Topic 6

Lesson 1
Forensic investigations and DNA analysis
The unique structure of DNA not only codes for all the
proteins in our body, but can also be used to identify
individuals and species.
The use of DNA profiling has become increasingly
important in forensic pathology , as the techniques of gel
electrophoresis and use of the polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) have been developed.
The main objective of this task is to develop new highthroughput methods of screening samples for microbial
diversity based on the chromatographic separation of
amplified fragments of environmental DNA based on size
and/or sequence. The instrument employed for these
analyses is a denaturing gradient high-performance liquid
chromatography (DHPLC) unit recently acquired by the
USGS, and located in the Menlo Park laboratory.
The use of a range of forensic techniques , including state
of decomposition and entomology (Entomology is the
study of insects and related arthropods) , helps to
determine the time of death with some accuracy.
On a warm sunny day, insects are often the first
individuals to arrive at the scene of a violent crime.
Within minutes of death, blow flies (family Calliphoridae)
are attracted to the fresh corpse and begin laying eggs in
open wounds and body cavities (e.g., eyes, nose, and
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mouth). The eggs hatch in 1-3 days and young larvae

(maggots) grow rapidly as they feed on the soft tissues of
the corpse. Since each Calliphorid species has a
characteristic temperature-dependent growth rate, the
larvae can be regarded as a biological stopwatch that
starts ticking shortly after the victim dies. Forensic
entomologists learn to read this stopwatch by
determining which insect species are present and how far
they have progressed toward adulthood. With good
records of ambient temperature, the post-mortem
interval (time elapsed since death) can be calculated to
within a few hours, even when death may have occurred
2-3 weeks previously.
In addition to post-mortem interval, fly larvae can
also reveal other important information about a
crime:
Wounds -- blow fly larvae cannot penetrate undamaged
skin. An infestation inside the chest or abdomen would
suggest the possibility of a bullet hole or a stab wound.
Movement -- Since local conditions (e.g. sun or shade,
urban or rural) affect which species will colonize a corpse,
it may be possible to determine whether or not a body
has been moved since its death.
Toxicology -- drugs or toxins from a corpse may be
detectable in fly larvae even after the body tissues are
too decomposed for standard toxicological tests.
As a body continues to decay, it goes through successive
stages of decomposition. Each stage is associated with a
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distinctive type of insect fauna. The exact species are

likely to vary from country to country and season to
season, but the general pattern of succession is still
consistent enough to give forensic scientists a rough
estimate of post-mortem interval.
In general, a fresh corpse (1-3 days) has many blow fly
eggs and only a few small larvae. As bacteria and other
microorganisms begin to grow in the moribund tissues
they produce gas which fills the body cavities and causes
the carcass to inflate. This bloat stage lasts until the fly
maggots penetrate body cavities and release the gas (3-5
days). Once the carcass collapses, it enters a period of
active decay.
Maggots, flies, ants, and carrion beetles are abundant.
After most of the flesh has been consumed, the corpse
enters a stage of advanced decay. The insect fauna
becomes fewer in number but there is greater species
diversity: carpet beetles, ants, skipper flies, and mites
are common. Eventually the corpse becomes dry and
skeletonized, but ants and mites may continue to live in
the bones for 2-3 years.

What is forensic medicine?

Between march 2oo6 and march 2007 , 755 people were
killed in the UK. This is an average of 2 murders\day.
To secure a prosecution for murder , the following facts
need to be verified:
1- Who died and who killed them
2- What was used to commit the crime
3- When the victim died
4- Where the murder took place
5- Why the murder took place -The motive for the crime
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Investigating time of death

Once the body is dead for more than 48 hours it
becomes harder still. When someone dies , the heart
stops pumping blood and the brain dies within
minutes . the brain cells respire actively and aerobically
all the time. These organs contain little stored ATP and
glycogen , so rapidly affected by a lack of oxygen.
Some other tissues such as the muscle cells have large
stores of ATP and glycogen and can continue to respire
A number of changes take place in any mammal body
after death which can be helpful in estimating the time
of death:
1- The body temperature start to fall as the metabolic
reactions which created the body heat begin to fall
then stop. At the same time heat starts to transfer to
the surrounding by radiation , conduction and
evaporation of water. The body reactions do not all
stop immediately. This is affected by a number of
factors for example : the outside of the body cools
much more rapidly than the inside, and the amount
of body facts affects the rate of cooling. From
analyzing cooling curve for bodies under known
conditions , it is possible to estimate the time of
death.
2- The body starts to cool according to mode of death,
clothing , size of the body and the environment
surrounding the body. The drop of temperature is not
immediate , it goes through plateaus for while before
dropping.
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3- Rigor mortis : as the muscle cells run out of ATP , the

muscle fibers become permanently contracted and
lock solid. It starts 2-4 hours after death and needs 68 hours to take full effect. It begins in the muscles of
the face and neck , progresses down the body and
spreads steadily to the larger muscles of the body
It is clearly seen in al mammals and in other animals
too.
The amount of ATP decide how quickly rigor mortis
sets in . the level of ATP varies from person to person
, depending on their genetics , their level of fitness
and the level of activity before death.
Rigor mortis usually sets in very quickly in drowning
victims , because they have used up most of the ATP
in struggling to stay floating.
Rigor mortis is not permanent , it usually passes
between 36 and 48 hours (it may last longer) . the
enzymes released from the lysosomes in the muscles
begin to break down the tissues.
Using some mathematics it is easy to predict when
the ATP was full , and hence the time of death.

Questions
1. Explain why the body of a mammal cools down
after death
2. Why is the cooling rate much slower in the first
hours after death
3. Explain how factors such as external
temperature ,whether the body is wet or dry or
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whether the body is wrapped or exposed will affect

the rate of cooling after death
4. What effect would death have on the temperature
of an animal such as frog or lizard
5. Why is rigor mortis of limited use in determining
the time of death

End of lesson
Study well and good
luck