MULTITECH BUSINESS SCHOOL

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS END OF SEMESTER EXAMINATION

INSTRUCTIONS: ANSWER FOUR QUESTIONS ONLY
MARKING GUIDE (SET TWO)

TIME: 3 HOURS

DATE:

1(a) Significance of Roman Empire in the formation of the modern state

Define a state

Entity governing within known boundaries

central government ruling over a population and territory

A state represents and protects its population in International politics.

States are also referred to as nation-states and a nation can be a particular culture or
ethnic group and modern states can be made up of two or more nations.

Talk about the Roman Empire

Roman Empire existed between in the period 27 BC 476AD

Greek City States (800BC-168BC) are the real origin of states as we know them today
It is in Athens that modern diplomacy and arbitration to settle disputes first started and

spread to the entire World

International law which regulates relations between nations today, the Roman Empire
played a very instrumental role in the development of these laws which helped the empire
to regulate her relations with the barbarian tribes that lived on her borders.

Fall of the Roman Empire in 476AD,

Power hungry Kings were quick to tear up the once organized states that led to Dark

ages
Dark ages lasted about 400 years (676 -800AD)
Dark ages were characterized by decline in law and order thus conflict and anarchy
There was also decline in trade and learning
Decline in population due to war and other pestilences.
power became fragmented among the petty kings and war lords

Feudalism in the Middle Ages (1801 -1400)

Feudalism spread all over the World even in Africa and Uganda in particular
Feudal lords who owned the land had to offer protection to their squatters for the tribute

they paid to them

The fragmented feudal units for the time united for fear of being conquered by other lords

leading to the formation of a modern state.

lords amassing land and becoming strong kings who conquered more territories which

consolidated to become states

Unity as a tribe or language explains the formation of some states especially those who

speak one language or are of the same ethnic origin.

Consolidation by amassing land explains formation of some states whose citizenry is a
composition of a mixture of tribes speaking different languages.

(b) Transitions that came with the Industrial Revolution

From hand production methods to machines

New chemical manufacturing and iron production processes,

Improved efficiency of water power

Increasing use of steam power and development of machine tools, etc

Impact
2

There continues to be significant technological improvements in Agriculture, roads, railways,

textile manufacture, mining, steam power, chemicals, machine tools etc. Whoever commands
authority in the aforementioned areas commands economic power e.g. China, US, Russia
2(a) Definition of Globalization

Process of interaction and integration

Integration can be among people, companies and governments of different nations
Globalization is driven by international trade and investment aided by information

technology.
Globalization affects the environment on culture, political systems, economic
development and prosperity and human physical wellbeing of societies around the World

(b) Impact of Globalization on state relations

Positive

Increased trade across national boundaries i. e. individuals, companies, states, regional

blocks

Growth of joint ventures and technical collaborations between companies from different
countries.

Lowering of trade barriers and simplified import and export procedures.

Greater employment opportunities for people.

Availability of greater variety of goods and services to the consumers.

More competitive prices due to competition.

Ability of companies to achieve lower operating costs.

Access to bigger markets to business firms.

Faster and wider spread of new technologies across the world.

Free World choice of where to live, who to marry, which language to speak etc
3

Negative

Unrestricted globalization can hamper the development of less developed countries.

Smaller firms may lack the resources to compete internationally and therefore may be
forced out of business.

Countries become increasingly dependent on other countries for meeting their needs for
goods and services. This can become a major disadvantage in situations like war.

Adverse economic condition in one country can escalate to other countries and may even
adopt global proportion.

Globalization may also lead to faster spread of infectious disease, for people animals and
plants. Such infection may be carried through, people or goods.

Multinationals have contributed to labor, environmental, and human rights abuses as they
pursue profit around the globe."

Some workers in advanced economies particularly those in unskilled jobs and belonging
to labor unions feel that they are being increasingly displaced by low-wage competition
in developing countries. Some of these workers are unable to make the transition to
skilled jobs and service-oriented industries.

The first is disconnect between the company and the state. Public companies have many
owners (shareholders) from a number of countries whose focus is on the return on
investment. This means that some decisions are made in the interests of the company that
are at odds with the social or environmental needs of the countries they are located in.

Clash of civilizations due to intermarriages, religion and culture mix

3(a) Departure of Liberalism from Realism

Anarchy does not necessarily lead to conflict, cooperation is possible

4

States are not the only important actors.

Actors have diverse interests in international politics. Much of international relations has

little to do with military security

States are not all essentially the same. Democratic states can solve disputes without war

(b) Theories of International Relations

(i) Realism

Realism is an international relations theory which states that world politics is driven by

competitive self-interest and anarchy

Dominant goals of actors are security through power
State policy of assertion driven by military force and economic instruments
Agenda sought is to maintain position by watching closely potential shifts in balance of

power and security threats

International involvement is minimal as international organizations play a minor role
International Organizations role is limited by state power and the importance of military
force

(ii) Functionalism

Functionalism is a theory of international relations that arose during the inter-War period
principally from the strong concern about the obsolescence of the State as a form of

social organization.
Dominant goal is peace and prosperity through collaboration
State policy is driven by negotiation using economic instruments and political acts of

good will
Agenda sought is to reach consensus by putting initial emphasis on low politics such as

economic and social issues

International organizations play a substantial role
New, functional international organizations will formulate policy and become
increasingly responsible for implementation

(iii) Constructivism

Constructivism is the claim that significant aspects of international relations are

historically and socially constructed, rather than inevitable consequences of human nature
or other essential characteristics of world politics.

States, intergovernmental organizations, and NGOs are actors in global affairs.

The international system is characterized by the rule of norms (human rights, etc.)

NGOs and IGOs play an important role in spreading norms and teaching states.

States are subject to norms and IGO/NGO pressures; their self-interests are not the
primary mover of global affairs.

Critiques

Norms surely exist, but they are routinely disregarded if that is in the interest of powerful
states

Neorealist are not ready to accept that states can easily become friendsdue to their social
interaction

(iv) Marxism

According to Marxists, both realism and liberalism/idealism are simply self-serving

ideologies introduced by the economic elites to defend and justify global inequality.
Class is the fundamental unit of analysis of international relations
The international system has been constructed by the upper classes and the wealthiest

nations in order to protect and defend their interests.

Rejects the realist/liberal view of state conflict or cooperation and focus on the economic

and material aspects

Assumes that the economy trumps other concerns allowing for the elevation of class as

the focus of study

View the international system as an integrated capitalist system in pursuit of capital

accumulation.
The world is divided not into politically determined nations but into economically

determined classes
The international state system was constructed by capitalists and therefore serves the
interests of wealthy states and corporations, which seek to protect and expand their
wealth

4(a). Areas of cooperation in a global setting

6

First define Globalization; a process of interaction and integration among the people,
companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade
and investment and aided by information technology

Global economy; States engagement in International markets affects government

policies and wealth and welfare of citizens

Global Security; State relations to counter terrorism, peace talks, peace treaties and
agreements, etc

Global health and human rights; transfer of medical and public health knowledge and
technology from one part of the globe to another, benefiting from international norms and
standards and sustaining global advocacy for health.

Global communication; fast transmission of large volumes of information around the

World thus guiding decisions on aid and other state related assistance

Immigrations; determining border control policies as people frequently migrate between

countries looking for opportunities to enhance their lives

Culture; IR promote advancement of human culture through enlightened IR policies to

enhance understanding of variety of human expression World wide

Conclusion

The entire population in the World is divided into separate territorial & political
communities or independent states

This division affect the way we live

State legal independence does not mean they are isolated from each other

States adjoin each other and affect each other thus should find ways to coexist and deal
with each other

(b). Foreign and Domestic Policies

What is foreign and domestic policy?

Foreign policy is a set of goals that seek to outline how that country will interface at an
official level with other countries of the world and, to a lesser extent, with non-state

actors in pursuit of its national economic, political, social and cultural interests.
Domestic policy is an area of public policy which concerns laws, government programs,
and administrative decisions which are directly related to all issues and activity within a
nation's borders. It covers a wide range of areas, including business, education, energy,
health care, law enforcement, money and taxes, natural resources, social welfare, and
personal rights and freedoms
Foreign policy objectives are an extension of domestic policy objectives because they

aim at:
Safeguarding the countrys sovereignty and territorial integrity
Protection of countrys prestige and image
Pursuit of policies that improve the standard of living of citizens wherever they are
Creation and maintenance of an international environment conducive for the attainment
of these goals.

All the above objectives focus on country and individuals (domestic harmony) much as they
are foreign policies and activities that countries engage in pursuit of foreign policy objectives
include:

Self-determination and support for liberation movements

Adherence to the principle of national sovereignty
Respect for territorial integrity of all countries
Promotion of the principle of equality among nations
Non-discrimination, whether based on color, creed, religion or other forms
Promotion of peaceful settlement of disputes and non-interference in the internal
affairs of other states

Conclusion
Foreign Policy, for any country is an extension of its domestic policy since it is the supreme
national interest that drives the conception of a countrys foreign policy. The fundamental
principles of national security, national economic well-being and the image of the country
8

that transcends the image of the Government of the day therefore form the foundation of a
countrys foreign policy.

5(a).Types of penetration Operations

Intelligence; is a process of collecting and analyzing information for the benefit of the

policy makers
Counter intelligence operations; are geared towards gaining an upper hand against the

opponent
Propaganda; refers to a process of using the information and symbols to change attitude
and thus the behavior of target population in another country.

(b). Intra and interstate conflicts

Intra- state

Struggle between 2 or more groups of power contenders with in a state

Each group seeking political power to advance its interests and goals
Can cause costly civil wars especially when the state apparatus fails to mediate

successfully between the conflicting parties

Intrastate conflicts may even occur within a well organized state system with a legally

constituted state apparatus for the mediation and arbitration of conflict.

Through the manipulation of power and allocation of resources among interest groups,
the state system produces consensus which is necessary for the maintenance of the
system.

Inter-state

Origins of interstate conflict are always found in domestic problems(intra state)

Struggle between 2 or more states.
Caused by; Decolonization, territorial disputes, external interference and refugees etc
Occurs because of competition between 2 or more states
States are interdependent thus produce a degree of integration which means increased
interaction or close contacts among independent and sovereign.
9

States pursue different interests, increased contact can likely cause conflict as it is to
promoting cooperation.

Conclusion
In practice however, both sets of courses are related e.g. the problem of refugees is often

created by internal power struggles.

6(a) Levels of analysis
Individual level
State level
Systems level
(b).Foreign policy Decision making
Individual level of analysis

Individual-level analysis is based on the view that it is people who make policy. It
analyzes the policy-making process by examining how people (as a species, in groups,

and individually) make decisions.

Individual-level analysis can be approached from three different perspectives. One is to
examine fundamental human nature. The second is to study how people act in

organizations. The third is to examine the motivations and actions of specific persons.
The human nature approach examines basic human characteristics, including the
cognitive, psychological, emotional, and biological factors that influence decision

making.
The organizational behavior approach studies such factors as role (how people act in

their professional position) and group decision-making behavior, including groupthink.

The idiosyncratic behavior approach explores the factors that determine the perceptions,
decisions, and actions of specific leaders. A leaders personality, physical and mental
health, ego and ambitions, understanding of history, personal experiences, and

perceptions are all factors.

The application of perceptions to policy can be explained by exploring operational
reality and operational codes.
10

State level analysis

State-level analysis assumes that since states are the most important international actors,
world politics can be best understood by focusing on how foreign policy is influenced by
the political structure of states, the policy-making actors within them, and the interactions

among the policy actors.

Foreign policy is not formulated by a single decision-making process. Instead, the exact
nature of that process changes according to a number of variables, including the type of

political system, the type of situation, the type of issue, and the internal factors involved.
States are complex organizations, and their internal, or domestic, dynamics influence

their international actions.

One set of internal factors centers on political culture: the fundamental, long-held beliefs

of a nation.
Another set of internal factors centers on the policy-making impact of various foreign
policy making actors. These include political leaders, bureaucratic organizations,
legislatures, political parties and opposition, interest groups, and the public. Each of these
influences foreign policy, but their influence varies according to the type of government,

the situation, and the policy at issue.

Usually, heads of government are the most powerful foreign policymaking actors.
Bureaucratic organizations are normally the second most powerful actors.

Systems Level Analysis

To be successful, countries usually must make policy choices within the context of the
realities of the international system. Therefore, system-level analysis examines how the

realities of the international system influence foreign policy.

Many factors determine the nature of any given system. Systemic factors include its

structural characteristics, power relationships, economic realities, and norms of behavior.

One structural characteristic is how authority is organized. The international system is
horizontal, based on state sovereignty, and therefore it is anarchical. There are, however,
relatively new centralizing forces that are changing the system toward a more vertical
structure.
11

Another structural characteristic is a systems frequency, scope, and level of interaction.

The current system is becoming increasingly interdependent, with a rising number of

interactions across an expanding range of issues. Economic

Interdependence is especially significant.
When analyzing power relationships, an important factor is the number of poles in a
system and how the pattern of international relations varies depending on how many

power centers, or poles, a system has.

The current system most closely resembles either a unipolar system or limited unipolar

system dominated by the United States.

The context of power is another system characteristic. One contextual factor is the

applicability of power in a given situation.

Another aspect of the context is the intricate inter-relationships among almost 200
countries and the need of even powerful countries for diplomatic reciprocity, the
cooperation of others on a range of issues. It is therefore wise, before using power, to

calculate the long-term impact of the attitudes of other countries.

Norms are the values that help determine patterns of behavior and create some degree of
predictability in the system. The norms of the system are changing. Many newer
countries, for instance, are challenging some of the current norms of the system, most of
which are rooted in Western culture

7(a) (i) Multinational Corporations/ Transnational corporations

Corporation that is registered in more than one country or that has operations in more

than one country

They produce and sell goods or services in various countries
Multinational corporations are important factors in the processes of globalization
National and local governments often compete against one another to attract MNC
facilities, with the expectation of increased tax revenue, employment, and economic

activity
MNCs play an important role in developing the economies of developing countries like
investing in these countries provide market to the MNC but provide employment, choice

of multi goods etc

Examples include Wal-mart, General Motors, Exxon-Mobil, Mitsubishi, and Siemens,
coca cola, Pepsi etc
12

Criticized for entering countries that have low human rights or environmental standards.
Multinationals give rise to huge merged conglomerations that reduce competition and
free enterprise, raise capital in host countries but export the profits, exploit countries for
their natural resources, limit workers' wages, erode traditional cultures, and challenge
national sovereignty.

(ii)Terrorist organizations

Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, often violent, especially as a means of coercion
Practiced by political parties, nationalistic groups, religious groups, revolutionaries,

individuals and ruling governments

Indiscriminate use of violence against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining publicity

for a group, cause, or individual

The symbolism of terrorism can leverage human fear to help achieve these goals.
the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells,

highly motivated to serve a particular cause

Terrorist groups benefit from the free flow of information and efficient

telecommunications to succeed where others have failed.

Funded by state sponsors, through revolutionary tax, kidnapping for ransoms, smuggling,

fraud and robbery

Examples include; al-Qaeda, Al-Shabaab, Hezbollah, Irish People's Liberation

Organization, United National Liberation Front, etc.

There are over 150 terrorist organizations in the World.

(iii).The United Nations

Was established on 24 October 1945 by 51 countries committed to preserving peace

through international cooperation and collective security

Today, nearly every nation in the world belongs to the UN

13

The central importance of the UN in the World derives from its nearly universal
membership among states and its comprehensive mandate that allows the UN to tackle

most issues.
To maintain international peace and security
Develop friendly relations among nations
Cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for human rights
A centre for harmonizing the actions of nations
Provide the means to help resolve international conflicts and formulate policies on

matters affecting all of us.

The United Nations has six main organs. Five of them the General Assembly, the
Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council and the
Secretariat are based at UN Headquarters in New York. The sixth, the International
Court of Justice, is located at The Hague in the Netherlands.

(b).Challenges of International Organizations

Little attention to the follow-up of cases in which evident violations of human rights were

established due to impunity of state related perpetrators

International human rights are not yet sufficiently focused on the economic, political,
social, and cultural aspects of the distinct environments in which these rights have to be

realized
Devoid of global governance, economic globalization has increased socio-economic
inequality while creating an adverse environment for the realization of economic, social,
and cultural rights yet international governmental organizations such as the World Trade
Organization (WTO) distance themselves from responsibilities for human rights

implementation.
State Exceptionalism. Exceptionalism is a term generally used to describe the ways and
means by which states exempt themselves from the international legal and political order.
Highly problematic from a human rights perspective is the exceptionalist spillover to the

rest of the world, including countries like Israel USA and Iran, too.
No supranational institution capable of effectively policing international law, so if other
nations aren't willing to engage in conflict or jeopardize their relationship with the
affected parties they often don't intervene.
14

Protectionist pressures in some nations confronted with high unemployment and other

domestic difficulties
In some nations trade balances deteriorated because of the heavy burden of oil imports

and of the different paces of economic recovery

Economic recession due to civil wars especially in Low income countries
One-size-fits-all strategy does not apply to all countries .e.g. IMF policies in Tanzania
Domination by the US and Europe

15