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Euclid
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Euclid(/jukld/Greek:,EukleidsAncient
Greek:[eu
.kl.ds]fl.300BCE),sometimescalledEuclid
ofAlexandriatodistinguishhimfromEuclidesofMegara,
wasaGreekmathematician,oftenreferredtoasthe"father
ofgeometry".HewasactiveinAlexandriaduringthereign
ofPtolemyI(323283BCE).HisElementsisoneofthe
mostinfluentialworksinthehistoryofmathematics,serving
asthemaintextbookforteachingmathematics(especially
geometry)fromthetimeofitspublicationuntilthelate19th
orearly20thcentury.[1][2][3]IntheElements,Eucliddeduced
theprinciplesofwhatisnowcalledEuclideangeometry
fromasmallsetofaxioms.Euclidalsowroteworkson
perspective,conicsections,sphericalgeometry,number
theoryandrigor.

Euclid

EuclidistheanglicizedversionoftheGreekname
,whichmeans"renowned,glorious".[4]

Contents
1 Life
2 Elements
3 Otherworks
3.1 Lostworks
4 Seealso
5 Notes
6 References
7 Furtherreading
8 Externallinks

EuclidbyJustusvanGent,15thcentury
Born

Mid4thcenturyBCE

Died

Mid3rdcenturyBCE

Residence

Alexandria,HellenisticEgypt

Fields

Mathematics

Knownfor

Euclideangeometry
Euclid'sElements
Euclideanalgorithm

Life
VeryfeworiginalreferencestoEuclidsurvive,solittleisknownabouthislife.Thedate,placeand
circumstancesofbothhisbirthanddeathareunknownandmayonlybeestimatedroughlyrelativetoother
peoplementionedwithhim.HeisrarelymentionedbynamebyotherGreekmathematiciansfromArchimedes
(c.287BCc.212BC)onward,andisusuallyreferredtoas""("theauthorofElements").[5]The
fewhistoricalreferencestoEuclidwerewrittencenturiesafterhelivedbyProclusc.450ADandPappusof
Alexandriac.320AD.[6]
ProclusintroducesEuclidonlybrieflyinhisCommentaryontheElements.AccordingtoProclus,Euclid
belongedtoPlato's"persuasion"andbroughttogethertheElements,drawingonpriorworkbyseveralpupilsof
Plato(particularlyEudoxusofCnidus,TheaetetusandPhilipofOpus.)ProclusbelievesthatEuclidisnotmuch
youngerthanthese,andthathemusthavelivedduringthetimeofPtolemyIbecausehewasmentionedby
Archimedes(287212BC).AlthoughtheapparentcitationofEuclidbyArchimedeshasbeenjudgedtobean
interpolationbylatereditorsofhisworks,itisstillbelievedthatEuclidwrotehisworksbeforethoseof
Archimedes.[7][8][9]
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Procluslaterretellsastorythat,whenPtolemyIaskediftherewasashorterpathtolearninggeometrythan
Euclid'sElements,"Euclidrepliedthereisnoroyalroadtogeometry."[10]Thisanecdoteisquestionablesinceit
issimilartoastorytoldaboutMenaechmusandAlexandertheGreat.[11]
IntheonlyotherkeyreferencetoEuclid,PappusbrieflymentionedinthefourthcenturythatApollonius"spent
averylongtimewiththepupilsofEuclidatAlexandria,anditwasthusthatheacquiredsuchascientifichabit
ofthought"c.247222BC.[12][13]
AdetailedbiographyofEuclidisgivenbyArabianauthors,mentioning,forexample,abirthtownofTyre.This
biographyisgenerallybelievedtobecompletelyfictitious.[8]
Becausethelackofbiographicalinformationisunusualfortheperiod(extensivebiographiesareavailablefor
mostsignificantGreekmathematiciansforseveralcenturiesbeforeandafterEuclid),someresearchershave
proposedthatEuclidwasnot,infact,ahistoricalcharacterandthathisworkswerewrittenbyateamof
mathematicianswhotookthenameEuclidfromthehistoricalcharacterEuclidofMegara(compareBourbaki).
However,thishypothesisisnotwellacceptedbyscholarsandthereislittleevidenceinitsfavor.[8][14]

Elements
AlthoughmanyoftheresultsinElementsoriginatedwithearlier
mathematicians,oneofEuclid'saccomplishmentswastopresent
theminasingle,logicallycoherentframework,makingiteasyto
useandeasytoreference,includingasystemofrigorous
mathematicalproofsthatremainsthebasisofmathematics23
centurieslater.[16]
ThereisnomentionofEuclidintheearliestremainingcopiesof
theElements,andmostofthecopiessaytheyare"fromtheedition
ofTheon"orthe"lecturesofTheon",[17]whilethetextconsidered
tobeprimary,heldbytheVatican,mentionsnoauthor.Theonly
referencethathistoriansrelyonofEuclidhavingwrittenthe
ElementswasfromProclus,whobrieflyinhisCommentaryonthe
ElementsascribesEuclidasitsauthor.

Oneoftheoldestsurvivingfragmentsof
Euclid'sElements,foundatOxyrhynchus
anddatedtocircaAD100(P.Oxy.29).
ThediagramaccompaniesBookII,
Proposition5. [15]

Althoughbestknownforitsgeometricresults,theElementsalso
includesnumbertheory.ItconsiderstheconnectionbetweenperfectnumbersandMersenneprimes(knownas
theEuclidEulertheorem),theinfinitudeofprimenumbers,Euclid'slemmaonfactorization(whichleadstothe
fundamentaltheoremofarithmeticonuniquenessofprimefactorizations),andtheEuclideanalgorithmfor
findingthegreatestcommondivisoroftwonumbers.
ThegeometricalsystemdescribedintheElementswaslongknownsimplyasgeometry,andwasconsideredto
betheonlygeometrypossible.Today,however,thatsystemisoftenreferredtoasEuclideangeometryto
distinguishitfromothersocallednonEuclideangeometriesthatmathematiciansdiscoveredinthe19th
century.

Otherworks
InadditiontotheElements,atleastfiveworksofEuclidhavesurvivedtothepresentday.Theyfollowthesame
logicalstructureasElements,withdefinitionsandprovedpropositions.
Datadealswiththenatureandimplicationsof"given"informationingeometricalproblemsthesubject
matteriscloselyrelatedtothefirstfourbooksoftheElements.
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OnDivisionsofFigures,whichsurvivesonlypartiallyinArabic
translation,concernsthedivisionofgeometricalfiguresintotwo
ormoreequalpartsorintopartsingivenratios.Itissimilartoa
thirdcenturyADworkbyHeronofAlexandria.
Catoptrics,whichconcernsthemathematicaltheoryofmirrors,
particularlytheimagesformedinplaneandsphericalconcave
mirrors.TheattributionisheldtobeanachronistichoweverbyJJ
O'ConnorandEFRobertsonwhonameTheonofAlexandriaasa
morelikelyauthor.[18]
Phaenomena,atreatiseonsphericalastronomy,survivesin
GreekitisquitesimilartoOntheMovingSpherebyAutolycus
ofPitane,whoflourishedaround310BC.
OpticsistheearliestsurvivingGreektreatiseonperspective.Inits
definitionsEuclidfollowsthePlatonictraditionthatvisionis
causedbydiscreterayswhichemanatefromtheeye.One
importantdefinitionisthefourth:"Thingsseenunderagreater
angleappeargreater,andthoseunderalesserangleless,while
thoseunderequalanglesappearequal."Inthe36propositionsthat
follow,Euclidrelatestheapparentsizeofanobjecttoitsdistance
fromtheeyeandinvestigatestheapparentshapesofcylindersand
coneswhenviewedfromdifferentangles.Proposition45is
interesting,provingthatforanytwounequalmagnitudes,thereis
apointfromwhichthetwoappearequal.Pappusbelievedthese
resultstobeimportantinastronomyandincludedEuclid'sOptics,
alongwithhisPhaenomena,intheLittleAstronomy,a
compendiumofsmallerworkstobestudiedbeforetheSyntaxis
(Almagest)ofClaudiusPtolemy.

Euclid'sconstructionofaregular
dodecahedron.

Lostworks
OtherworksarecrediblyattributedtoEuclid,buthavebeenlost.
Conicswasaworkonconicsectionsthatwaslaterextendedby
ApolloniusofPergaintohisfamousworkonthesubject.Itis
likelythatthefirstfourbooksofApollonius'sworkcomedirectly
fromEuclid.AccordingtoPappus,"Apollonius,havingcompleted
Euclid'sfourbooksofconicsandaddedfourothers,handeddown
eightvolumesofconics."TheConicsofApolloniusquickly
supplantedtheformerwork,andbythetimeofPappus,Euclid's
workwasalreadylost.
PorismsmighthavebeenanoutgrowthofEuclid'sworkwithconic
sections,buttheexactmeaningofthetitleiscontroversial.
Pseudaria,orBookofFallacies,wasanelementarytextabouterrors
inreasoning.
SurfaceLociconcernedeitherloci(setsofpoints)onsurfacesorloci
whichwerethemselvessurfacesunderthelatterinterpretation,ithas
beenhypothesizedthattheworkmighthavedealtwithquadric
surfaces.
SeveralworksonmechanicsareattributedtoEuclidbyArabic
sources.OntheHeavyandtheLightcontains,inninedefinitionsand
fivepropositions,Aristoteliannotionsofmovingbodiesandthe
conceptofspecificgravity.OntheBalancetreatsthetheoryofthe
leverinasimilarlyEuclideanmanner,containingonedefinition,two
axioms,andfourpropositions.Athirdfragment,onthecircles
describedbytheendsofamovinglever,containsfourpropositions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid

Constructionofadodecahedronby
placingfacesontheedgesofacube.

StatueinhonorofEuclidinthe
OxfordUniversityMuseumof
NaturalHistory

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Thesethreeworkscomplementeachotherinsuchawaythatithasbeensuggestedthattheyareremnants
ofasingletreatiseonmechanicswrittenbyEuclid.

Seealso
Axiomaticmethod
Euclid'sorchard
Euclideanalgorithm
Euclideangeometry
Euclideanrelation
ExtendedEuclideanalgorithm
ListoftopicsnamedafterEuclid
PapyrusOxyrhynchus29

Notes
1.Ball,pp.5062.
2.Boyer,pp.10019.
3.Macardle,etal.(2008).Scientists:ExtraordinaryPeopleWhoAlteredtheCourseofHistory.NewYork:Metro
Books.g.12.
4.Harper,Douglas."Euclidean(adj.)".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.RetrievedMarch18,2015.
5.Heath(1981),p.357
6.Joyce,David.Euclid.ClarkUniversityDepartmentofMathematicsandComputerScience.[1](http://aleph0.clarku.e
du/~djoyce/java/elements/Euclid.html)
7.Proclus,p.XXX(https://books.google.com/books?id=JZEHj2fEmqAC&pg=PA88&vq=euclid&dq=proclus+comment
ary+elements&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0#PPR30,M1)
8.EuclidofAlexandria(http://wwwhistory.mcs.stand.ac.uk/Biographies/Euclid.html)
9.TheMacTutorHistoryofMathematicsarchive.
10.Proclus,p.57(https://books.google.com/books?id=JZEHj2fEmqAC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q&f=false)
11.Boyer,p.96.
12.Heath(1956),p.2.
13."ConicSectionsinAncientGreece".
14.JeanItard(1962).Leslivresarithmtiquesd'Euclide.
15.BillCasselman."OneoftheOldestExtantDiagramsfromEuclid".UniversityofBritishColumbia.Retrieved
20080926.
16.Struikp.51("theirlogicalstructurehasinfluencedscientificthinkingperhapsmorethananyothertextintheworld").
17.Heath(1981),p.360.
18."Theonarticleattheirinstitution".History.mcs.standrews.ac.uk.Retrieved20140726.

References
Artmann,Benno(1999).Euclid:TheCreationofMathematics.NewYork:Springer.ISBN0387984232.
Ball,W.W.Rouse(1960)[1908].AShortAccountoftheHistoryofMathematics(4thed.).DoverPublications.
pp.5062.ISBN0486206300.
Boyer,CarlB.(1991).AHistoryofMathematics(2nded.).JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.ISBN0471543977.
Douglass,Charlene(2007).Page,JohnD.,ed."Euclid".MathOpenReference.Withextensivebibliography.
Heath,Thomas(ed.)(1956)[1908].TheThirteenBooksofEuclid'sElements.1.DoverPublications.ISBN0486
600882.
Heath,ThomasL.(1908)."EuclidandtheTraditionsAboutHim".InHeath,ThomasL.Euclid,Elements.1.pp.16.
AsreproducedinthePerseusDigitalLibrary(http://perseus.mpiwgberlin.mpg.de/).
Heath,ThomasL.(1981).AHistoryofGreekMathematics,2Vols.NewYork:DoverPublications.ISBN0486
240738/ISBN0486240746.
Kline,Morris(1980).Mathematics:TheLossofCertainty.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN019502754X.
O'Connor,JohnJ.Robertson,EdmundF.,"EuclidofAlexandria",MacTutorHistoryofMathematicsarchive,
UniversityofStAndrews.
Proclus,AcommentaryontheFirstBookofEuclid'sElements,translatedbyGlennRaymondMorrow,Princeton
UniversityPress,1992.ISBN9780691020907.
Struik,DirkJ.(1967).AConciseHistoryofMathematics.DoverPublications.ISBN0486602559.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclid

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VanderWaerden,BartelLeendertTaisbak,ChristianMarinus(October30,2014)."Euclid".Encyclopdia
Britannica.RetrievedNovember21,2014.

Furtherreading
DeLacy,EstelleAllen(1963).EuclidandGeometry.NewYork:FranklinWatts.
Knorr,WilburRichard(1975).TheEvolutionoftheEuclideanElements:AStudyoftheTheoryof
IncommensurableMagnitudesandItsSignificanceforEarlyGreekGeometry.Dordrecht,Holland:D.
Reidel.ISBN9027705097.
Mueller,Ian(1981).PhilosophyofMathematicsandDeductiveStructureinEuclid'sElements.
Cambridge,MA:MITPress.ISBN0262131633.
Reid,Constance(1963).ALongWayfromEuclid.NewYork:Crowell.
Szab,rpd(1978).TheBeginningsofGreekMathematics.A.M.Ungar,trans.Dordrecht,Holland:D.
Reidel.ISBN9027708193.

Externallinks
WorksbyEuclid(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Euclid)at
ProjectGutenberg
WorksbyoraboutEuclid(https://archive.org/search.php?query

Wikiquotehasquotations
relatedto:Euclid
Wikisourcehasoriginal
workswrittenbyorabout:
Euclid
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoEuclid.
Wikisourcehasthetextof
the1911Encyclopdia
BritannicaarticleEuclid.

=%28%28subject%3A%22Euclid%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Euclid%22%20OR%20description%
3A%22Euclid%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Euclid%22%29%20OR%20%28%22centurycentury%22%
20AND%20Euclid%29%29%20AND%20%28mediatype:software%29)atInternetArchive
WorksbyEuclid(http://librivox.org/author/2304)atLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks)
Euclid'sElements(http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/elements.html),Allthirteenbooks,
withinteractivediagramsusingJava.ClarkUniversity
Euclid'sElements(http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/books/Euclid/Euclid.html),withtheoriginalGreekandan
Englishtranslationonfacingpages(includesPDFversionforprinting).UniversityofTexas.
Euclid'sElements,booksIVI(http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21076/21076pdf),inEnglishpdf,ina
ProjectGutenbergVictoriantextbookeditionwithdiagrams.
Euclid'sElements(http://euclides.org),Allthirteenbooks,inseverallanguagesasSpanish,Catalan,
English,German,Portuguese,Arabic,Italian,RussianandChinese.
ElementaGeometriae(http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/eucgeo/index.html)1482,Venice.From
RareBookRoom.
Elementa(http://www.rarebookroom.org/Control/eucmsd/index.html)888AD,Byzantine.FromRare
BookRoom.
TextsonAncientMathematicsandMathematicalAstronomy(http://www.wilbourhall.org)PDFscans
(Note:manyareverylargefiles).IncludeseditionsandtranslationsofEuclid'sElements,Data,and
Optica,Proclus'sCommentaryonEuclid,andotherhistoricalsources.
TheElementsofGeometrieoftheMostAuncientPhilosopherEuclideofMegara(http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.r
bc/english.20856.1)(1570)FromtheEnglishPrintingCollection(http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/en
g.html)intheRareBookandSpecialCollectionDivisionattheLibraryofCongress
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euclid&oldid=736109378"
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Categories: Euclid AncientGreekmathematicians AncientAlexandrians HellenisticEgyptians

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