior people came out of the vastness of inner Asia through the passes of
the northwest to fall upon the fortified cities of India and to conquer: riding horse-drawn
chariots, driving herds of cattle, sheep, and goats, worshipping cosmic deities like Indra of the
thunder and Agni of the fire, sacrificing, quarreling, gambling, drinking, singing, dancing--the
Rig-Veda account of the Aryan tribes is one of the oldest epics in the world (Fairservis 1971:
345)."
Thirty-seven skeletons found in a state of unplanned interment at Mohenjo Daro were put
forth as evidence of a massacre at the hands of the Aryans (Wheeler 1968)

Yet in most instances, there exists a flaw that spoils the authenticity of the claim. The first is that
the earliest possible dating of the Rig Veda (taken as the base for all Aryan invasion claims) goes
as far back as 1200 BC. Yet it is centuries younger than the period of the Harappan fall. Modern
historians often suggest that the Harappans never saw the Aryans in the first place.
The claim based 37 skeleton found in Mohen-jo-Daro (Wheeler ; see above) Also has a flaw that
there existed a huge layer of debris between the youngest layer of excavation and the skeletons,
suggesting that the skeletons did not belong to the Harappans, but were much younger. A
detailed biological analysis has also shown that the skeletons are different from true Harappans.
In most such instances, the Aryan theory fails and thus in my opinion the demise rests on other
explanations.

Wheeler in one of his discourses also explains that the huge fortifications in Mohen-jo-Daro are
proof of defenses against Aryan invaders. It would be valid to call them defenses albeit against
invaders of a different kind.
ACTS OF GOD

The Flood Theory:

In the 1960's , Robert Raikes and George Dales independently put forth a well substantiated
hypothesis suggesting that, due to geographical developments in the region, there was a
formation of lake 145 km downstream Indus from Mohen jo Daro (Raikes and Dales 1977:251)
which was possibly 85 km long and 5 m deep.
It was hypothesized, that there was an annual swelling of this lake which engulfed the nearby
Harappan sites, thus, justifying the act of creating fortifications and construction on mud
platforms as an attempt to stay high and dry.

Another fact that fuels this theory is the fact that, layers of silt (5 or more) have been found
between levels of mature Harappan excavations. Moreover, the silt deposited is a kind if silt laid
down by still water conditions and not flood water. (The Civilized Demons: The Harappans in
Rigveda; Malati J. Shendge 2003 : 251 "Dales quoted" !)
The Tectonic uplift of the Coastline:

Sutkagen Dor and Sutkah Koh are coastal sites which are now 50 km inland. Tectonic
movements were the cause of these geographical changes and it is hypothesized that the changes
were at its peak in the Harappan era which would have caused massive earthquakes. The fall of
these cities might have also affected other cities which were dependent sea and land trade.
(Dales 1966:95)
The Demise of Kalibangan.

Raikes suggests that the there was a constant alternating diversion of the Yamuna (Ghaggar)
river between feeding the Indus and the Ganga since 2500 B.C. (Raikes 1968: 286).
Interestingly, the periods of abandonment and resettlement coincides with this geographical

event. Here, though the reason for demise is not flooding but absence of water. Talking about
similar situation in Sindh region, Raikes notes "in Sind it would merely have been one more
nail in a coffin already well closed".
Desertification of Cholistan:

Rafique Mughal has mapped 414 sites along the 300 miles of the Hakra river bed. Evidence
suggests that the river was perennial during all of its history till the end of the second or the
beginning of the first millennium B.C. when changes in river courses caused Hakra to dry up
and the inhabitable desert conditions of Cholistan set in.
Unlike Ghaggar, Hakra changed its course once and of all.
ACTS OF MEN

Environmental Degradation:

It is difficult to prove effects of men on the degradation of landscape. More so, the degradation
of alluvial plains. Though it is speculated that the effects of the Harappans on the environment
could never have been to such an extent as to become one of the most important reasons for its
demise.
Decrease in Trade:

Sometime during the Third Dynasty of Ur, the trade between Mesopotamia and Meluha drops
off and the Mesopotamians heighten their trade with Egypt. This occurs at around 1900 BC and
could have been one of the major reasons for the dissolution and dispersal of the Harappan
cities.

post 1700 BC , LATE HARAPPANS

There was a sprouting of small cultures in and around the abandoned Harappan sites. Though
some scholars (Sankalia, Rao 1980: 358) claim similarities between the Cemetary H Late
Harappans and the Mature Harappans, there exists lots of evidence to suggest otherwise.

Firstly, The writing system was completely absent. In fact it is one of the most identifiable traits
of the Late Harappans. The pottery art changed, the burial systems were different (A variant of
the Cemetary H culture burnt the bodies of the dead) and most importantly, there are biological
dissimilarities. (Lukacs, Hemphill & Walimbe 1991)
During the transformation the major urban centres drastically reduces in size. Mohen jo Daro
reduced from 34 acres to a little more than 1 Acre. Other major urban centres also faced the
same fate. Altin Depe (114 to 3 acres), Namazga Depe (170 to 3.5 acres), and Shahr-i Sokhta (32
to 2 acres). (Gupta 1980: 51)
It is also speculated that the Harappans migrated to the Gangetic plains following the eastern
movement of the monsoon.

Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people
eastward. After 1900 BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853. Excavations
in the Gangetic plain show that urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few
centuries after the decline of Harappa and much earlier than previously
expected. Archaeologists have emphasized that, just as in most areas of the world, there was a
continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two major phases of
urbanization in South Asia".( Science 6 June 2008: Vol. 320 no. 5881 pp. 1281-1283 )

"What I Think":

There exists enough confusion in all the details that come up through the readings. For example
the above fact loses all validity if one argues where did the script and the standards go? This very
question is put forth by many scholars as well.
I choose to hypothesize individualistically and it is based on existing research done on
similarities in scripts between Elamite languages and Telugu and research that shows
similarities between Harappan and Telugu scripts. (Walter Ashlin Fairservis; The Harappan
Civilization and Its Writing: A Model for the Decipherment of the Indus Script; BRILL, 1992 )

I believe that the Harappans travelled south and many decided to settle on the way. They
crossed the Vindhya Range and the Deccan plateau and settled in the south. Some travelled even
further and crossed to Sri Lanka. The depiction of the beauty of Sri Lanka, its wealth and its
technology can be attributed to the advancements in their existing technologies.
Also contrary to the popular belief that the chariot and spoked wheel was introduced by the
Aryans, there exists evidence that the Harappans themselves had the technology allowing them
to travel far and wide (Michel Danino 2006). Besides they also had naval technologies. Another
fact that spurs speculations in this regard is the fact that Sri Lanka was called Eelam in
antiquity.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BIBLIO GRAPHY

1. Science 6 June 2008: Vol. 320 no. 5881 pp. 1281-1283

2. Walter Ashlin Fairservis; The Harappan Civilization and Its Writing: A Model for the
Decipherment of the Indus Script; BRILL, 1992
3. Michel Danino; Journal of Indian History and Culture of the C. P. Ramaswami Aiyar
Institute of Indological Research, Chennai, September 2006, No.13, pp. 33-59
4. The Civilized Demons: The Harappans in Rigveda; Malati J. Shendge 2003 : 251
5. Chris J.D. Kostman; Contexts of Civilizational Collapse in the Bronze Age Indus Valley;
JAGNES, the Journal of the Association of Graduates in Near Eastern Studies, FallWinter 1995-1996
6. Dales, George F. "The Mythical Massacre at Mohenjo Daro," Expedition, Pp. 36-43,
Spring, 1964.
7. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark. "Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A Preliminary Model
from Harappa," Harappan Excavations 1986-1990: A Multidisciplinary Approach to
Third Millennium Urbanism, Richard H. Meadow, (ed.), Pp. 29-60, Madiscon,
Wisconsin: Prehistory Press, 1991.
8. Mughal, M. Rafique. "Recent Archaeological Research in the Cholistan Desert,"
Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective, Gergory L. Possehl, (ed.), Pp. 8595, New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company, 1982.
9. Raikes, Robert L. "Kalibangan - Death from Natural Causes," Antiquity, Pp. 286-291,
XLII, 1968.
10. Srivastava, K.M. "The Myth of Aryan Invasion of Harappan Towns," Frontiers of the
Indus Civilization, B.B. Lal and S.P. Gupta, (eds.), Pp. 3-13, New Delhi: Indian
Archaeological Society, 1984.
11. The Indus Civilization, 3rd edition, Cambridge University Press, 1968
12. Sankalia, H.D. "The 'Cemetery H' Culture," Ancient Cities on the Indus, Gregory L.
Possehl, (ed.), Pp. 323-327, Durham, North Carolina: Caroline Academic Press, 1979.
13. Hemphill, Brian E., Lukacs, John R., and Kennedy, K.A.R. "Biological Adaptations and
Affinities of Bronze Age Harappans," Harappan Excavations 1986-1990: A
Multidisciplinary Approach to Third Millennium Urbanism, Richard H. Meadow, (ed.),
Pp. 137-182, Madiscon, Wisconsin: Prehistory Press, 1991.