Journal of Global Mobility

The decision-making processes of self-initiated expatriates: a consumer behaviour

approach
Gabriela Glassock Anthony Fee

Article information:

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

To cite this document:

Gabriela Glassock Anthony Fee , (2015),"The decision-making processes of self-initiated expatriates:
a consumer behaviour approach", Journal of Global Mobility, Vol. 3 Iss 1 pp. 4 - 24
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JGM-09-2014-0044
Downloaded on: 20 September 2016, At: 18:32 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 67 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 1117 times since 2015*

Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:

(2005),"Decision waves: consumer decisions in today's complex world", European Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 39 Iss 1/2 pp. 216-230 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090560510572098
(2013),"Consumer decision making styles in retailing: evolution of mindsets and
psychological impacts", Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 30 Iss 1 pp. 75-87 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363761311290858
(1994),"Conceptualizing Guilt in the Consumer Decision-making Process", Journal of Consumer
Marketing, Vol. 11 Iss 3 pp. 33-43 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/07363769410065454
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by All users group

For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald
for Authors service information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission
guidelines are available for all. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.

About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com

Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company
manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as
well as providing an extensive range of online products and additional customer resources and
services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the
Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for
digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on Emerald Insight at:
www.emeraldinsight.com/2049-8799.htm

JGM
3,1

The decision-making processes

of self-initiated expatriates:
a consumer behaviour approach

4
Received 8 September 2014
Revised 20 November 2014
20 December 2014
Accepted 21 December 2014

Gabriela Glassock and Anthony Fee

UTS Business School, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Abstract

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the features of the decision-making processes
used by self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) when considering an international assignment. It does this by
examining expatriates decision processes through the lens of prominent theories of consumer decision
making.
Design/methodology/approach An abductive, exploratory research design was employed, based
on in-depth qualitative case studies of nine SIEs.
Findings In general, the expatriates in the study tended to deploy high-involvement decisionmaking processes. Rational decision models drawing on multiple high-quality information sources
were common, especially for expatriates with career-oriented motivations and no prior experience in
the target country. Three types of expatriates are distilled: career building (high involvement,
career oriented, compensatory decision model), risk minimizing (high/medium involvement, noncompensatory decision model), and emotionally driven (low involvement, affective decision model).
Originality/value While research into expatriates motivations is plentiful, this is the first study to
examine the decision-making processes that define the way in which these motivations are enacted.
Its originality stems from combining two previously unrelated strands of research (consumer decision
making and expatriation). The resulting tentative typology of decision-making approaches provides
a platform for organisations seeking to better target talent recruitment, and for researchers seeking to
further examine the decision processes of SIEs.
Keywords Self-initiated expatriates, Consumer decision making, Motivation, Decision making,
Expatriate motivation, Expatriation
Paper type Research paper

Talent scarcity is driving the growth of an internationally mobile creative class that
encompasses five generations of workers. Competition for talent will come not only from the
company down the street, but also from the employer on the other side of the world. It will be
a sellers market, with talented individuals having many choices. Both countries and
companies will need to brand themselves as locations of choice to attract this talent (World
Economic Forum, 2011, p. 7).

Journal of Global Mobility

Vol. 3 No. 1, 2015
pp. 4-24
Emerald Group Publishing Limited
2049-8799
DOI 10.1108/JGM-09-2014-0044

The preceding extract from a 2011 World Economic Forum report alludes to two
powerful forces shaping the global labour market. The first is a global under-supply of
talented knowledge workers, an ongoing problem (Dewhurst et al., 2012) that has led
multinational enterprises (MNEs) to reconsider their global recruitment and retention
strategies (Silvanto and Ryan, 2014; World Economic Forum (WEF), 2011). Against this
backdrop is a second trend among global workers towards self-managed global careers
(Carr et al., 2005; Vance, 2005), exemplified by the rise of the self-initiated expatriate
(SIE) individuals who instigate their own international job without any involvement
or assistance from the organisation (Doherty, 2012).
These trends have placed demands on MNEs to be more systematic in their
recruitment and retention policies so as to compete for the most talented of these
globally-mobile workers. This global war for talent (Beechler and Woodward, 2009;

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Michaels et al., 2001) is particularly acute for MNEs given the very high direct and
opportunity costs of recruiting and placing expatriates (Collings et al., 2009), and their
strategic and operational importance to the firm (Cerdin and Brewster, 2014).
The competitive reality is that organisations face pressure to market themselves to
attract the best expatriates in the same way that businesses market goods and services
to consumers. Just as marketers seek to understand the decision processes of their
consumers in order to position a product or service to particular target markets,
MNEs wishing to recruit and retain these autonomous and talented SIEs (Mayrhofer
et al., 2008) may benefit from a better understanding of the mechanisms that underpin
their decision to expatriate.
While researchers have begun to unpick the reasons why SIEs choose to expatriate
(e.g. Doherty et al., 2011; Froese, 2011), the decision-making processes used by SIEs,
and the factors that influence these, have yet to be examined. Given that the decision to
expatriate is the primary differentiator between SIEs and assigned expatriates, this
represents an important research gap.
To address this gap, this paper reports the results of an exploratory study that
examines features of the decision-making process of SIEs. It does this by applying
a stream of research that has previously not been considered in relation to SIEs;
consumer behaviour theory. Specifically, this study draws upon the foundations of
well-established models of consumer decision making to understand the behaviours
of SIEs when deciding to expatriate. Merging these two, until now, disparate fields of
research provides unique insights into the decision to expatriate that go beyond just
expatriates motivations. In doing so, we extend the metaphor common in industry and
academia of human capital as something to be competed for, marketed to, and attracted
(Beechler and Woodward, 2009; Michaels et al., 2001).
Our paper starts by reviewing the literature on the two domains of interest:
motivations of SIEs, and the consumer decision-making process. This is followed by
descriptions of the research methodology and main results. The paper concludes
by discussing the implications of the results for future research and for practitioners.
Literature review
While a variety of definitions exist (Andresen et al., 2014; Dickmann and Baruch, 2011;
Doherty et al., 2013), SIEs are people who instigate a temporary work placement
outside their home country, and who are not assigned there by their employer. The
independence of SIEs distinguishes this autonomous group from expatriates deployed
overseas by an employer (assigned expatriates), who make up the bulk of the expatriate
literature (Andresen et al., 2012).
While still a nascent field of research, to date studies of SIEs have focused
overwhelmingly on their motivations to expatriate. Beginning with Inkson et al.s (1997)
foundational research, a number of authors have examined SIEs motivations and
begun articulating categories or typologies of SIEs based on their motivations (e.g.
Doherty et al., 2011; Froese, 2011; Inkson and Myers, 2003; Richardson and Mallon,
2005; Richardson and McKenna, 2002). Taken collectively, the literature highlights at
least six distinct categories of motivations. These are identified in the left hand column
of Table I, along with details of studies that have identified these as either primary
motivations or secondary motivations.
This body of research presents SIEs motivations as complex, with individuals
typically motivated by a combination of factors (Inkson and Myers, 2003). It also
suggests that SIEs are primarily intrinsically motivated, driven by personal goals and

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
5

JGM
3,1

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Table I.
Motivations of
self-initiated
expatriates
(prior research)

Motivation

Found to be primary motivation

Found to be secondary motivation

Adventure/
travel

Inkson et al. (1997), Richardson and

McKenna (2002), Inkson and Myers (2003),
Richardson and Mallon (2005), Myers and
Pringle (2005), Thorn (2009), Doherty et al.
(2011), Froese (2011)
Escape/life
Richardson and McKenna (2002), Inkson Richardson and McKenna (2002)
change
and Myers (2003), Richardson and Mallon
(2005), Myers and Pringle (2005)
Career
Suutari and Brewster (2000), Thorn (2009) Inkson et al. (1997), Richardson and
McKenna (2002), Inkson and Myers (2003),
Richardson and Mallon (2005), Myers and
Pringle (2005), Doherty et al. (2011)
Money
Richardson and McKenna (2002)
Suutari and Brewster (2000), Richardson
and Mallon (2005), Thorn (2009).
Family
Richardson and Mallon (2005), Richardson Inkson et al. (1997), Suutari and Brewster
(2006), Doherty et al. (2011)
(2000), Thorn (2009)
Social/cultural Inkson and Myers (2003), Myers and
factors
Pringle (2005)

aspirations, not just career issues (Doherty, 2012; Guo et al., 2013). While motivating
themes based on adventure/travel are consistently ranked as dominant, the importance
of other motivational factors such as escape, career, money, family, and socio-cultural
factors vary across the board (Froese, 2011; Doherty, 2012).
This literature suffers a number of weaknesses; for instance, the bulk of studies are
atheoretical and descriptive. Nonetheless, it does provide a useful understanding of
the nature of SIEs motivations. What these studies fail to do, however, is shed light on
the process through which SIEs enact these motivations.
To better understand the decision-making process of SIEs, we draw on consumer
decision-making theory. This theoretical perspective views a consumption decision
as a problem-solving task directed at a consumption choice (Mowen, 1988; Olson and
Reynolds, 2001). While different models of decision making exist in the literature, most
are variations of the grand models (i.e. Nicosia, 1966; Engel et al., 1968; Howard and
Sheth, 1969), which make up the dominant framework for understanding consumer
decision making. These cognitive models view individuals as information processors
who obtain information from the environment and process, organise, and evaluate it in
relation to a decision (e.g. Bettman, 1979). These models identify five chronological
steps in the decision-making process:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

need recognition;
information search;
evaluation of alternatives;
choice; and

(5) post-purchase evaluation.

This study focuses on just the first three stages of this process: (1) need recognition,
which motivates action when individuals perceive large variance between their ideal
(future) and current state (Bruner and Pomazal, 1988); (2) information search, in which
individuals search for information in order to reduce uncertainty and risk associated

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

with the decision (Peterson and Merino, 2003); and (3) evaluation of alternatives,
where the decision maker develops an approach to evaluating alternatives that suits
the complexity, importance, and context of the decision.
Applying this body of research to the decision to expatriate highlights several
distinct characteristics. First, the decision has strong similarities with the purchase of
a service rather than a good or product (Palmer, 2011). Like services, international
assignments are intangible (an experience as opposed to a physical good), inseparable
(the consumption occurs during the placement), and heterogeneous (no two expatriate
experiences are the same). While the experience itself is perishable (a fourth
characteristic of services), it may be argued that the accumulated capital that is such
a valued part of expatriation (social, intellectual, cultural, etc.) is retained and, in fact, an
important outcome of expatriate assignments (e.g. Jokinen et al., 2008).
Second, the decision to expatriate is likely viewed as a high-risk decision. People
make the decision to expatriate in one country and then consume or experience it in
another (Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005). This limits expatriates ability to make a fully
informed decision (MacInnis et al., 1991), and so increases uncertainty and perceived
risk associated with the decision. Exacerbating this is the high switching and opportunity
costs imbued in the decision to expatriate, including the career and social capital that
expatriates are foregoing from their home-country lives. Combined with other
characteristics of expatriate assignments their high social visibility, high financial
and psychological risk, and unfamiliarity with the service being produced (Lamb et al.,
2010) this points to expatriating being a high involvement decision likely to prompt an
extended problem-solving process (Pires and Stanton, 2000).
Research into high-involvement decision-making processes suggest that expatriates
information search (stage 2) is likely to be thorough. While relatively unimportant
decisions can be made based on an individuals internal knowledge or limited external
information sources (Bettman, 1979; Hoyer, 1984; Peterson and Merino, 2003), highinvolvement decisions prompt a search for broader and more reliable sources of
information. Decision makers use sources they deem to be credible and reliable, and seek
to access information that is especially salient (Hoyer and Macinnis, 2008, p. 216).
The nature of the decision also influences the way in which alternatives are evaluated
(stage 3). In general, consumers have a choice between cognitive (information-based) and
affective (emotions-based) decision models to evaluate consumption decisions (Hoyer
and MacInnis, 2008). High-involvement decisions typically require cognitive decision
models in which information is evaluated in a rational, systematic manner, often via
funneling in from a wide range of alternatives until a final choice is made (Hauser and
Wernerfelt, 1990; Court et al., 2009).
Two types of cognitive decision models are possible. In compensatory decision
models, consumers evaluate the attributes of a product or service against their
consideration set (Hauser and Wernerfelt, 1990), and then weigh these factors in terms
of the overall importance to their final decision. It is a laborious process, requiring the
individual to identify explicit trade-offs among alternatives, ultimately selecting
the option with the highest overall value (Bettman et al., 1998). Conversely, with a noncompensatory decision model, negative information is used to evaluate and immediately
eliminate unsatisfactory options from the consideration set (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2008).
Individuals using a non-compensatory decision model implement cut-off levels and reject
any product that does not reach their pre-defined requirements. A non-compensatory
strategy still involves rational decision-making processes, but requires less time and
cognitive effort and so may lead to a sub-optimal choice (Lee et al., 1999).

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
7

JGM
3,1

Finally, the lowest level of involvement is displayed by consumers deploying

affective decision models. These consumers tend to base their decision on a strong
emotional desire, rather than a rational need. They reduce the effort in making
judgments and simplify the evaluation process (Vessey, 1991; Tversky and Kahneman,
1974) through the use of heuristics (rules of thumb).
Research into SIE motivations, summarised earlier, focuses on just the first stage
of the decision-making process (need recognition). How expatriates approach the
information search (stage 2) and evaluation of alternatives (stage 3) is, to date,
unexamined. In the absence of prior research into this phenomenon, our study sought
to answer the following exploratory research questions:
RQ1. What are the main features that characterise each stage of the decisionmaking process for SIEs?

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

RQ2. From this, what overall decision-making approaches are used by SIEs?
Research methodology
This study deployed an exploratory (abductive) approach that aimed to capture, from
the perspective of SIEs, the range of mechanisms underlying their decision to
expatriate. To achieve this we undertook a series of in-depth case studies of individual
SIEs. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews, with the primary unit
of analysis being the individual; in particular, his/her decision to instigate and decide
on an expatriate placement. The duration of each unit of analysis (i.e. the decision
process) ranged from four weeks to 11 months.
Participants were recruited via a combination of personal contacts and snowball
sampling technique. Details of the study were e-mailed to professional contacts of
the researchers. These contacts included a network of international human resource
managers of 27 multinational organisations, and staff and post-graduate students from
an Australian university. This was combined with a snowball sampling approach,
whereby referrals were sought from people who share or know of others who possess
some characteristics that are of research interest (Biernacki and Waldorf, 1981, p. 141).
Specifically, at the completion of interviews respondents were asked if they knew any
additional people meeting the sampling criteria. This method of sampling has proven to
be successful in previous studies in this field (e.g. Inkson and Myers, 2003; Myers and
Pringle, 2005).
The final purposive sample involved nine participants who met the two sampling
criteria (instigating a temporary international work assignment and relocating without
assistance from the organisation). The sample size is similar to several published
studies in this field (e.g. Fitzgerald and Howe-Walsh, 2008; Harrison and Michailova,
2013). A demographic breakdown of each participant is provided in Table II. As it
shows, participants came from seven nationalities and expatriated to five different
countries. All were adults at the time of expatriation. The average duration of the
position that formed the basis of the expatriate decision in this study was 24 months
(range 12-48 months). Only one of the respondents (#02) had had prior experience as
an expatriate. All respondents were university graduates, with the largest professional
category being SIE academics, a population which has been the focus of several other
studies (e.g. Froese, 2011).
The three stages of the decision-making model were used as the framework for
interviews, which averaged 40 minutes in duration. All were recorded via a tablet and
transcribed. As the interviews dealt with past decisions in some detail, several steps

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Age at
time of
Code Gender expatriation

Host
Nationality country

#01
#02
#03
#04
#05
#06
#07
#08
#09

German
Canadian
Turkish
Australian
American
French
Australian
English
Australian

Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Male
Male
Female
Male

Mid 20s
Mid 20s
Mid 30s
Early 40s
Early 20s
Late 20s
Late 30s
Mid 20s
Early 20s

China
Australia
Australia
England
China
Australia
England
Australia
Japan

Industry
Marketing
Education
Education
IT
PR/media
IT
IT
Education
Education

Intended
duration of
placement

Previous
expatriate
experience

Accompanied

12
32
24
18
24
24
21
48
18

No
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No

No
No
Partner
Family
No
Partner
Family
Partner
No

months
months
months
months
months
months
months
months
months

were taken to mitigate potential recall biases that can threaten internal validity. The
main tool for this was e-mailing an interview schedule in advance to allow time for
respondents to reflect on the issues to be discussed. During interviews, open-ended
questions were initially used to draw out unimpeded personal recollections. Where
appropriate, these were followed with specific probes designed to confirm detail (e.g.
At what stage did you exclude Singapore as a destination?) or to exhaust respondents
memory (e.g. Do you recall if you visited any specific employment websites?).
The data coding process involved multiple steps. First, interviews were coded
descriptively according to stages in the model of decision making. The content of each
descriptive category was then coded to identify major themes. Except where noted in
the findings, this coding process was primarily inductive.
During analysis, data were organised chronologically into table form (Microsoft
Excel), and coding quantified as a means of seeing the relative importance of responses
(based on frequency). Separate tables were developed for each individual respondent,
as well as for the main thematic categories within the decision-making stages. Early in
the coding process, it became apparent that most respondents reported multiple
reasons, processes, or criteria at different stages. Themes were classified as being either
primary (most important) or secondary (subordinate). A primary theme was one that
was explicitly identified as being of most important, the sole theme identified, or the
first of several identified. By doing this, an indication of the relative importance of
particular responses was discerned. Following this, the decision-making processes for
all respondents were colour-coded and mapped visually, enabling us to discern patterns
and relationships across themes and demographic variables, and providing the basis
for the findings reported in the following section.
Findings
Features of each stage of decision-making approach (RQ1)
This section addresses the major themes from each stage of the decision-making
process, focusing on the two stages receiving least attention in the SIE literature;
information search, and evaluation of alternatives.
1. Need recognition. Respondents reported a total of 43 motivations (21 primary and
22 secondary). From these, five categories of motivations were identified in the data:
(1) adventure/travel;
(2) career;

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
9

Table II.
Sample profile

JGM
3,1

(3) money;
(4) escape; and
(5) family/personal relationships.

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

10

Table III identifies sub-themes within these categories, the frequency that each
motivation was reported as a primary or secondary motivation, as well as sample
responses for each category.
Respondents motivations were multi-dimensional, with a typical respondent
reporting two primary and two secondary motivations (average 4.6 per person). For
example, after working in the same job for ten years, respondent #04 felt work was
becoming mundane and wanted to do something different (escape). He saw an
opportunity to earn four times what I was earning here by working in England
(money), but also wanted to see more of the world and travel around Europe with
his young family (adventure/travel). He viewed expatriation as a way of achieving of
all these goals simultaneously.
Consistent with prior research (Doherty et al., 2011), the SIEs motivations were
primarily intrinsic, with desire to see the world, new experiences and learning, and
desire for adventure all reported more often than career factors. While internal
motivations were of primary concern to respondents, external circumstances often
overlooked in SIE research also played a role in stimulating respondents need
recognition, especially for career-motivated respondents. Two external forces were
apparent. The first was macroeconomic conditions, which acted as either push or pull
factors; for instance poor labour market condition propelled the decision of three
respondents (#02, #08, #09). Second, consistent with Richardson and Mallon (2005), at
least six respondents explicitly noted the influence of serendipity on their decision. These
respondents used terms like chance, fell in my lap, and luck to describe this. These
related to either the target country or the job opportunity itself, as the following quotes
demonstrate:
It was an Australian university posting [] but they had advertised that on a UK job site so it
was entirely by chance (respondent #02).
I used to regularly look in the employment section of the newspapers and [] I kind of just
came across this one (international posting) that caught my eye and thought why not? Ill just
apply and see what happens (respondent #09).

2. Information search. All respondents undertook active information searches

involving multiple external sources, most commonly word of mouth (family and
friends), and the internet (various targeted and generic web sites, search engines, and
mail lists), as well as personal knowledge and experiences. For most respondents, the
process took substantial effort, occurred over a period of several months, and involved
numerous external information sources. This enabled respondents to informally
triangulate data on a multitude of issues and from a range of sources when making
their decision. To demonstrate the extensive nature of the information search used by
participants, case studies of information search stage summarises the information
search undertaken by two respondents (#06 and #08).
Respondent #06:
Starting with a general internet search to find out about the host country and the
opportunities available, this adventure/travel motivated respondent then researched, and

2
0

Escape
Escape negative work
situations

Life change

Family/personal
relationship

5
1

Money

4
1
0

5
2
2
3

8
3
2

10
3
4

Enhance future career

prospects

Desire for adventure

and challenges
Career
Career development
Job security

Adventure/travel
Desire to see the world
New experiences and
learning

Motivational category

I had been there (at the company) for a long time and [] I needed something different. It was getting a bit
mundane [] I had been at the company for ,I think, 10 years [] and I was a bit over it, I needed a change
(#04)
We decided that if we did move to California that we would probably never move out, that we would end
up buying a house, getting a mortgage and it would be difficult to move to another place. We wanted to do
a bit more exploring and try something new, make a change before we settled down (#03)
So I ended up coming to China [] for an internship [] met someone, kinda got in a relationship and that
was a pretty significant factor in me wanting to come back after I graduated []. So it really was a matter
of not having an idea what to do and this one thing pulling me into a direction stronger than anything else
was pulling me (#05)

To enhance my career, take a step further [] the whole of my career was connected to this (#08)
At the time there was an oversupply [] there was limited opportunities to get regularly work, not just
ad-hoc causal work, so when the opportunity arose to get permanent work I took it regardless of it being
overseas (#09)
I thought that knowing Chinese would be a big advantage. Maybe not short term but you know 5, 10, 20,
30 years down the line [] I thought investing some time and money into Chinese would probably be a
good move for the future (#05)
Everyone in the UK was paying big dollar, 50 pounds an hour, for the same job I was doing so I thought
why not (#04)

We wanted to do a bit more exploring before we settled down (#03)

I grew up in the country side and never really had any contact with Asians and then when I was here in
Sydney that changed a lot. Then I realised how much they know about me and my culture and how
interested they are and I (had) no idea about them [] from then I just got interested (#01)
We both decided to experience, originally something different, a different culture with a different
language at the time (#06)

Frequency
Primary Secondary
motive
motive
Quotation

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
11

Table III.
Motivations of SIEs

JGM
3,1

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

12

subsequently made contact with, a number of recruitment agencies in order to assist in

attaining a job. This was followed by a three-week visit to the target country:
So we thought we wouldnt take any risk. My wife just stayed in France and earned the money
while I could go to Australia on a tourist visa at the time and maybe try and get a few
connections and potentially find a job and visa [] I couldnt find any job in Perth because that
was our preferred choice. I contacted a few recruitment agencies and they were mainly based in
Sydney. So the plan was I would be coming for a month, have a week in Perth and enjoy Cairns
just as a holiday for a week then go to Sydney and meet with a recruitment agency.
Respondent #08:
In the process of completing her PhD, respondent #08 was not actively seeking an
international position. However, after talking to people about potential opportunities that
would be available upon completion of her PhD she attended an open day put on in London by
an Australian university. From there she gained an overview of the university sector and
what life would be like living in Australia. It also enabled her to make direct contact with
other expatriates, which she described as invaluable for the insights they gave about the job
conditions and Australia in general. As her interest in the opportunity increased, she started
to conduct general internet searches to gain extra information about potential employers and
life in Australia. She also noted that in addition to this:
We were doing all the things that a holiday maker would but knowing it would be long term,
(including looking at) holiday brochures and things like that and just looking on the map.

As case studies of information search stage demonstrates, the use of external information
sources was extensive, with the internet reported as a primary or secondary source by all
respondents. Respondents tended to use the internet in one of three ways:
(1) general internet search for international jobs relating their profession (five
responses);
(2) specific job search engines (five responses); and
(3) mailing lists (two responses).
Notably, no respondents reported using social media (e.g. Facebook, discussion forums,
LinkedIn).
Supporting the view that high-involvement decisions require trustworthy sources of
information (Zeithaml, 1981), all nine respondents used word of mouth to inform their
decision; for seven, this was the primary source (compared to just five respondents
using the internet as their primary source). In all but one case word of mouth occurred
personally rather than via the internet, and was often combined with internet-based
research (six respondents). There was some suggestion that respondents consciously
placed relatively greater value on word of mouth than other sources of information, as
the following example shows:
I would first look (online) to get a sense of what things are and then ask peoples opinions. If some
people said Oh thats a dangerous neighbourhood no matter what I found on the Internet, I would
go with their opinion because they have actually been there and experienced it (respondent #03).

In general, respondents without first-hand knowledge of the target country sought a

broader array of external sources. By way of example, respondent #02 used networks
she developed in graduate school to find people who had been to Australia in order to
learn what things would be different and to get some tips and tricks. In its most
extreme form, two respondents (#03, #06) took the effort to travel to the target country
in order to gain first-hand experience and information. Other sources of information

that were reported included the use of recruitment agencies and attending open days
of firms from the target country (two respondents), which provided opportunities for
direct contact with other expatriates.
Two respondents (#01, #05) used internal information as the primary source
of information. Both had previously visited the host country. The knowledge
gained from this past experience became an integral input into the decision-making
process for these respondents, leading to a streamlined information search. For example,
while respondent #01 used the internet (a job database) as a tool to locate a job she stated:

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

[] as to other information, such as getting a visa and all that, it didnt really help as I had
been to China before I already knew what to do and did it all myself.

3. Evaluation of alternatives. Our analysis of the way in which respondents

evaluated alternatives involved two steps. First, responses were thematically
coded in order to identify the main criteria used when evaluating alternatives.
From this, two main categories of criteria were identified: those relating to the target
country (location), and those relating to the work position (job). As with motivations,
all respondents identified multiple evaluation criteria. A typical respondent had four
key evaluation criteria (mean 4.4) and included two countries in their consideration
set (mean 2.3).
Consistent with recent studies (Dickmann and Cerdin, 2014), socio-cultural factors
tended to dominate respondents evaluation criteria for the host location, including the
native (English) language spoken (five responses), safety (four), perceived stability
(three), and standard of living (two). Among the job factors that were reported as being
important, congruence with respondents skills and experience was most commonly
reported (nine responses), followed by the roles career development potential (four),
salary (three), and challenge (two). It was clear from the way that respondents
described this process that consideration sets relating to job and location were
intertwined. For instance, respondent #07 described considering two very similar jobs
[] and the money was pretty much the same. It really boiled down to, Do I want to
work in Scotland or do I want to work in England?
The second stage of analysis matched each respondents decision-making process
with the models summarised in the literature review to determine whether:

Alternatives were evaluated based on information gathered (cognitive decision

model), as opposed to evaluating alternatives based on feelings and emotions
(affective decision model)
For those using cognitive decision models, the alternatives were weighed up via
a process of making trade-offs amongst characteristics (compensatory), or by
considering only alternatives with particular characteristics while rejecting
others immediately (non-compensatory).

Our analysis revealed that seven of the nine respondents used cognitive decision
models. Of these, three respondents (#02, #08, and #09) deployed a compensatory
decision model, involving a (labour-intensive) systematic funnelling in process,
generally seen to demonstrate higher levels of involvement (Hauser and Wernerfelt,
1990). These respondents used terms such as weighed up and compared to discuss
their evaluation approach. The key feature of the approach used by this group,
confirmed during interviews by probing questions, was their willingness to accept an
unfavourable characteristic in order to capitalise on an opportunity. This is exemplified

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
13

JGM
3,1

by respondent #08, who saw an international opportunity that was too good to
forego:
I suppose the fact that Australia was so far away, that was still a factor in the decision but we
obviously weighed it up and decided that the distance was unfortunate but it wasnt
something that was going to stop us.

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

14

Four respondents (#03, #04, #06, and #07) used a non-compensatory cognitive
decision model. These respondents described their decision making via a process of
elimination, ruling out alternatives that did not meet pertinent evaluation criteria.
Phrases such as it must have, it had to be and would not go highlighted the fixed
and somewhat inflexible criteria that, consciously or sub-consciously, served as cutoff or reject options. It was notable that for all four of these respondents the cut-off
options related to the target country rather than the job; specifically political or
economic instability (four responses), the use of an unfamiliar foreign language (three),
poor weather conditions (three) and high cost of living (one):
We still werent sure about the safety and the government was not good (respondent #04).
We just wanted a Western country [] we just wanted the same sort of living condition that
we got in France (respondent #06).

In contrast just two respondents (#01 and #05) used affective decision models. For
both, emotions over-rode rational judgement in the decision-making process. These
respondents developed consideration sets that consisted of just one country; coincidentally,
for both it was China. Both had travelled to China twice previously and considered
no other locations (it was always China #05; for me it was definitely China #01).
They also exhibited low levels of involvement in the decision, notably through the use
of availability heuristics making judgements based on these past experiences that were
vivid and easy to recall from their memory (Tversky and Kahneman, 1974).
Overall decision-making approaches (RQ2)
Looking holistically at the data across the different stages of decision making, three
different patterns of decision-making approaches are evident. We label these career
building (high involvement, career oriented, compensatory decision model), risk
minimizing (high/medium involvement, non-compensatory decision model), and
emotionally driven, (low involvement, affective decision models). The characteristics
of each group are summarised in Table IV and outlined below.
1. Career building. The highest level of involvement was displayed by respondents
demonstrating career building behaviour. They expatriated with the conscious intent
to take advantage of a job opportunity that presented itself in this case, closely tied to
the career-related motivations that underlined their decision, and which became salient
because of more favourable work opportunities overseas. The three respondents in this
category (Table IV, column 2) were young (in their 20s) and career driven, with
evaluation criteria prioritising characteristics of the job over location factors. They
sought multiple external sources of information and used compensatory decision models
to weigh up alternatives. In terms of need recognition, this group shared close similarities
with assigned expatriates in being motivated primarily by career opportunities or career
development (e.g. Doherty et al., 2011). However, these expatriates took a boundaryless
careerists (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996) perspective, seeking their ideal job in multiple
global locations, industries, and organisations.

#03, #04,
#06, #07

#02, #08,
#09

Driving force

Previous experience in
target country creating
emotional connection and
internal knowledge
schemas

Internal
emotional
pull factors
(e.g. personal
relationship)

External
push factors
(e.g. home
labour market
conditions)
External pull
Dependent spouse
incorporated into decision factors
(e.g. high
criteria and decisiondemand for
making process
skills)

Young (early-mid 20s)

Respondents Characteristics

Emotionally #01, #05

driven

Risk
minimising

Career
building

Category

Primarily intrinsic
(adventure/travel or
family)

Multi-dimensional;
combination of both
intrinsic (adventure/
travel) and extrinsic
(money)

Primarily extrinsic
(career)

Primarily external Job characteristics

(e.g. word of mouth, take priority over
location. Cognitive
internet)
(compensatory)
decision model
Both location and job
Comprehensive
characteristics
search, primarily
external (e.g. word considered important.
of mouth, internet, Cognitive
(non-compensatory)
visits)
decision model
Primarily internal
Location
characteristics take
priority over job.
Affective decision
model

Decision-making behaviours
b. Information
c. Evaluation of
a. Need recognition
search
alternatives

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Limited

High/
limited

High

Level of
involvement

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
15

Table IV.
Decision-making
approaches used
by SIEs

JGM
3,1

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

16

The career orientation of this group appears to have led to a thorough information search,
and greater willingness to off-set negative criteria (typically location-based) with positive
( job-related) ones. Indeed, the career building focus of the respondents in this category
seems to have been the main driver of the high-involvement approach they deployed,
over-riding characteristics that might otherwise contribute to a streamlined decision
process like prior experience as an expatriate (respondent #02) or prior experience in the
host country (respondent #05). To exemplify this, the first row of case studies
demonstrating different decision-making approaches presents a summarised case study
of the decision process of respondent #02, whose approach we label as career building.
a. Career building (respondent #02):
Facing unfavourable domestic labour market conditions after government cuts to the higher
education sector, respondent #02 decided to cast a wide net in Europe, Canada, the US(A) in
order to find a position that would support her career objectives. Being career driven, she
justified this by stating that the academic job market, its a very specialised thing. You cant
just pick where you want to go. You really need to apply where there are openings. This
was evident in her decision to apply for a position that she came across just by chance in
a country she had not previously been investigating Australia that she happened to see
advertised on a UK job site.
This respondent used an extensive decision process. She applied for and researched several
positions, devoting 20-30 hours a week on it. This time commitment increased after she
received confirmation of an interview; for instance, speaking with a large number of people
before the interview (word of mouth) added probably ten hours onto my usual interview prep
(aration). Even though she perceived there to be great risk associated with the move,
especially on her career trajectory, she weighed up the costs and benefits of the move and
decided that it was her best career option at the time.

b. Risk minimising (respondent #07):

Seeking adventure and a new challenge with his young family, this respondent started the
information search with an internet search of potential job opportunities. He found a lot of
opportunities for his profession (IT), a few of which met his evaluation criteria (e.g. English
speaking country, job fit) and which he applied for. This narrowed his consideration set to two
opportunities one in England and one in Scotland, resulting in his information search narrowing
to just these two countries:
Scotland would have been a fantastic place [] but basically people kept telling me how
cold it was [] I knew England was cold, everyone knows England is cold. So I tried to
look into it a little bit more, tried to find out more about the places.
The job opportunities in each country were relatively similar. The final choice came down to
where he and his family would rather live. At this point his partners perspective became more
prominent. After further research into each destination he added climate to his evaluation
criteria stating that the final decision was based on the fact that wed rather be in place that
we thought was warmer.

c. Emotionally driven (respondent #05):

Of all the respondents in this sample, this young male PR/media consultant was found to exert
the lowest level of involvement in the decision-making process. Driven by the desire to be with
a partner he had met on a previous trip, he was conscious of the fact that his decision was
emotional, rather than rational:
I was just out of college [] I wasnt thinking about stuff like quality of life or earning
potential or career direction, any of the stuff that rational people usually take into

consideration when deciding to go someplace [] If I was thinking in terms of what

factors should take me to a place or what factors should guide my decision, theres no way
I would have ended up in Beijing [] so I dont know if it really was a rational process.

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

He was the only respondent not to attain a job prior to moving to the foreign country. Rather
he decided to just get on the plane and find one there even though he did recognise the
limitations of not searching for a job prior to departure. He did conduct a minimal external
information search, however, talking to some people about it, but not as many as I should
have. These actions reflect limited involvement in the decision-making process.

2. Risk minimising. The four SIEs in this group (Table IV, column 2) lay between high
and limited involvement. While all had adventure/travel as a primary motivation, other
motives were salient, including career factors. The term risk minimizing comes from the
fact that this group deployed a non-compensatory decision model associated with a risk
minimisation strategy; indeed, all four respondents in this category explicitly mentioned
risks and/or risk mitigation during the interview. For all four, the decision-making
approach involved rejecting unfavourable alternatives rather than conducting thorough
cost-benefit analyses of all opportunities. Consistent with their risk-minimising approach,
the range of evaluation criteria used by respondents in this category (average 10.25 criteria
per person) was larger than the consideration sets of respondents using a career building
or risk minimizing approach (6.3 and 5 per person, respectively). Location factors like
political/economic instability, living conditions and language spoken (e.g. I speak Turkish,
I speak English, but Im not very good at languages so learning a new language wasnt
going to work for me, respondent #03) were the main cut-off options that these
expatriates used to reject alternatives. However, once this culling process was complete,
these respondents all identified the location as the primary evaluation criteria. This then
directed the ongoing information and job search. In short, lifestyle and economic
opportunities of the location tended to take precedence over specific job or career factors.
Respondents in this category chose high-quality information sources. All used word
of mouth from close friends and family; for three this was the primary information
source. Two respondents (#03 and #06) visited the target country as part of their
information search. Perhaps most pertinently, all four members of this group expatriated
with a dependent spouse, and the data show that spouses played active and influential
roles in the decision especially the evaluation of alternatives (stage 3) when the decision
to reject particular destinations was resolved (I would have loved to go to the US(A),
but my wife wasnt too keen on that, respondent #07). The middle row of Exhibit 2
summarises the case of respondent #07, classified as a risk minimiser.
3. Emotionally driven. The final category of respondents was characterised by the
prominent role emotion played in the decision (Arana and Leon, 2009). In effect, the
over-arousal of the emotional intensity appears to have impeded their cognitive and
rational judgement processing (Hanoch and Vitouch, 2004); instead, limited information
searches, affective decision models, and decision-making heuristics were apparent.
These respondents relied on first-hand (past) experiences rather than comprehensive
external information searches. For both respondents in this category, the emotional
attachment was to the host country/city, and so location-related evaluation criteria took
prominence over job-related criteria, and the number of external information sources
was less than half that used by respondents from the other two groups. There was no
evidence of them developing thorough consideration sets or cautiously weighing up
alternatives. Indeed, one of these respondents #05 whose is the subject of the final

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
17

JGM
3,1

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

18

example in Exhibit 2 was cognisant of the limitations of the process he undertook.

In short, rational decision making took a back seat to positive affect stemming from
(positive) past experience in the host country.
Discussion
This exploratory study aimed to shed light on the decision to expatriate by applying
theories of consumer decision making to the decision processes and behaviours of SIEs.
The results show that while the decision to expatriate unfolds in myriad ways unique
to the individual and context, in general SIEs take a high-involvement approach.
This outcome is consistent with the view that expatriation like high-value service
consumption activates behaviours and effort reflective of elevated levels of perceived
importance, uncertainty and risk (e.g. high-value placed on word of mouth information,
preference for compensatory decision models). However, SIEs decision-making
processes appeared to be mediated by their motivations and other antecedents like
family status and prior experience in the target country, which appear to shape the way
information is sought and how alternatives are evaluated. In short, viewing SIEs as a
single homogenous group appears to not fully capture the uniqueness of the decision
processes evident in the three approaches we identify (career building, risk minimising,
and emotionally driven).
While the motivations of SIEs appear to be well mapped our results are generally
consistent with earlier research our study begins the process of extending this onedimensional understanding of SIEs pre-expatriation decision-making. In doing so it
challenges some assumptions about SIEs. For instance, our data show that they are not
all adventure-seeking risk-takers by nature (McNulty and Inkson, 2013, p. 87) who
approach their geographic mobility with a care-free, psychological boundarylessness.
Rather, most SIEs in our study approached the decision to expatriate with great
caution, prepared to invest substantial time and money to reduce perceived risks
and uncertainty.
The innovative approach used here applying consumer decision-making models to
explore expatriates decision-making processes opens the potential to further examine
SIEs decision making through the theoretical lens of consumer behaviour research.
By way of example, the five-stage model of consumer decision-making that we have
applied in this study (Nicosia, 1966) provides a framework to explore SIEs postpurchase evaluation of their decision by, for instance, examining relationships
between decision-making processes and satisfaction with the decision to expatriate,
location, and job. Similarly, this model could be applied to better understand the
decision of SIEs to repatriate at the end of a placement (Tharenou and Caufield, 2010),
or to compare the consideration sets generated by SIEs with those generated for other
types of expatriate and non-expatriate career decisions.
The results also unpick some, perhaps surprising, features of expatriates decisionmaking processes. One of these is the importance that respondents placed on criteria
relating to location and job. Location was the central consideration for emotionally
driven expatriates, and an important cut-off (rejection) criterion for expatriates using
a risk minimizing approach. Meanwhile, career-motivated expatriates focused almost
exclusively on the role itself, and its career and financial dividends. In contrast, no
respondents not even career builders identified issues related to the organisation,
its reputation, or its expatriate management processes (e.g. provision of training,
in-country support) as part of their consideration set. We suggest that these results
may be evidence of a broader trend towards a more tenuous psychological contract

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

between workers and employers (Smithson and Lewis, 2000), characterised by individual
workers especially highly skilled, independent and autonomous knowledge workers
like those in our study taking greater responsibility for curating their own careers
(DiRenzo and Greenhaus, 2011; Mayrhofer et al., 2008).
Before discussing the practical implications, three limitations are worth noting in the
space available. First, our choice of in-depth case studies to explore this phenomenon
did, by necessity, limit the sample size. Consequently, caution should be applied in
transferring these findings to the broader expatriate population. Studies with samples
drawn from different populations and different contexts are likely to unearth additional
variables shaping expatriates use of decision-making approaches, and so extend
descriptive elements of the three categories that we identify. One avenue for follow up
studies is to compare approaches used by SIEs from different cultural backgrounds.
For instance, we foreshadow that expatriates from cultures high in uncertainty
avoidance (Hofstede et al., 2010) may have a preference for a risk minimisation
approach (Donthu and Yoo, 1998). Second, despite our efforts to prevent and limit recall
biases (outlined in the Research methodology section), like all retrospective crosssectional studies these subconscious biases may have threatened the internal validity
of the results. A longitudinal panel study that tracks respondents throughout the
decision process would enable the different stages of the decision process to be isolated,
and to unearth activities or processes that may overlap, interact, or otherwise go
unnoticed or be forgotten. Given the reliance to date on cross-sectional studies of SIEs
motivation (stage 1), longitudinal approaches could also provide fresh insights on, for
instance, how SIEs espoused motivations may change or fluctuate in salience across
the decision-making process. This, in turn, may help to describe more precisely the link
between motivation (stage 1) and subsequent stages of the decision process. Finally, we
have made no judgement about the relationship between the decision-making
process and the success of the expatriate to meet personal and/or organisational
objectives. Future studies should examine this link to determine whether, for instance,
emotionally driven expatriates, whose decision-making processes appear to be
most open to bias, might achieve sub-optimally on various measures of expatriate
performance.
Practical implications
At a practical level, a deeper understanding of SIEs behaviour in the decision-making
process can allow organisations to be more market-focused in how they recruit and
retain potential applications. In this regard, our research supports and extends earlier
studies examining organisational branding and recruitment by MNEs (e.g. Chapman
et al., 2005) by allowing MNEs to more directly address the needs and wants of
potential applicants in a targeted manner.
Perhaps most significantly, the consumer decision-making perspective has enabled
a broad segmentation of the SIE population, long acknowledged as important to
successful marketing strategies (Wedel and Kamakura, 2000). Similarly, organisations
can use understanding of the decision models used by SIEs to more efficiently market
expatriate placement opportunities. For example, our results suggest that making
available sufficient (and particular types of) information about the career benefits of
a position is a requirement to be included in the consideration set of career building
expatriates, and would assist their weighing up of costs and benefits via the
compensatory decision approach they use. Conversely, attracting risk minimisers

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
19

JGM
3,1

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

20

may require a recruitment strategy that neutralises or mitigates perceived risks

associated with the location (e.g. safety, standard of living) that may lead to a position
being rejected (non-compensatory approach). Such relatively straight-forward
initiatives not only assists applicants in deciding whether to seek or accept
expatriate positions, but may contribute to a better person-placement fit; an outcome
that is especially pertinent given the high direct and indirect costs of expatriate hiring,
and the relatively high reported rates of expatriate failure (Harvey and Moeller, 2009).
Beyond segmentations, our study suggests that the stage offering the most
opportunity for firms to influence an individuals decision is the information search
stage. Given the preference that SIEs in our study gave to credible, external sources of
information, organisations may consider ways to use former or current expatriates
to provide first-hand knowledge and experience qualities to prospective applicants.
Knowing where and how people search for information also allows organisations to
channel recruitment resources more effectively. Our study, for instance, suggests that
social media, while becoming popular in society, may not yet be the most efficient
channel to communicate expatriate opportunities.
The results highlight the importance of firms positioning themselves in a way that
will increase their chances of being included in SIEs consideration set, a requirement
for attracting applicants. For this group of expatriates, two high-level consideration
sets relating to characteristics of the location (notably safety and lifestyle issues)
and job (similarity to current industry, career development prospects), appeared to
dominate the evaluation process. These factors make the challenge of employer
branding often presented as a panacea to talent issues (Martin and Groen-int-Woud,
2011) more complex. Indeed, our results suggest that SIEs may be more responsive
to branding messages that highlight the location or the career possibilities of the role
itself, rather than the employer. By way of example, in light of our findings employers
might consider devoting resources to influencing the perceptions of potential applicants
about positive features of a location (e.g. its diversity, security, or lifestyle opportunities),
perhaps through working more cooperatively with host governments on place branding
initiatives (e.g. Anholt, 2003) at the national, regional, and/or city level.
Our study has taken an important first step towards providing both organisations
and individuals insights into the full gamut of expatriates decision-making behaviour.
We believe that understanding this process can only increase in importance in the
future as self-initiated, boundaryless careers become more prominent.

References
Andresen, M., Biemann, T. and Wilson-Pattie, M. (2012), What makes them move abroad?
Reviewing and exploring differences between self-initiated and assigned expatriation,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 533-557.
Andresen, M., Bergdolta, F., Margenfelda, J. and Dickmann, M. (2014), Addressing international
mobility, confusion developing definitions and differentiations for self-initiated and
assigned expatriates as well as migrants, The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, Vol. 25 No. 16, pp. 2295-2318.
Anholt, S. (2003), Brand New Justice: The Upside of Global Branding, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford.
Arana, J.E. and Leon, C.J. (2009), Understanding the use of non-compensatory decision rules in
discrete choice experiments, Ecological Economics, Vol. 68 Nos 8-9, pp. 2316-2326.

Arthur, M.B. and Rousseau, D.M. (Eds) (1996), The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment
Principle for a New Organizational Era, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Beechler, S. and Woodward, I.C. (2009), The global war for talent , Journal of International
Management, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 273-285.
Bettman, J.R. (1979), An Information Processing Theory of Consumer Choice, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, MA.
Bettman, J.R., Luce, M.F. and Payne, J.W. (1998), Constructive consumer choice processes, The
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 187-217.
Biernacki, P. and Waldorf, D. (1981), Snowball sampling: problems and techniques of chain
referral sampling, Sociological Methods & Research, Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 141-163.

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Bruner, G.C. and Pomazal, R.J. (1988), Problem recognition: the crucial first stage of the consumer
decision process, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 53-63.
Carr, S.C., Inkson, K. and Thorn, K. (2005), From global careers to talent flow: reinterpreting
brain drain, Journal of World Business, Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 386-398.
Cerdin, J.-L. and Brewster, P. (2014), Talent management and expatriation: bridging two streams
of research and practice, Journal of World Business, Vol. 49 No. 2, pp. 245-252.
Chapman, D., Uggerslev, K., Carroll, S., Piasentin, K. and Jones, D. (2005), Applicant attraction to
organizations and job choice: a meta-analytic review of the correlates of recruiting
outcomes, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 90 No. 5, pp. 928-944.
Collings, D., Scullion, H. and Dowling, P. (2009), Global staffing: a review and thematic
agenda, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 20 No. 6,
pp. 1253-1272.
Court, D., Elzinga, D., Mulder, S. and Vetvik, O.J. (2009), The consumer decision journey, The
McKinsey Quarterly, No. 3, June, pp. 96-107.
Dewhurst, M., Pettigrew, M. and Srinivasan, R. (2012), How multinationals can attract the talent
they need, McKinsey Quarterly, Vol. 3 No. 8, pp. 92-99, available at: www.mckinsey.com/
insights/organization/how_multinationals_can_attract_the_talent_they_need (accessed
28 October 2014).
Dickmann, M. and Baruch, Y. (2011), Global Careers, Routledge, New York, NY.
Dickmann, M. and Cerdin, J.-L. (2014), Boundaryless career drivers exploring macro-contextual
factors in location decisions, Journal of Global Mobility, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 26-52.
DiRenzo, M.S. and Greenhaus, J.H. (2011), Job search and voluntary turnover in a boundaryless
world: a control theory perspective, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 36 No. 3,
pp. 567-589.
Doherty, N. (2012), Understanding the self-initiated expatriate: a review and directions for future
research, Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 447-469.
Doherty, N., Dickmann, M. and Mills, T. (2011), Exploring the motives of company backed and
self-initiated expatriates, The International Journal of Human Resource Management,
Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 595-611.
Doherty, N., Richardson, J. and Thorn, K. (2013), Self-initiated expatriation and self-initiated
expatriates: clarification of the research stream, Career Development International, Vol. 18
No. 1, pp. 97-112.
Donthu, N. and Yoo, B. (1998), Cultural influences on service quality expectations, Journal of
Service Research, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 178-186.
Engel, J.F., Kollat, D.T. and Blackwell, R.D. (1968), Consumer Behaviour, Rinehart and Winston,
New York, NY.

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
21

JGM
3,1

Fitzgerald, C. and Howe-Walsh, L. (2008), Self-initiated expatriates: an interpretative

phenomenological analysis of professional female expatriates, International Journal of
Business and Management, Vol. 3 No. 10, pp. 156-175.
Froese, F.J. (2011), Motivations and adjustments of self-initiated expatriates: the case of
expatriate academics in South Korea, The International Journal of Human Resource
Management, Vol. 23 No. 6, pp. 1095-1112.

22

Guo, C., Porschitz, E.T. and Alves, J. (2013), Exploring career agency during self-initiated
repatriation: a study of Chinese sea turtles, Career Development International, Vol. 18
No. 1, pp. 34-55.

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Hanoch, Y. and Vitouch, O. (2004), When less is more: information, emotional arousal and the
ecological reframing of the Yerkes-Dodson law, Theory & Psychology, Vol. 14 No. 4,
pp. 427-452.
Harrison, E.C. and Michailova, S. (2013), Female self-initiated expatriates in the United Arab
Emirates: an unexpected trifecta, in Vaiman, V. and Haslberger, A. (Eds), Talent
Management of the Self-Initiated Expatriate: A Neglected Source of Global Talent, Palgrave
Macmillan, London, pp. 117-135.
Harvey, M. and Moeller, M. (2009), Expatriate managers: a historical review, International
Journal of Management Reviews, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 275-296.
Hauser, J.R. and Wernerfelt, B. (1990), An evaluation cost model of consideration sets, The
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 393-408.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J. and Minkov, M. (2010), Cultures and Organisations: Software of the
Mind, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Howard, J. and Sheth, J. (1969), Theory of Buyer Behaviour, John Wiley, New York, NY.
Hoyer, W.D. (1984), An examination of consumer decision making for a common repeat purchase
product, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 822-829.
Hoyer, W.D. and MacInnis, D.J. (2008), Consumer Behaviour, 5th ed., Cengage Leaning, Stamford,
CT.
Inkson, K. and Myers, B.A. (2003), The big OE: self-directed travel and career development,
Career Development International, Vol. 8 No. 4, pp. 170-181.
Inkson, K., Arthur, M., Pringle, J. and Barry, S. (1997), Expatriate assignment versus overseas
experience: contrasting models of international human resource development, Journal of
World Business, Vol. 32 No. 4, pp. 351-368.
Jokinen, T., Brewster, C. and Suutari, V. (2008), Career capital during international work
experiences: contrasting self-initiated expatriate experiences and assigned expatriation,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 979-998.
Lamb, C.W., Hair, J.F. and McDaniel, C. (2010), Essentials of Marketing, 7th ed., Cengage, London.
Lee, H., Herr, P.M., Kardes, F.R. and Kin, C. (1999), Motivated search: effects of choice,
accountability, issue involvement, and prior knowledge on information acquisition and
use, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 45 No. 1, pp. 75-88.
McNulty, Y. and Inkson, K. (2013), Managing Expatriates: A Return on Investment Approach,
Business Expert Press, New York, NY.
MacInnis, D.J., Moorman, C. and Jaworski, B.J. (1991), Enhancing and measuring consumers
motivation, opportunity, and ability to process brand information from ads, Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 55 No. 4, pp. 32-51.
Martin, G. and Groen-int-Woud, S. (2011), Employer branding and corporate reputation
management in global companies: a signalling model and case illustration, in Scullion, H.
and Collings, D. (Eds), Global Talent Management, Routledge, Abingdon, pp. 87-110.

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

Mayrhofer, W., Sparrow, P. and Zimmerman, A. (2008), Modern forms of international working,
in Dickmann, M., Brewster, C. and Sparrow, P. (Eds), International Human Resource
Management A European Perspective, Routledge, Abingdon, pp. 219-239.
Michaels, E.G., Handfield-Jones, H. and Axelrod, B. (2001), The War for Talent, Harvard Business
Press, Boston, MA.
Mowen, J.C. (1988), Beyond consumer decision making, The Journal of Consumer Marketing,
Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 15-25.
Myers, B. and Pringle, J.K. (2005), Self-initiated foreign experience as accelerated development:
influences of gender, Journal of World Business, Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 421-431.
Nicosia, F.M. (1966), Consumer Decision Processes: Marketing and Advertising Implications,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Olson, J.C. and Reynolds, T.J. (2001), Understanding Consumer Decision Making; The Means-End
Approach to Marketing and Advertising, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
Palmer, A. (2011), Principles of Service Marketing, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
Maidenhead.
Peterson, R.A. and Merino, M.C. (2003), Consumer information search behaviour and the
internet, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 2, pp. 99-121.
Pires, G. and Stanton, J. (2000), Marketing services to ethnic consumers in culturally diverse
markets: issues and implications, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 7, pp. 607-618.
Richardson, J. (2006), Self-directed expatriation: family matters, Personnel Review, Vol. 35 No. 4,
pp. 469-486.
Richardson, J. and McKenna, S. (2002), Leaving and experiencing: why academics expatriate
and how they experience expatriation, Career Development International, Vol. 7 No. 2,
pp. 67-78.
Richardson, J. and Mallon, M. (2005), Career interrupted? The case of the self-directed
expatriate, Journal of World Business, Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 409-420.
Silvanto, S. and Ryan, J. (2014), Relocation branding: a strategic framework for attracting talent
from abroad, Journal of Global Mobility, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 102-120.
Sirakaya, E. and Woodside, A.G. (2005), Building and testing theories of decision making by
travellers, Tourism Management, Vol. 26 No. 6, pp. 815-832.
Smithson, J. and Lewis, S. (2000), Is job insecurity changing the psychological contract?,
Personnel Review, Vol. 29 No. 6, pp. 680-702.
Suutari, V. and Brewster, C. (2000), Making their own way: international experience through selfinitiated foreign assignments, Journal of World Business, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 417-437.
Tharenou, P. and Caufield, N. (2010), Will I stay or will I go? Explaining repatriation by selfinitiated expatriates, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 53 No. 5, pp. 1009-1028.
Thorn, K. (2009), The relative importance of motives for international self-initiated mobility,
Career Development International, Vol. 14 No. 5, pp. 441-464.
Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1974), Judgments under uncertainty: heuristics and biases,
Science, Vol. 185 No. 4157, pp. 1124-1131.
Vance, C.M. (2005), The personal quest for building global competence: a taxonomy of selfinitiating career path strategies for gaining business experience abroad, Journal of World
Business, Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 374-385.
Vessey, I. (1991), Cognitive fit: a theory based analysis of the graphs versus tables literature,
Decision Science, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 219-240.
Wedel, M. and Kamakura, W.A. (2000), Market Segmentation: Conceptual and Methodological
Foundations, 2nd ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA.

The decisionmaking
processes
of SIEs
23

JGM
3,1

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

24

World Economic Forum (WEF) (2011), Global Talent Risk Seven Responses, World Economic
Forum, Geneva, available at: www3.weforum.org/docs/PS_WEF_GlobalTalent
Risk_Report_2011.pdf (accessed 28 October 2014).
Zeithaml, V. (1981), How consumer evaluation processes differ between goods and services, in
Donnelly, J.H. and George, W. (Eds), Marketing of Services, American Marketing
Association, Chicago, IL, pp. 39-47.
About the authors
Gabriela Glassock is based at UTS Business School, University of Technology, Sydney,
Australia.
Dr Anthony Fee (PhD, Sydney) is a Senior Lecturer at the UTS Business School, University of
Technology Sydney, Australia. His research focuses on the experiences of expatriates. His work
has been published in international conference proceedings, edited books, and international
journals, including Human Relations, Journal of World Business, International Journal
of Cross-cultural Management, and International Journal of Human Resource Management.
Dr Anthony Fee can be contacted at: anthony.fee@uts.edu.au

For instructions on how to order reprints of this article, please visit our website:
www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/licensing/reprints.htm
Or contact us for further details: permissions@emeraldinsight.com

This article has been cited by:

Downloaded by 36.80.130.171 At 18:32 20 September 2016 (PT)

1. Kowoon Kim, Cynthia Saldanha Halliday, Yue Zhao, Chen Wang, Mary Ann Von Glinow. 2016.
Rewarding Self-Initiated Expatriates: A Skills-Based Approach. Thunderbird International Business
Review . [CrossRef]