Sporophytes(spt.

Ch.17_ Seedless Vascular Plants

Gametophytes (gpt.)

lignin

apical meristems

produce multiple sporangia

highly differentiated plant body

gpt. generation: reduction in size

seedless vascular plants water is required
vascular plants
dominant plants in terrestrial habitats.
Early vascular plants: dichotomously branched axes, lacked roots and leaves
Dermal, vascular, ground tissue system

(Leaf traces)

(Leaf gaps)

(Leaf trace gaps)

Microphylls

Megaphylly

homosporous

heterosporous

protracheophyte
Cooksonia oldest known vascular plant

pro/tracheophyte
,

Phylum Lycopodiophyta
microphyll

eusporangiate

epiphytes

sporophylls

strobili

the spike mosses belong to the family Selaginellaceae

(resurrection plant)

ligule

heterosporous
(Family Isoetaceae )

(heterosporous)

(ligule)
(specialized cambium)parenchyma tissue

(lack stomata)
(CAM)
(Phylum Monilophyta )
(Psilotopaida)

(Marattiopsida)

(Polypodiopsida)

(Equisetopsida)

There are two kinds of sporangia within the ferns

eusporangiate

leptosporangiate

tapetum

annulus - unevenly thick-walled cells

lip cells

Water ferns - heterosporous

(eusporangiate ferns)
(Class Psilotopsida)

Homosporous ferns
Ophioglossales
Psilotales

(Class Marattiopsida)

Polypodiopsida
leptosporangiate

homosporous

fronds

leaves of ferns megaphylls,

circinate vernation fiddleheads

sorus

sporangia clusters

indusium

prothallusgpt.

(The water ferns )

(the class Polypodiopsida)

(heterosporous)

(leptosporangiate)

(sporocarps)
(Phylum Sphenophyta (horsetails))

homosporous

strobilus

sporangiophores

elaterarise from the outer layer of the spore wall

Ch.18_Gymnosperms

gymnosperms

angiosperms
seed plants

Plants became the main producers on land

seeds and other adaptations

Seed plants are vascular plants that produce seeds

continued reduction of the gametophyte(gtp.)

three important reproductive adaptations

seed
pollen()
continued reduction of the gametophytesporophyte-dominant life cycle for seedless vascular plants
the gametophytes of seed plants are even more reduced
Female gametophyte and young embryos retained within the parental sporophyte.
gametophytes of seed plants obtain nutrients from their parents
Not been completely eliminated?
The haploid generation (n) may provide a mechanism for screening() new alleles, including mutations
The gametophyte nourishes() the sporophyte embryo, at least during its early development
bryophytes and seedless vascular plants
e.g moss

Spores are the resistant stage in the life cycle

spores can survive even if the local environment is too extreme

e.g the

spores might also be dispersed in a dormant state to a new area.

single-celled sporemulticellular seed is a more complex, resistant structure
seed consists of a sporophyte embryo + food supply and within a protective coat.
Evolution of the seed
There are evolutionary and developmental relationships between spores and seeds
The parent sporophyte does not release its spores, but retains them within its sporangia.
Not only are the spores retained, but the gametophyte develops within the spore from which it is derived.
All seed plants are heterosporous
Megasporangia (nucellus)
Megaspores (female gtp.)egg containing

Microspores (male gtp.)sperm-containing

Ovule ()

Integuments() + megaspore + megasporangium

The whole ovule develops into a seed.

heterosporous seedless vascular plants
the megaspores and the female gametophytes of seed plants are retained by the parent sporophyte
Layers of sporophyte tissues, integuments(), envelop and protect the megasporangium.
A seeds protective coat is derived from the integuments of the ovule
Pollen eliminated the liquid-water requirement for fertilization
Microsporespollen grains.
sporopollenin

pollen are carried away by wind or animals until pollination occurs when they land in the vicinity of an ovule
The sperm in most gymnosperms and all angiosperms lack flagella.

The evolution of pollen in seed plants led to even greater success and diversity of plants on land.
Progymnosperms

Pro/gymnosperms

Seeds are superior to spores

Seed: a mature ovule containing an embryo
Integuments

Ovule
1. nucellus : megasporangium (2n)

2. 1 megaspore mother cell(megasporangium)

3. 1 functional megaspore(megasporangium)
4. reduced megagametophyte inside the single functional megaspore (within the megasporangium)
5. development of the embryo (young spt.) within the megagametophyte
6. integument (2n), micropyle()
7. modification of the apex of the megasporangium to receive pollen grains (microspore)
Progymnosperms
seedless vascular plants
Produced spores(homosporous)
Bifacial vascular cambium

Eustele

Coniferophyta

Living gymnosperms

Cycadophyta

Ginkgophyta

Gnetophyta

The most familiar gymnosperms are the conifers

Sporophylls.
Do not form antheridia
polyembryony

Several embryos within a single ovule

Only one embryo survives

Phylum Coniferophyta
The most massive organism: giant sequoia()
The tallest tree
The oldest living tree
sunken stomata
one or more layers hypodermis
Transfusion tissue
endodermis
lack vessels
The life cycle of a pine illustrates the three key adaptations to terrestrial life in seed plants

increasing dominance of the sporophyte

seeds as a resistant, dispersal stage
pollen as an airborne agent bringing gametes together.
Each tree usually has both types of cones
Seed plant do not form antheridia
Pollen grainNot requiring water
pollen cones
ovulate cones

micropyle
Fertilization
pine seed
embryo (new sporophyte)
food supply (derived from gametophyte tissue)
seed coat (derived from the integuments)

Yew family: Taxaceae

Aril
thick cuticle
Phlum Cycadophyta
Flagellated sperm are the largest among plants
Phylum Ginkgophyta
Phylum Ginkgophyta consists of only a single extant species, Ginkgo biloba.
Phylum Gnetophyta
have many angiosperm-like features:
1. the similarity of their strobili to some angiosperm inflorescences
2. presence of very similar vessels in their xylem
3. lack of archegonia in Gnetum and Welwitschia
4. double fertilization also occurs frequently in Ephedra, produces extra embryos
Ovules are surrounded by 2 integuments
Phylum Gnetophyta consists of three very different genera.
Weltwitschia
Gentum
Ephedra
Q10.28 fig.18-3 fig.18-4 36 fig.18-5 59 fig.18-11 67 68 91 109 130 135 18-34 141

Phylum Anthophyta
Angiosperms or flowering plantsproduce flowers and fruits.
long, tapered tracheidsupport and water transport.
fibers cellssupport
vessel elementswater transport
reproductive adaptations(flower) contributed to the success of angiosperms
transfer pollen by insects, animals and wind
the flower is a determinate shoot
A flower is a specialized shoot with four circles of modified leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpals
Sepalscalyx

Petalscorolla

Perianth = calyx + corolla

=+

Stamens are the sporophylls

Androecium = filament + anther

=+

Carpals are female sporophylls

()

The enclosure of seed within the ovary (the carpal), a distinguishing feature of angiosperms, probably
evolved from a seed-bearing leaf that became rolled into a tube.
=++
Gynoecium = stigma + style + ovary
Carpals pistil is called a pistil()
Sexual Reproduction
Microspore mitosis generative cell(sperm) and tube cell(pollen tube)
generative cell and tube cellpollen grain, an immature male gametophyte
A pollen grain becomes a mature gtp. when the generative cell divides by mitosis to form two sperm cells
This occurs after the pollen grain lands on the stigma of the carpel and the pollen tube begins to form.
Megasporocyte in the sporangium of each ovulemeiosis four haploid megaspores
Membranes partition this mass into a multicellular female gametophyte - the egg sac.
synergid cells (flank() the egg cell)

attraction and guidance of the pollen tube.

antipodal cells

polar nucleiendosperm

Integuments (from the sporophyte)

life cycle of the alternation of generations

All angiosperms are heterosporous
Microsporesmale gametophytes
Megasporesfemale gametophytes
immature male gametophytes are contained within pollen grains
Ovules, which develop in the ovary, contain the female gametophyte, the embryo sac
Pollinationmale and female gametophytes together
Pollination by wind, insect and animal.

double fertilization
cotyledons

Monocotsendosperm
Beans and many dicotscotyledons
seed consists of the embryo, endosperm, sporangium, and a seed coat from the integuments.
ovules seeds
ovary fruit
A small set of regulatory genes determines orga identity in flowers
Homeotic mutations
Homeotic genes genes affecting floral organ identity
MADS box genes: control aspects of development
44 19-14 19-15 75 19-18 19-20 87 88 19-22 25-35 118

monocots

Phylogenetic relationships of the angiosperms

eudicots

Archaefructus sinensis

earliest well-documented flowering plant

Evolution of flowers
From flowers with few to many parts that are indefinite in number.
The floral axis has become shortened, and the floral parts often have become fused
The ovary has become inferior rather than superior
The perianth has become differentiated into a distinct calyx and corolla
The radial symmetry (regularity) bilateral symmetry (irregularity)
Evolution of fruits
A fruit is a matured ovary
Parthenocarpic fruits

Ovulesseeds

Ovaryfruit

Pollination triggers hormonal changes

The wall of the ovary becomes the pericarp()
Simple furits

Aggregate fruits

Multiple fruits

Accessory fruit

floral tube becomes the major fleshy part, is a simple accessory fruit
Simple fruits
Fleshy fruits
Berries

Drupes

Pomes

Dry fruits
Dehiscent fruits

Indehiscent fruits

Asteraceae

Orchidaceae

In apples, the fleshy part of the fruit is derived mainly from the swollen receptacle
7-4 9-4 fig.20-10 fig.20-11 fig.20-9 fig20-19

The Movement of Water and Solutes in Plants

Roots and shoots are bridged by vascular tissues that transport sap throughout the plant body.
Transpiration

cuticle

Phototropins

Photoreceptors of the blue light

Osmoticum
ABA
ABA ABA Ca2+Ca2+
K+
cellulose microfibrils
Environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration
Temperature
Humidity
Air currents
The transpiration stream also assists in the delivery of minerals and other substances from roots to the
shoots and leaves.
Transpirationlower the temperature of a leaf
Transpiration prevents the leaf from reaching temperatures that could denature enzymes
Cacti can tolerate high leaf temperatures.
The potential rate of transpiration will be greatest on sunny, warm, dry, windy days that increase the
evaporation of water.
Regulation of the size of the stomatal opening can adjust the photosynthesis-transpiration compromise.
Changes in turgor pressure that open and close stomata result primarily from the reversible get and loss of
potassium ions (K+) by guard cells.
Transport in plants occurs on three levels
individual cells
short-distance transport ()
long-distance transport()
Transport at the cellular level depends on the selective permeability of membranes
Molecules tend to move down their concentration gradient (passive transport)
Transport proteins embedded in the membrane can speed movement across the membrane.
Some transport proteins bind selectively to a solute on one side of the membrane and release it on the
opposite side.
Others act as selective channels, providing a selective passageway across the membrane. e.g. K+ channels
Some channels are gated response to certain environmental or biochemical stimuli
Proton pumps play a central role in transport across plant membranes
proton pump most important active transporter membrane potential or voltage
ATP H+[H+]>[H+]membrane potential or voltage
cotransport

Transport of solutes across membranes

Simple diffusion small nonpolar molecules and small uncharged polar molecules
Transport proteins polar molecules
Transport proteins
Pumps proteins
Carriers proteins
Channels proteins

not open continuously gating

AquaporinsWater channel proteins

affect the rate of water transport across membranes
1990s : water transport across biological membranes was too specific and too rapid to be explained entirely
by diffusion (?)
Facilitated diffusion : proteins aided passive transport
Passive transport : simple diffusion + facilitated diffusion
Uniporter( or ?)
Cotransport systems()
Cotransport systems: symport() + antiport()
Cotransport: Occurs when active transport of a specific solute indirectly drives the active transport of
another solute
exocytosis

chemiosmosis

proton pumps normally run in reverse, using ATP energy to pump H+ against its gradient.
osmosis () : passive transport of water across a membrane
the direction of water movement depends on solute concentration and physical pressure, together called
water potential, psi.
Water move across a membrane: higher water potential the lower water potential
water potential refers to the potential energy that can be released to do work when water moves ()
Plant biologists measure psi in units called megapascals (MPa) = 10 atm
An atmosphere about 1 kg of pressure per square centimeter(1kg/cm2)
1 atmosphere = 14.7 pounds/inch2 = 760 mmHg = 1 bar = 0.1 Mpa =105 Pa
the water potential of pure water() in an container open to the atmosphere is 0
solutes lowers the water potentia
Any solution at atmospheric pressure has a negative water potential. ()
0.1-molar (M) solution of any solute has a water potential of -0.23 MPa (1M -0.23MPa)
psi - solute concentration

water potential pressure

It is also possible to create negative pressure, or tension as when you pull up on the plunger of a syringe.
psi = psiP + psis
psiP is the pressure potential
psis is the solute potential (or osmotic potential)
psi = psiP + psis + psim Germinating seeds have a very negative matrix potentials
A negative potential can decrease water potential

flaccid cell(/) psiP = 0

Cell in () water will leave the cell by osmosis plasmolysis
Cell in () water will enter the cell by osmosis turgor pressure
A walled cell with a greater solute concentration than its surroundings will be turgid or firm
Isotonic (iso = equal) no net movement of water plant cell is flaccid
Hypertonic (hype = over) cell will lose water / plasmolysis
Hypotoic (hypo = under) will gain water / turgor pressure
The membrane that bounds the vacuole, the tonoplast, regulates molecular traffic between the cytosol and
the contents of the vacuole, called the cell sap

symplast

apoplast
In one routen This transmembrane route requires repeated crossings of plasma
membranes
The second route symplast via plasmodesmata.
The third route apoplast
Bulk flow functions in long-distance transport
In phloem Pressure flow ()
In xylem Tension (negative pressure)
In xylem
Transpiration, the evaporation of water from a leaf, reduces pressure in the leaf xylem.
This creates a tension that pulls xylem sap upward from the roots.
Plants loose an astonishing amount of water by Transpiration
e.g. An average-sized maple tree losses more than 200 L of water per hour during the summer.
The flow of water transported up via the xylem replaces the water lost in transpiration and also carries
minerals to the shoot system.
The ascent of xylem sap depends on transpiration root and the physical properties of water
root pressure (positive pressure) guttation ()
grass blades() in herbaceous dicots()
In most plants, root pressure is not the major mechanism driving the ascent of xylem sap.
Transpiration provides the pull, and the cohesion() of water due to hydrogen bonding()
The mechanism of transpiration depends on the generation of negative pressure (tension)

adhesion
Cohesive

The transpirational pull on xylem sap is transmitted all the way from the leaves to the root tips and even
into the soil solution.
Helping to fight gravity is the strong adhesion of water molecules to the hydrophilic walls of the xylem cells
Cohesion of water due to hydrogen bonding makes it possible to pull a column of sap from above without
the water separating.
The upward pull on the cohesive sap creates tension within the xylem
Transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism

Xylem sap ascends by solar-powered bulk flow

Translocation of Phloem Sap
The phloem transports the organic products of photosynthesis throughout the plant via a process called
translocation. translocation are the sieve-tube members
Phloem sap disaccharide sucrose (), also contain minerals, amino acids, and hormones.
sugar sources(sugar is being produced) sugar sinks(consumer or storer of sugar)
phloem sap travels is variable.
A storage organ, such as a tuber or a bulb, may be either a source or a sink, depending on the season.
A sugar sink usually receives its sugar from the sources nearest to it.
In some species, sugar moves from mesophyll cells to sieve-tube members via the symplast().
In other, sucrose reaches sieve-tube members by combination of symplastic and apoplastic pathways.
companion cells (transfer cells)
This requires active transport to load the phloem.
Proton pumps generate an H+ gradient, which drives sucrose across the membrane via acotransport protein
sugar sources loads
sugar sinks unloads
sugar sinks unloads
concentration of free sugar in the sink is lower than in the phloem, sugar molecules diffuse from the phloem
into the sink tissues.
Water follows by osmosis.
Phloem sap flows(Pressure flow) 1 m/h
Phloem sap moves by bulk flow driven by pressure
The difference in hydrostatic pressure drives phloem sap from the source to the sink
For leaf-to-root translocation, xylem recycles water from sink to source
plant transport on three levels.
cellular level across membranes sucrose accumulates in phloem cells by active transport
short-distance level from mesophyll to phloem via the symplast and apoplast
long-distance level bulk flow
Tissues: groups of specialized cells with common functions
organs: structure that suits it for a specific function
Signals : by substances that are synthesized within and transported out of one cell and then travel to
another cell
Hormones : chemical messengers
Signal-transduction pathway
Target cell
Receptors
Second messengers
Signal-transduction pathway
Calmodulin
30-3 27-29 radial micellation?(22) fig.30-4 38 41 48 49 4-10 61 101 121 139 30-22 30-28.29.30 173 4-17