Ch2 Machining

Material Removal Process
(Metal Machining Process)

1.1
Theory of Metal Cutting

overview, theory of chip formation, force &
merchant equation, power & energy, cutting
temperature
1.2
Machining Operations and Machine Tools

turning, drilling, milling, machine centers,
cutting tool technology
BDA 3052 Manufacturing

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Material Removal Processes

Introduction
It is shaping operations, it remove material from a

starting workpart so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
Divided into three main groups:
1) Machining material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
2) Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
3) Non-traditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material

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Why Machining is Important?
Variety of work materials can be machined

Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

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Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming

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Machining in Manufacturing Sequence
Generally performed after other manufacturing

processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
Other processes create the general shape of
the starting workpart
Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create

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Machining
Nomenclature of single point tool

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Seven elements of single-point tool geometry; and

(b) the tool signature convention that defines the
seven elements.

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Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that
describes the mechanics of machining
fairly accurate
Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

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Orthogonal and Oblique cutting

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Assumptions in orthogonal cutting

(Merchant theory)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along

clearance face.
The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the
cutting edge.
The cutting edge is a straight line, extending
perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates
a plane surface as the work moves past it.
The chip does not flow to either side.
The depth of cut is constant.
Width of the tool is greater than the work piece.
The work moves relative to the tool with uniform
velocity.
A continuous chip is produced with no built up edge.
Assumptions in orthogonal cutting

(Merchant theory)
9)
10)
11)
Chip is assume to shear continuously across plane AB

on which the shear stress reaches the value of shear
flow stress.
Width of chip is remains equal to the width of the work
piece. i.e. Plane strain conditions exist.
The shear and normal stresses along shear plane and
tool are uniform.

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Assumptions in Oblique cutting

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
The cutting edge is inclined at angle with the normal

direction of the tool travel.
The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of the
work piece.
The chip flows on the tool face making an angle with the
normal cutting edge. The chip flows side ways in a long
curl.
Three components of the forces acting on the tool
Maximum chip thickness may not occur at middle.
It acts on larger area and thus tool life is more.

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Difference between orthogonal and

oblique cutting
Orthogonal cutting
Oblique cutting
The cutting edge of the tool is

perpendicular to the direction of the tool
travel.
The cutting edge is inclined at angle with

the normal direction of the tool travel.
The cutting edge clears the width of the

work piece on either ends.
The cutting edge may or may not clear the

width of the work piece.
The chip flows over the tool. The chip coils

in tight.
The chip flows on the tool face making an

angle with the normal cutting edge. The
chip flows side ways in a long curl
Only two components of the cutting force

acting on the tool.
Three components of the forces acting on

the tool.
Maximum chip thickness occurs at the

middle.
Maximum chip thickness may not occur at

middle.
For the given feed rate and DOC, the force

which act or shears the metal acts on a
smaller area and therefore, the heat
developed per unit area due to friction
along the tool work interface is less and
the tool life is less.
It acts on larger area and thus tool life is

more.
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).

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Cutting Process in Turning

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Cutting Process in Turning

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Relationship between chip thickness,

rake angle and shear plane angle
r
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ls sin
sin
ls cos( )
cos( )
Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the
chip prior to chip formation; and tc = chip thickness
after separation
Chip thickness after cut always greater than

before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0

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Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of
parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the plates isolated
to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain
equation.
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Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:

AC
AD DC
BD
BD
= tan( - ) + cot
where = shear strain, = shear plane angle, and =
rake angle of cutting tool
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Example of Problem 1
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal
cutting, the cutting tool has a rake angle = 10. The chip
Thickness before the cut to = 0.50 mm and the chip
thickness after the cut tc = 1.125 mm. Calculate the shear
plane angle and the shear strain in the operation.
Answer : = 25.4
= 2.386

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In an orthogonal cutting operation, the tool has a rake
angle = 15. The chip thickness before the cut = 0.30
mm and the cut yields a deformed chip thickness = 0.65
mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the
shear strain for the operation.

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Chip Formation 28 feb 2016
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool-chip friction.
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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1.
2.
3.
4.
Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
Serrated chip

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1. Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work
materials
Low cutting
speeds
Large feed and
depth of cut
High tool-chip
friction

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2. Continuous Chip
Ductile work
materials
High cutting
speeds
Small feeds and

depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool-chip
friction

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Continuous with BUE
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium
cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction
causes portions of
chip to adhere to
rake face
BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically

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Serrated Chip
Semicontinuous saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds

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Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear

plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
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Forces Acting on Chip
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting

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Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R

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Cutting Forces

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Cutting Forces

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Cutting Forces

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Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
F

N
-(1)
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

as follows:
tan
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-(2)
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
-(3)
As
where As = area of the shear plane
As
t ow
sin
-(4)
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during

cutting

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Cutting Force and Thrust Force
F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:

Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool that
can be measured

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Merchants circle diagram

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Merchants circle diagram

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Forces in Metal Cutting
Equations can be derived to relate the forces that

cannot be measured to the forces that can be
measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Based on these calculated force, shear stress and

coefficient of friction can be determined

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Cutting force = 1559 N
Thrust force = 1271 N
Width of cutting = 3 mm
Rake angle = 10
Shear plane angle = 25.4
Original Thickness = 0.5 mm
Determine the shear strength of the work
material.
shear stress, S / shear strength, = 247 N/mm2
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Forces in Metal Cutting
From equation 3, the force diagram (Merchant s Circle

Diagram), can be used to derived the following
equations:
Sto w cos( )
Fs cos( )
Fc
sin cos( ) cos( )
Sto w sin( )
Fs sin( )
Ft
sin cos( ) cos( )

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The Merchant Equation
From equation 3, 4 and 7, Merchant Equation for shear

stress can be expressed as,
Fc cos Ft sin
(to / sin )

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The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear

deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle that minimizes
energy, given by
45
2 2
Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends
to 3-D machining

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What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

45
To increase shear plane angle

Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)

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Power and Energy Relationships
A machining operation requires power

The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc
where Pc = cutting power (Nm/s); Fc = cutting force
(N); and = cutting speed (m/min)

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In U.S. customary units, power is traditional

expressed as horsepower
HPc = Fc/33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

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Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or

HPg is given by
Pc
Pg
E
or
HPc
HPg
E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Typical E for machine tools 90%

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Unit Power in Machining
Useful to convert power into power per unit

volume rate of metal cut
Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc
or
PU
MRR
HPc
HPu
MRR
where MRR = material removal rate (mm3/s)

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Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc
Fc v
Fc
U Pu
MRR vto w to w
Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or
J/mm3

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Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is

converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as
elastic energy in the chip

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Cutting Temperature is Important

High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions due
to thermal expansion of work material

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Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook

from dimensional analysis using
experimental data for various work materials
0.4U vt o
T
C K
0.333
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U =

specific energy; v = cutting speed; to = chip thickness
before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work
material; K = thermal diffusivity of work material
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Example Problem 6
Cutting speed = 100 m/min
Chip original thickness = 0.5 mm
Thermal diffusivity = 50 mm2/s
Specific Energy = 1.038
Volumetric specific heat work material = 3 x10-3 J/mm3
Find the mean temperature rise at the tool-chip

Interface.

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Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure

temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip
thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the

speed-temperature relationship to be of the form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed
K and m depend on the cutting conditions and
work material

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Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting
tool is used to mechanically cut away material so
that the desired part geometry remains
Most common application: to shape metal parts
Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in
its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features with high
precision and accuracy
Casting can also produce a variety of shapes,
but it lacks the precision and accuracy of
machining
Classification of Machined Parts
Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

Nonrotational (also called prismatic) block-like or plate-like
Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational,

shown here by block and flat parts.
Machining Operations and Part

Geometry
Each machining operation produces a
characteristic part geometry due to two
factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and workpart
Generating part geometry determined

by feed trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
Forming part geometry is created by

the shape of the cutting tool
Generating Shape
Figure 22.2 Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c)
contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling.
Forming to Create Shape
Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c)
broaching.
Forming and Generating
Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a) thread

cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling.
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to generate a cylinder
Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
Variations of turning performed on a lathe:
Facing
Contour turning
Chamfering
Cutoff
Threading
Turning
Turning operation.
Turning Operation
Close-up view of a
turning operation on
steel using a titanium
nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo
courtesy of Kennametal
Inc.)
Facing
Tool is fed
radially inward
Contour Turning
Instead of feeding tool

parallel to axis of
rotation, tool follows a
contour that is other
than straight, thus
creating a contoured
shape
Chamfering
Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner of

the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"
Cutoff
Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some

location to cut off end of part
Cutoff
Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some

location to cut off end of part
Threading
Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface

of rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation
at a large feed rate, thus creating threads
Lathe
Cutting Conditions in Turning - 1
The rotational speed in turning related to the desired cutting

speed at the surface of the cylindrical workpiece by the
equation:
N
D
N = rotational speed, rev/min; = cutting speed, m/min,

And Do = original diameter of the part, m.
The change in diameter is determined by the depth of cut,

d:
Do Df = 2d
Do = original diameter, mm; Df = final diameter, mm
d = depth of cut
The feed in turning is generally expressed in mm/rev. This

feed can be converted to linear travel rate in mm/min by the
formula:
fr = Nf
fr = feed rate, mm/min; f = feed mm/rev
The time to machine from one end of a cylindrical workpart

to the other is given by:
Tm = L/fr
Tm = time of actual machining, minutes; and L = length of
the cylindrical workpart, mm
The volumetric rate of material removal rate can be most

conveniently determined by the following equation:
MRR = vfd
Where v=DavgN
and Davg=(Do-Df)/2
MRR = material removal rate, mm3/min, f = feed, mm
Cutting Conditions in Turning

Problem 1
A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter
and 700 mm long is to be turned in an
engine lathe. Cutting conditions are as
follows: cutting speed is 2.30 m/s, feed is
0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut is 1.80
mm.
Determine (a) cutting time, and (b)
metal removal rate.

Problem 1
A cylindrical workpart 200 mm in diameter
and 700 mm long is to be turned in an
engine lathe. Cutting conditions are as
follows: cutting speed is 2.30 m/s, feed is
0.32 mm/rev, and depth of cut is 1.80
mm.
Determine (a) cutting time, and (b)
metal removal rate.

Problem 2
A work materials are to be turned to final size of
175 mm length having diameter of 60 mm.
Total length of the work material is 300 mm. A
single point tool having a certain degree of rake
angle is used. The work material rotates at 1400
RPM. The feed is 0.35 mm / revolution.
Final size of the work material is 51 mm.
Calculate:
1. Cutting velocity,
2. Time taken to machine to the length of 55 mm,
3. Total Material removal rate to get 51 mm diameter.
Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past a
rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
Creates a planar surface
Other geometries possible either by cutter
path or shape
Other factors and terms:
Interrupted cutting operation
Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting
edges called "teeth"
Machine tool called a milling machine
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
Peripheral milling
Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
Face milling
Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being
milled
Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter
METHODS OF MILLING-1
1) Up milling is also referred to as conventional
milling. The direction of the cutter rotation
opposes the feed motion. For example, if the
cutter rotates clockwise , the workpiece is fed
to the right in up milling.
METHODS OF MILLING-2
2) Down milling is also referred to as climb
milling. The direction of cutter rotation is
same as the feed motion. For example, if the
cutter rotates counterclockwise , the
workpiece is fed to the right in down milling
Slab Milling
Basic form of peripheral milling in which the

cutter width extends beyond the workpiece
on both sides
Slotting
Width of cutter is less than workpiece width,

creating a slot in the work
Conventional Face Milling

Cutter overhangs work
on both sides
Profile Milling
Form of end milling in
which the outside
periphery of a flat
part is cut
Pocket Milling
Another form
of end milling
used to mill
shallow
pockets into
flat parts
Surface Contouring
Ball-nose cutter
fed back and forth
across work along
a curvilinear path
at close intervals
to create a three
dimensional
surface form
End Milling
Cutter diameter is
less than work
width, so a slot is
cut into part
Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool can perform
multiple machining operations under CNC
control in one setup with minimal human
attention
Typical operations are milling and drilling
Three, four, or five axes
Other features:
Automatic tool-changing
Pallet shuttles
Automatic workpart positioning
Milling
Milling
High speed face

milling using
indexable inserts
(photo courtesy
of Kennametal
Inc.).
Operation 6 march 16
Cutting Conditions in Milling - 1

The cutting speed is determined at the
outside diameter of a milling cutter.
N
D
N = rotational speed, rev/min; = cutting speed,
m/min,
And Do = outside diameter of a milling cutter,mm.
The feed, f in milling is usually given as a feed per cutter

tooth; called the chip load, it represents the size of the chip
formed by each cutting edge.
fr = Nnt f
fr = feed rate, mm/min; N = spindle speed, rev/min; nt =
number of teeth on the cutter; f = chip load in mm/tooth
The feed, f in milling is usually given as a feed per cutter

tooth; called the chip load, it represents the size of the chip
formed by each cutting edge.
fr = Nnt f
fr = feed rate, mm/min; N = spindle speed, rev/min; nt =
number of teeth on the cutter; f = chip load in mm/tooth
The material removal rate,
MRR = wdfr
w = width; d = depth of cut; fr = feed rate, mm/min;
Peripheral Milling
Approach distance A, to reach full cutter depth given by:
d (D d )
d = depth of cut, mm, and D = diameter of the milling cutter,

mm
The time to mill the workiece Tm is

therefore;
L A
Tm
fr
Face Milling cutter is centered
Where A and O are each to half the cutter

diameter;
A = O = D/2
D= cutter diameter, mm
Face Milling cutter is offset
Where A and O are each to half the cutter

diameter;
A O w( D w)
w= width of the cut, mm
The time to mill the workpiece in face

milling,Tm is therefore;
L 2A
Tm
fr
Cutting Conditions in Milling

Problem 1
A peripheral milling operation is performed
on the top surface of a rectangular
workpart which is 400 mm long by 60 mm
wide. The milling cutter, which is 80 mm in
diameter and has five teeth, overhangs the
width of the part on both sides. The cutting
speed is 70 m/min, the chip load is 0.25
mm/tooth, and the depth of cut is 5.0 mm.
Determine (a) the time to make one pass
across the surface, and (b) the maximum
material removal rate during the cut.
Cutting Conditions in Milling

Problem 2
A face milling operation is performed to finish
the top surface of a steel rectangular work
piece 350 mm long by 55 mm wide. The milling
cutter has four teeth (cemented carbide inserts)
and a 85 mm diameter. Cutting conditions are:
v = 600 m/min, f = 0.35 mm / tooth, and d =
3.5 mm.
Determine:
a) the time to make one pass across the surface.
b) the metal removal rate during the cut.
Drilling
Creates a round
hole in a workpart
Compare to boring
which can only
enlarge an existing
hole
Cutting tool called
a drill or drill bit
Machine tool: drill
press
Through Holes vs. Blind Holes

Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blind-holes does not exit work opposite side
Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.
Reaming
Used to slightly
enlarge a hole,
provide better
tolerance on
diameter, and
improve surface
finish
REAM
Tapping
Used to provide
internal screw
threads on an
existing hole
Tool called a tap
Counterboring
Provides a stepped
hole, in which a
larger diameter
follows smaller
diameter partially
into the hole
Cutting Conditions in Drilling - 1

Letting N represent the spindle rev/min,
N
D
= cutting speed, m/min; D = the drill
diameter,mm.
Feed can be converted to feed rate using the the same

equation as for turning:
fr = Nf
fr = feed rate, mm/min; N = spindle speed, rev/min; f = feed
in drilling, mm/rev

The time to drill through holes;
tA
Tm
fr
Tm= machining time, min; t = work thickness,
mm; fr = feed rate, mm/min

The allowance is given by;
A 0.5D tan 90
2
A = approach allowance, mm; = drill point angle

The time to drill blind holes;
d
Tm
fr
Tm= machining time, min; d = hole depth,
mm; fr = feed rate, mm/min
Cutting Conditions in Drilling

Problem 1
A drilling operation is to be performed with a
12.7 mm diameter twist drill in a steel
workpart. The hole is a blind hole at a depth of
60 mm and the point angle is 118. The cutting
speed is 25 m/min and the feed is 0.30
mm/rev.
Determine
(a) the cutting time to complete the drilling
operation, and
(b) metal removal rate during the operation,
after the drill bit reaches full diameter.
CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

1.
2.
3.
4.
Tool Life
Tool Materials
Tool Geometry
Cutting Fluids
Cutting Tool Technology

Two principal aspects:
1. Tool material
2. Tool geometry
Three Modes of Tool Failure

1.
2.
3.
Fracture failure
Cutting force becomes excessive and/or
dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
Temperature failure
Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material
Gradual wear
Gradual wearing of the cutting tool
Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
Fracture and temperature failures are premature

failures
Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the
longest possible use of the tool
Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
Crater wear occurs on top rake face
Flank wear occurs on flank (side of tool)
Tool Wear
Figure 23.1 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

locations and types of wear that occur.
Figure 23.2 Crater wear,

(above), and flank wear (right) on
a cemented carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope (photos by K. C.
Keefe, Manufacturing Technology
Lab, Lehigh University).
FLANK WEAR and BUE
CRATER WEAR
BUILT UP EDGE
Taylor Tool Life Equation

Relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor
vT n C
where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n and C
are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut,
work material, tooling material, and the tool life
criterion used
n is the slope of the plot

C is the intercept on the speed axis at one minute
tool life
Tool Life Criteria in Production

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Complete failure of cutting edge

Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater
wear) by the machine operator
Fingernail test across cutting edge
Changes in sound emitted from operation
Chips become ribbon-like, stringy, and
difficult to dispose of
Degradation of surface finish
Increased power
Workpiece count
Cumulative cutting time
Tool Materials
Tool failure modes identify the important

properties that a tool material should possess:
Toughness - to avoid fracture failure
Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at
high temperatures
Wear resistance - hardness is the most
important property to resist abrasive wear
TOOL LIFE PROBLEM
Two tests were conducted to determine the relationship between

cutting speed and tool life. In the first test, a cutting speed of 350
m/min results a tool life of 45 minutes. In the second test, a cutting
speed, a cutting speed of 250 m/min which results a tool life 75
minutes.
Using Taylors equation, calculate the following:
i) Constant n and C and
(ii) If the life of tool to be extended to 55 minutes, what will be
cutting speed tool?

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TOOL LIFE PROBLEM
A carbide tool with mild steel workpiece was

found to give life of 2 hours while cutting at
50 m/min. Compute the tool life if the same
tool is used at a speed of 25% higher than
previous one. Also determine the value of
cutting speed if the tool is required to have
tool life of 3 hours. Assume n= 0.27

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DRILLING
A 10 mm hole is to be made in a 25 mm thick

metal. The drill rotates at 1200 RPM with fee
rate of 0.15 mm/rev. Calculate the time taken
in drilling the hole if the included angle is 118
degree.

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Quiz
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the
cutting tool has a rake angle = 20. The chip thickness before the cut
to = 0.80 mm and the chip thickness after the cut tc = 1.35 mm.
Calculate the shear plane angle and the shear strain in the operation.
to
r
tc
Fs
S
As
r cos
tan
1 r sin

Technology
= tan( - ) + cot
t ow
As
sin
45
Kuiz
1) Determine time processing to

drill through hole
2) Determine approach distance A in
peripheral milling process

3) Determine time processing for face
milling

Technology
Tool life

Technology

Ch2 Machining

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Ch2 Machining

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Material Removal Process

(Metal Machining Process)

Theory of Metal Cutting

Machining Operations and Machine Tools

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Material Removal Processes

It is shaping operations, it remove material from a

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Why Machining is Important?

Variety of work materials can be machined

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Disadvantages with Machining

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Machining in Manufacturing Sequence

Generally performed after other manufacturing

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Seven elements of single-point tool geometry; and

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Orthogonal Cutting Model

Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

Orthogonal and Oblique cutting

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Assumptions in orthogonal cutting

The tool is perfectly sharp and no contact along

Assumptions in orthogonal cutting

Chip is assume to shear continuously across plane AB

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Assumptions in Oblique cutting

The cutting edge is inclined at angle with the normal

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Difference between orthogonal and

The cutting edge of the tool is

The cutting edge is inclined at angle with

The cutting edge clears the width of the

The cutting edge may or may not clear the

The chip flows over the tool. The chip coils

The chip flows on the tool face making an

Only two components of the cutting force

Three components of the forces acting on

Maximum chip thickness occurs at the

Maximum chip thickness may not occur at

For the given feed rate and DOC, the force

It acts on larger area and thus tool life is

Cutting action involves shear deformation of

work material to form a chip

As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

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Cutting Process in Turning

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Cutting Process in Turning

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Relationship between chip thickness,

Chip Thickness Ratio

Chip thickness after cut always greater than

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Shear Strain in Chip Formation

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Chip Formation 28 feb 2016

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

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