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AC CIRCUITS
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Introduction to AC Circuits
AC Waveforms
AC Values
Complex Numbers Review
AC Circuits
Impedance Concept
Apparent Power & Power Triangle
Series-Parallel Circuits
1
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
AC Signal
AC Circuit
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Introduction to AC Circuits
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Introduction to AC Circuits
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Introduction to AC Circuits
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Introduction to AC Circuits
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
10
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
11
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Examples of frequency range.
50 Hz, 60 Hz
20 Hz - 20 kHz.
550 kHz - 1.6 MHz
88 MHz - 108 MHz
54-MHz - 890-MHz
Above 300 GHz.
12
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Period
The period, T, of a waveform, (shown below) is the duration
of one cycle. It is the inverse of frequency, f.
1
T
f
or
1
f
T
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Amplitude and Peak-to-Peak Value
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance from zero
crossing to the peak whereas the peak to peak values is
distance between peak and trough.
14
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
The Basic Sine Waveform Equation
The voltage sine waveform equation is indicated in the figure
shown below
15
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
Then,
16
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Phase Difference.
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between
different waveforms of the same frequency.
Consider Figure 6.
If the angular displacement is 0as in (a), the waveforms are
said to be in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase. When
describing a phase difference, select one waveform as
reference. Other waveforms then lead, lag, or are in phase
with this reference.
17
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
18
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
20
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3 AC Values
Average Value
to find the average value of a waveform, divide the area under
the waveform by the length of its base. Areas above the axis
are counted as positive, while areas below the axis are counted
as negative.
This approach is valid regardless of wave shape. Average
values are also called DC values, because DC meters indicate
average values rather than instantaneous values.
21
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3
AC Values
Eave
e(t )dt
T
Eave
Eave
and
I ave
1 T
Em sin t dt
T 0
Em
Im
Em sin t dt
0.318Em
0.318I m
22
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3
AC Values
For full-wave,
1
Eave Em sin t dt
Therefore,
Eave
2 Em
0.637 Em
and
I ave
2I m
0.637 I m
23
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3 AC Values
Effective (Root Mean Square, RMS) Value
An effective value is an equivalent dc value: it tells you how
many volts or amps of dc that a time-varying waveform is
equal to in terms of its ability to produce average power.
effective value, RMS
24
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3
AC Values
Eeff
e (t )dt
2 Em2 sin 2 t dt
0
1
1
2
sin
t
d
sin 2t
2
4
Therefore,
Eeff
Em
0.707 Em
2
and
I eff
Im
0.707 I m
2
25
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
C = a + jb
Real Numbers
26
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
27
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Figure 8b : Complex
number in polar form.
28
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
Therefore C a 2 b 2
and
b
tan 1
a
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Powers of j
Powers of j are frequently required in calculations. Here are
some useful powers:
30
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
and
31
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
A.B AB( A B )
Multiplication of
Complex Numbers
A A
( A B )
B B
Division of Complex
Numbers
32
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Reciprocals
The reciprocal of a complex number C C is
1
1
( )
C C
Complex Conjugates
The conjugate of a complex number (denoted by an asterisk *)
is a complex number with the same real part but the opposite
imaginary part.
33
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
34
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
35
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
Purely Resistive Circuit
For a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase.
Vm sin t
vR
iR
I m sin t
R
R
Vm
Im
R
37
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
38
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
Purely Resistive Circuit
The instantaneous power is given by
Vm I m
1 cos 2t
p
2
(watts, W)
39
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
Inductor
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
d ( I m sin t )
di
vL L L
dt
dt
LI m cos t
Since cos = sin (t+90),
vL Vm sin(t 90)
Vm LI m
Voltage vL is proportional to
the rate of change of current iL.
The faster the current changes,
the larger the induced voltage.
41
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Purely Inductive Circuit
For a purely inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90.
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Purely Inductive Circuit
Inductive Reactance
Vm LI m X L I m
Vm
XL
Im
Also,
X L 2fL
43
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Purely Inductive Circuit
Inductive Reactance
the opposition to the flow of current, which results in the
continual interchange of energy between the source and the
magnetic field of the inductor.
unlike resistance (which dissipates energy in the form of
heat), does not dissipate electrical energy (ignoring the effects
of the internal resistance of the inductor).
44
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Purely Inductive Circuit
Power to an Inductive Load
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
pL VI sin 2t
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
Capacitor
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
Purely Capacitance Circuit
For capacitance, current is proportional to the rate of change of
voltage.
dvc
d
ic c
c Vm sin t CVm cos t
dt
dt
I m cos t I m sin t 90
Vm
1
I m CVm
, Xc
, C in farad (f)
Xc
C
1x106
or X c
, C in microfarad ( F)
2 fC
48
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
Purely Capacitance Circuit
Capacitive reactance, Xc is the opposition to the flow of
charge, which results in the continual interchange of energy
between the source and the electric field of the capacitor.
Like the inductor, the capacitor does not dissipate energy in
any form (ignoring the effects of the leakage resistance).
49
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
51
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
52
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
V
(ohms)
I
V V
I
I
Z Z
53
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
54
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Resistance
For a pure resistance (Figure below), voltage and current are in
phase. Thus, if voltage has an angle v, current will have the
same angle.
VR VR VR
ZR
0 R
I
I
I
ZR R
55
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Inductance
For a pure inductance, current lags voltage by 90. Assuming
a 0 angle for voltage (we can assume any reference we want
because we are interested only in the angle between VL and I),
we can write VL = VL0 and I = I90.
VL
VL 0
ZL
I
I 90
VL
90 jL
I
Z L jL jX L
XL=inductive reactance
56
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Capacitance
For a pure capacitance, current leads voltage by 90.
VC VC 0
ZC
I
I90
1
1
90 j
(ohms )
C
C
1
ZC j
jX C (ohms )
C
XC=capacitive reactance
57
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7
Apparent Power
When a load has voltage V across it and current I through it as
shown below, the power that appears to flow to it is VI (with no
concern for the components of the load).
S VI (VA)
2
V
S I 2Z
(VA)
Z
VI
S
(kVA)
1000
58
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7
Apparent Power
P 2 QL
S P jQL
S S
If the circuit is capacitive instead of inductive,
S P jQC
P=real power
Q=reactive power
S=apparent power
59
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7
60
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
in
61
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
= 0 = + 0 =
= 90 = 0 + =
= 90 = 0 =
62
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
= 2 + 2 ()
= 1
63
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
64
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
DC : Resistor in Series
Total resistor can be determined:
The power dissipated by each resistor is
determined as:
65
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
66
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
E V1 V2 V3 0
or
E V1 V2 V3
67
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
R2
V2
E
R1 R2
68
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
69
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
DC : Resistor in Parallel
Elements or branches are said to be in a parallel connection when
they have exactly two nodes in common.
+
1 2
-
+
2
-
70
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
DC : Resistor in Parallel
71
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
DC : Resistor in Parallel
The voltage across all parallel elements in a circuit will be the
same.
1 = 2 = 3 = = =
An important effect of combining parallel resistors is that the
resultant resistance, RT will always be smaller than the smallest
resistor in the combination.
72
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
DC : Resistor in Parallel
Two Resistors in Parallel
Dont memorise!!!
73
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
I1 I 5 I 2 I 3 I 4
74
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
75
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
76
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
AC Circuit
i. Series (RL, RC and RLC)
ii. Parallel (RL, RC and RLC)
77
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
i. AC RL Series
R
= sin =
Total Impedance : = +
+ =
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
i. AC RL Series
R
Real Power, P
= + = +
= 0 + 90
=
Reactive Power, Q
2
= 2 =
79
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
i. AC RC Series
R
= sin = = =
Total Impedance : = +
Using Ohms Law : =
Voltage at Resistor, VR and Capacitor, VC
= ,
+ =
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
i. AC RC Series
R
Real Power, P
= + = +
= 0 + (90)
=
Reactive Power, Q
2
= 2 =
81
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
i. AC RLC Series
= sin( ) =
Total Impedance : = + +
= , = and =
+ + =
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
i. AC RLC Series
Real Power, P
= + +
= + +
= 0 + 90 + (90)
Reactive Power, Q
= +
= 2 =
83
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
ii. AC RL Parallel
= sin = = =
Total Impedance :
= =
+
= ,
=
+ =
Kirchhoff's
Current Law
84
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
ii. AC RL Parallel
Real Power, P
= +
= +
= 0 + 90
2
= =
Reactive Power, Q
=
= 2 =
85
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
ii. AC RC Parallel
= sin = = +
Total Impedance :
= =
+
Using Ohms Law : = = =
= ,
=
+ =
Kirchhoff's
Current Law
86
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
ii. AC RC Parallel
Real Power, P
= +
= +
= 0 + cos(90)
2
= =
Reactive Power, Q
=
= 2 =
87
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
Total Impedance :
=
=
+ +
= sin = = = =
= , =
=
+ + =
88
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
Real Power, P
= + +
= + +
= 0 + 90 + cos(90)
Reactive Power, Q
= +
89
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
90
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
91