i:f:7:::;::i:;i:7:77:-

Theory of Groundwater Flow

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

3.1

SCOPE
T h e t e r m s subsurface water a n d groundwater h a v e b e e n g i v e n d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s b y d i f f e r ent researchers all over t h ew o r l d . T h e s e t e r m s have been used i n a broader sense t o include
all waters b e l o w t h e surface o f the e a r t h i n liquid, solid, o r v a p o r f o r m s , appearing as physically o r c h e m i c a l l y b o u n d waters, as free w a t e r i nt h e zones o f a e r a t i o n a n d s a t u r a t i o n , a n d
i n a s u p e r c r i t i c a l state i n t h e z o n e o f dense f l u i d s e x t e n d i n g b e l o w t h e z o n e o f s a t u r a t i o n
h a v i n g a p r e s s u r e g r e a t e r t h a n 2 1 8 a t m a n d t e m p e r a t u r e h i g h e r t h a n 3 7 4 C. T h e s e t e r m s
also have b e e n used t o refer o n l y t o t h e free w a t e r that c a n m o v e t h r o u g h r o c k a n d soil,
comprising water i nt h e capillary fringe, gravitational water infiltered t h r o u g h t h e zone o f
aeration, a n d m o v i n g groundwater i nt h e zone o f saturation. Further, these terms have
been used w h e n referring t o water i nt h e zone o f saturation only. T h e use o fthese terms i n
t h e U n i t e d States, h o w e v e r , a l m o s t stabilized w h e n i n 1 9 2 3 M e i n z e r d e f i n e d subsurface
w a t e r t o designate a l l w a t e r s t h a t o c c u r b e l o w t h e earth's surface, a n d g r o u n d w a t e r t o desi g n a t e t h e w a t e r i n t h e z o n e o f s a t u r a t i o n . T h e International Glossary of Hydrology, p r e pared b y W M O a n d U N E S C O (1974), adopted t h e same meanings f o rthese terms.
M e i n z e r ' s concept o f subsurface w a t e r as all varieties o f w a t e r i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f the earth is
very broad, s o m e t h i n g v e r y similar t ot h e present definition o fsubsurface hydrosphere. I n
t h e c o m m o n s e n s e , s u b s u r f a c e flow i s m e a n t t o i n d i c a t e w a t e r m o v i n g i n t h e z o n e s o f a e r a tion a n d saturation a n dt h e deep percolation.
H y d r o g e o l o g y covers t h e study o f subsurface water i n all itsphases: origin, m a n n e r o f
deposition, laws o fm o t i o n , distribution, physical a n d chemical properties, interrelations h i p w i t h a t m o s p h e r i c a n d surface w a t e r s , effects o f h u m a n activities, e c o n o m i c values,
a n d s o o n . O nt h e other hand, civil engineers are m o r e concerned about t h e m o v e m e n t
a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g r o u n d w a t e r a n d its application, w h i c h is t h e subject matter o f this
chapter.

3.2 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F S U B S U R F A C E W A T E R
H y d r o g e o l o g i s t s have classified subsurface w a t e r based o n t h e f u n d a m e n t a l ideas o f geological structures c o n t a i n i n g such water. FFowever, this classification scheme based o n t h e m a n ner i n w h i c h water is deposited isw i d e l y accepted b yb o t h hydrogeologists a n d engineers.
T h i s s c h e m e takes i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e fact t h a t physical, geographical, geological, a n d
t h e r m o d y n a m i c conditions are responsible factors i nt h e deposition o f water i nt h e interior
o f the earth. I nthis classification, zonal divisions o f subsurface water are made. N i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y scientists n o t e d t h a t t h e r e e x i s t e d a l a w o f z o n a t i o n o f n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a s u c h as

121

climatic z o n a t i o n , soil zonation, a n d vertical z o n a t i o n o f the material o f the globe. A l l n a t u r a l w a t e r s u p p l y is d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h r e e z o n e s : a t m o s p h e r i c , surface, a n d s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r s .

T h e p r i n c i p l e o f z o n a t i o n w a s t r a c e d i n s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r as w e l l . F r o m 1 9 1 0 o n w a r d , a
n u m b e r o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s c h e m e s b a s e d o n t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h w a t e r is d e p o s i t e d w e r e
p r o p o s e d b y S o v i e t a n d A m e r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s as w e l l as b y s c i e n t i s t s i n F r a n c e , G e r m a n y , a n d
other western E u r o p e a n nations. A v e r y o r i g i n a l classification system suggested b y M e i n z e r
( 1 9 2 3 ) is still w i d e l y a c c e p t e d t o d a y . T h i s b o o k a d o p t s t h e s a m e classification. T h i s classification, s h o w n i n Figure 3.1, established t w o broader divisions: interstitial (rock voids)
w a t e r a n d i n t e r n a l ( d e e p - l y i n g ) w a t e r . I n t e r s t i t i a l w a t e r is s u b d i v i d e d i n t o s u s p e n d e d
(vadose) water i n the zone o f aeration a n d groundwater i n the zone o f saturation. Susp e n d e d water has three further subdivisions: soil water zone, intermediate zone, and capill a r y zone. T h e w a t e r i n t h e z o n e o f s a t u r a t i o n w a s d i v i d e d b y M e i n z e r i n t o free w a t e r a n d
pressure water.
.
,
.
s^^X :
Figure

3.1

Meinzer's classification a n d modification s u g g e s t e d b y Davis a n d DeWiest

(1966).
S u g g e s t e d classification

C o m m o n classification
Soil water

Soil water

0
c
o

SI

w
^

3
.0
0
o
o

c
o
N

I
.2

Gravitational
water

' Capillary water

o
a

water

_Water
table

_Water
table
S

TO
C

Intermediate
vadose

Capillary water

I
Groundwater

TO

Phreatic water
(groundwater)

X.
CL

Internal
water

122

1
1

W a t e r in
unconnected
pores

W a t e r only in
chemical
combination
with rock

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3

The F r e n c h scientist Schoeller, i n 1962, distinguished the following zones beneath the
surface: (1) t h e e v a p o r a t i o n zone, (2) t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n zone, (3) t h e capillary fringe, a n d (4)
t h e z o n e o f g r o u n d w a t e r a c c u m u l a t i o n . I n the last zone, free surface a n d pressure surface
are recognized.
I n Lange's classification o f1969, often used b y hydrogeologists i n the f o r m e r U S S R ,
three basic groups o f water a r e recognized: soil water, subsurface water ( i n t h e f o r m e r
U S S R this t e r m isc o m m o n l y used i n the sense o f g r o u n d w a t e r ) a n d interstratal water.
D a v i s a n d D e W i e s t ( 1 9 6 6 ) o f t h e U n i t e d States suggested certain m i n o r changes i n
M e i n z e r ' s classification. T h e o r i g i n a l classification a n d suggested changes are s h o w n schematically i n Figure 3.1. Davis and D e W i e s t c o m b i n e d the collecting-rock properties, thus
describing g r o u n d w a t e r as (1) w a t e r o f igneous a n d m e t a m o r p h i c rocks, (2) w a t e r o f h a r d
sedimentary rocks, (3) water o funconsolidated sediments, a n d(4) water o f regions o f
extreme climatic conditions.
P i n n e k e r (1983) considered that present classifications a r econcerned o n l y w i t h the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w a t e r p e r t a i n i n g t o l a n d m a s s e s . G r o u n d w a t e r b e l o w t h e o c e a n s a n d seas i s
n o t c o v e r e d . A l s o , t h e d e e p - l y i n g w a t e r i n t h e z o n e o f s a t u r a t i o n t h a t is acted u p o n b y geostatic pressure o r o t h e r i n t e r n a l forces is n o t i d e n t i f i e d i nthese classifications, a l t h o u g h
artesian w a t e r pressured b yhydrostatic pressure has been recognized. P i n n e k e r t h u s suggested a classification t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e process b y w h i c h g r o u n d w a t e r deposits are f o r m e d ,
w h i l e retaining Meinzer's concept (see Table 3.1). T h i s classification h a s t h e following
scheme:

Groups: d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o s i t i o n o f g r o u n d w a t e r i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t

-'

Sections: a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e g r e e o f s a t u r a t i o n o f r o c k f o r m a t i o n w i t h w a t e r

'

7}yes; o n the basis o f h y d r a u l i c features

Classes: b a s i c v a r i e t i e s o f g r o u n d w a t e r

according t o t h ew a y i n w h i c h they are

formed
Subclasses: o n t h e b a s i s o f w a t e r - c o l l e c t i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f r o c k s
Special conditions: s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f s u r r o u n d i n g s

3.3

WATER-BEARING

FORMATIONS

F o r m a t i o n s t h a t c a n y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f w a t e r a r e k n o w n a s aquifers. T h i s c h a r acteristic is i m p a r t e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n s b y interconnected openings o r pores t h r o u g h

w h i c h w a t e r can m o v e . A l l u v i a l deposits are thus the best f o r m o f aquifers: probably 9 0 %
o f all developed aquifers are i n s u c h f o r m a t i o n s . S u c h aquifers o f t e n have t h e advantage o f
direct r e p l e n i s h m e n t b y seepage f r o m streams a n d land. R o c k f o r m a t i o n s o f a volcanic
nature, l i m e s t o n e , a n d sandstone possess cracks,
fissures,
cavities, faults, caverns, a n d
j o i n t s t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e y y i e l d water. T h e q u a l i t y o f such rocks as a n aquifer depends o n
the extent o f such openings; sometimes t h e y f o r m h i g h l y permeable aquifers. Generally,
m e t a m o r p h i c a n d igneous rocks a r e i ns o l i d f o r m s a n d serve as p o o r aquifers. Similarly,
clays, a l t h o u g h h a v i n g a h i g h level o f p o r o s i t y , p r o v e t o b e p o o r aquifers because t h e i r
pores are t o o s m a l l a n d n o t w e l l connected.
T y p e s o f aquifers a r es h o w n schematically i n F i g u r e 3.2. M a i n l y there a r e t w o types:
u n c o n f m e d aquifers a n d c o n f i n e d aquifers. I nu n c o n f i n e d aquifers, the upper surface o f
t h e g r o u n d w a t e r b o d y i s e x p o s e d t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e o r a water table e x i s t s . C o n f i n e d
aquifers, also k n o w n as pressure o r artesian aquifers, occur w h e r e g r o u n d w a t e r is u n d e r

S e c t i o n 3.3

Water-Bearing Formations

123

T a b l e 3.1

Groundwater

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n A c c o r d i n g t o t h e M a n n e r i n W h i c h it H a s B e e n

F o r m e d

Subclass

Special Conditions

W a t e r in strata o f

W a t e r in f i s s u r e d

W a t e r in p e r m a f r o s t

W a t e r in volcanically

porous rocks (pore

c a v e r n o u s r o c k s (fis-

regions

active

a n d strata! water)

sure a n d vein-

regions

fissure water)

Group

Section

Continental

Groundwater of the

groundwater

zone of aeration

Type
Suspended water

Class
P e r c h e d w a t e r (in

S a l t w a t e r a n d infil-

S a l t w a t e r a n d infil-

the broad sense)

trating water,

trating

perched water

perched

Active layer

U p p e r part o f lava

water,

cover

water
Suprapermafrost

L o w e r part of lava
cover

Groundwater of the
zone of saturation
on

Mainly nonpressure

Groundwater

water

continents

Aquifer nearest to

Upper parts of the

Interpermafrostand

the surface on sta-

z o n e o f i n t e n s i v e fis-

intrapermafrost

ble

suring and karst

impermeable

layer
Pressure

water

Artesian

water

Industrial
under

Deep-lying

water

hydrostatic

Groundwater of the

seas and oceans

submarine zone of

Mainly pressure
water

Water

connected

with the land

mass

mal systems under-

Buried fissured zone

pressure

S e d i m e n t a r y layers,

Water of deep-lying

which are sub-

faults within

jected to the

s p h e r e of activity of

action

Subpermafrost

hydrostatic pressure

Absent

Water of

under hydrostatic-

pressure

of geostatic pres-

Groundwater below

Water of hydrother-

massif

the

volcanic

structures and

n e c t e d with a rising

endogenic forces

sure and

stream from

endogenic forces

m a g m a

Shelf and

marine

deposits

saturation

hot

spring systems, con-

Karsted rock of the

Subpermafrost shelf

shelf a n d fault

of the northern

zones

the

chamber

seas
Submarine

volcanic

structures and
Water not con-

Water of deep

Trenches and

nected with the

basins

oceanic

land
S o u r c e : P i n n e k e r (1983). U s e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y

mass
Press.

rifts

mid-

Absent

-marine hot spring

systems

F i g u r e 3.2

Types o f aquifers.

Recharge area

greater-than-atmospheric
impermeable medium.

pressure d u e t o a n overlaying confined layer o f a relatively

A special case o f u n c o n f i n e d aquifers i n v o l v e s p e r c h e d aquifers, w h e r e a s t r a t u m o f

relatively i m p e r m e a b l e m a t e r i a l exists above t h e m a i n b o d y o f g r o u n d w a t e r . T h e d o w n w a r d - p e r c o l a t i n g w a t e r is i n t e r c e p t e d b y t h i s s t r a t u m a n d a g r o u n d w a t e r b o d y o f l i m i t e d
areal extent is t h u s f o r m e d . T h e z o n e o f a e r a t i o n is present b e t w e e n t h e b o t t o m o f t h e
perching b e d a n d t h e m a i n water table.
A s p e c i a l case o f c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s is t h e l e a k y a q u i f e r , a l s o k n o w n as a s e m i - c o n f i n e d
aquifer. S u c h a n a q u i f e r is e i t h e r o v e r l a i n o r u n d e r l a i n b y a s e m i p e r v i o u s layer t h r o u g h
w h i c h water leaks i n o r o u t o f t h e c o n f i n e d aquifer.

3.4

FLUID POTENTIAL ANDHYDRAULIC HEAD

Just as t h e e n e r g y h e a d is t h e e n e r g y q u a n t i t y p e r u n i t w e i g h t o f f l u i d , t h e f l u i d p o t e n t i a l is
the energy quantity per u n i t mass. Thus,

:,

0 = gh

[L2T-2]

,,^,x,-x:x.

(^-l)

where
0

= fluid potential at a n y p o i n t

h - hydraulic head at that p o i n t

F l o w o f a n y k i n d occurs f r o m a region i n w h i c h the potential has a higher value
towards t h e region o f a l o w e r value. T h u s , t h e f l o w o f heat, electricity, o r water requires
existence o f a potential gradient. F o r a p o r o u s m e d i u m , t h e f l o w velocity a n d , hence, t h e
kinetic energy are extremely small a n d can be ignored. T h u s , the fluid potential a n d the
hydraulic head are c o m p r i s e d o f t h e elevation head a n d t h e pressure head. W i t h reference
to Figure 3.3:
h = Z+

S e c t i o n 3.4

Fluid Potential a n d Hydraulic Head

ip

[L]

(3.2)

125

where
Z = elevation o f a p o i n t w i t h reference t o a d a t u m
l/r = p / 7 ; p b e i n g t h e p r e s s u r e a b o v e a t m o s p h e r e a t t h e p o i n t

3.5

BASIC EQUATIONOF GROUNDWATER FLOW: DARCY'S L A W

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l l a w o f g r o u n d w a t e r m o v e m e n t w a s discovered b y H e n r i D a r c y i n 1856.
H e r a n a n e x p e r i m e n t o n a p i p e f i l l e d w i t h s a n d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s s i m u l a t e d b y F i g u r e 3.3.
H e concluded t h a t t h e f l o w rate Q was p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e cross-sectional area A , inversely
p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the length L o f the sand-filter flow path, and p r o p o r t i o n a l to head drop
( h j - ^2). T h i s p r o v i d e d the f a m o u s D a r c y equation

Q^EAhzhl

[L'T-l

(3.3)

w h e r e K is t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o n s t a n t o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y , as
discussed i n S e c t i o n 3.6.
The ratio
- hj/L i s k n o w n a s t h e hydraulic gradient. D e f i n i n g s p e c i f i c d i s c h a r g e , q,
o r d i s c h a r g e v e l o c i t y , v, a s d i s c h a r g e p e r u n i t c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , e q . ( 3 . 3 ) b e c o m e s
[LT-M^

q =v =^
- ~

'

(3.4)

where
q = specific discharge
V = Darcy velocity or discharge velocity
A l l = d r o p o f head (fi J - / i 2) i n l e n g t h L

3.5.1

Darcy Velocity a n d Seepage Velocity

I n e q . ( 3 . 4 ) , v, k n o w n a s t h e D a r c y v e l o c i t y , i s a fictitious v e l o c i t y s i n c e i t a s s u m e s t h a t f l o w
o c c u r s t h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l , w h e r e a s t h e f l o w is a c t u a l l y l i m i t e d
t o t h e p o r e s p a c e o n l y . I f is t h e s e e p a g e v e l o c i t y a n d A ^ is t h e a r e a o f v o i d s , t h e n , f r o m t h e
continuity equation,
Q = Av = A,y,
or
: ...

V = V-

M u l t i p l y i n g b o t h sides b y t h e l e n g t h o f t h e m e d i u m .
AL

* A n e g a t i v e s i g n i s i n s e r t e d o n t h e r i g h t s i d e o f e q . (3.4)

= V-

i f Ah i s t a k e n a s ( h j - h^), t h u s i n d i c a t i n g f l o w i n t h e

direction o f decreasing head.

126

Theory of GroundwaterFlow

Chapter3

F i g u r e 3.3

Simulation o fDarcy's experiment.

Datum

T h e r a t i o o f v o l u m e o f v o i d s t o t o t a l v o l u m e i s p o r o s i t y , T] b y d e f i n i t i o n , a s d i s c u s s e d
i n 3 . 7 . 1 , i . e . , rj =

and v = v/;/. Thus,

(3.5)
where
V = Darcy velocity
= seepage o r interstitial velocity
77 = p o r o s i t y

E X A M P L E

3.1

A c h a n n e l r u n s a l m o s t p a r a l l e l t o a r i v e r as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . 4 . T h e w a t e r l e v e l i n t h e r i v e r
i s a t a n e l e v a t i o n o f 1 2 0 f t a n d i n t h e c h a n n e l a t a n e l e v a t i o n o f 1 1 0 ft. T h e r i v e r a n d c h a n n e l a r e 2 0 0 0 ft a p a r t , a n d a p e r v i o u s f o r m a t i o n w i t h a n a v e r a g e t h i c k n e s s o f 3 0 ft a n d
h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 0 . 2 5 ft/hr j o i n s t h e m . D e t e r m i n e t h e r a t e o f s e e p a g e flow e a c h
day f r o m the river to the channel.
F i g u r e 3.4 Model o f
river a n d c h a n n e l in
E x a m p l e 3.1.

River

S e c t i o n 3.5

Channel

Basic Equation o fGroundwater Flow: Darcy's L a w

127

SOLUTION

1. C o n s i d e r a l - f t w i d t h o f r i v e r a n d c h a n n e l p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e paper. T h e area o f cross

section o f the aquifer n o r m a l to flow
A = ( 3 0 ft X 1 ft) = 3 0 f t ^

2.

^
ft^ 2 4 h r
K = 0.25
= 6 ft/day
hr
1 day

3. F r o m eq. (3.3)

Q =

KA(h,-h,)

or

' ft ^

(30ft2)

(120-110

day

ft)

2 0 0 0 ft

= 0 . 9 ft ^ / d a y / f t w i d t h

E X A M P L E

3.2

A semipervious layer (aquitard) separates a n o v e r l y i n g water-table aquifer f r o m a n underl y i n g c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . 5 . D e t e r m i n e t h e r a t e o f f l o w t a k i n g p l a c e

between the aquifers.
SOLUTION

1 . S i n c e t h e w a t e r t a b l e is a b o v e t h e p i e z o m e t r i c surface a n d a s e m i p e r v i o u s ( l e a k y ) layer
e x i s t s , flow w i l l t a k e p l a c e from t h e w a t e r - t a b l e a q u i f e r t o t h e c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r .
2. F l e a d loss w i l l take place w h e n w a t e r m o v e s t h r o u g h t h e water-table ( t o p )
w h i c h is n o t k n o w n .

aquifer,

3. A s s u m e t h a t t h e h e a d at p o i n t b s h o w n i n t h e f i g u r e is lij, a n d c o n s i d e r t h e u n i t h o r i z o n t a l a r e a t h r o u g h w h i c h flow t a k e s p l a c e .
"

4 . B e t w e e n p o i n t s a a n d b, f r o m e q . ( 3 . 4 ) ,
40(90-h,)
q =

(1)
90

5 . B e t w e e n p o i n t s b a n d c, w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o d a t u m a t c: T h e h e a d a t c e q u a l s t h e p i e z o m e t r i c l e v e l a b o v e c, i . e . , ( 8 0 + 1 5 ) . T h e h e a d a t b e q u a l s h ^ p l u s d a t u m h e a d o f 1 5 ft a b o v e
c, i . e . , ( h ^ - t 1 5 ) . F r o m e q . ( 3 . 4 ) ,
(h^ - M 5 ) - ( 8 0 - l - 1 5 )
(2)
15
6 . E q u a t i n g ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) p r o v i d e s h^, = 8 8 . 7 0 ft

128

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3

F i g u r e 3.5
Vertical
downward flow
through a
s e m i p e r v i o u s layer,
E x a m p l e 3.2.

10ft

80 ft

15ft

F r o m eq. ( 1 ) , q = 0.58 ft^/day per square f o o t

E X A M P L E

3.3

A c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r h a s a s o u r c e o f r e c h a r g e as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . 6 . T h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e a q u i f e r is 5 0 m / d a y a n d its p o r o s i t y is 0.2. T h e p i e z o m e t r i c h e a d i n t w o w e l l s
1 0 0 0 m a p a r t is 5 5 m a n d 5 0 m , respectively, f r o m a c o m m o n d a t u m . T h e average t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a q u i f e r i s 3 0 m a n d t h e a v e r a g e w i d t h i s 5 k m . ( a ) D e t e r m i n e t h e r a t e o f flow
t h r o u g h t h e aquifer, (b) D e t e r m i n e t h e t i m e o f t r a v e l f r o m t h e h e a d o f t h e a q u i f e r t o a
point 4 k m downstream (assume n o dispersion or diffusion).
SOLLTTION

1 . A r e a o f c r o s s s e c t i o n o f flow = ( 3 0 m ) ( 5 k m )

2. F F y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t

1000

k m

= 15x10'^ m ^

=^^^^ = 5x10"^
1000

3 . R a t e o f flow, f r o m e q . ( 3 . 3 ) :
Q = ( 5 0 m / d a y ) ( 1 5 x 1 0 ^ m^){5

x 10"^) = 37, 500 m V d a y

4. D a r c y v e l o c i t y :
.3^y

37,500
A '

m-

day

= 0.25
15x10^

m/day

m ^

5. S e e p a g e v e l o c i t y :
v = =
r]

S e c t i o n 3.5

= 1.25

m/day

0.2

Basic Equation of Groundwater Flow: Darcy's L a w

129

F i g u r e 3.6

Travel t i m e In a u n i f o r m - s i z e d aquifer.
Recharge

6. T i m e t o t r a v e l 4 k m o r 4 0 0 0 m d o w n s t r e a m :
t =

4000 m
1.25

m/day

^^^^ ,
= 3 2 0 0 days o r 8.77 years

This demonstrates that water moves very slowly underground.

3.6
;

PARAMETERS OFGROUNDWATER MOVEMENT

Besides s e r v i n g as a n u n d e r g r o u n d storage reservoir, a n aquifer acts as a c o n d u i t t h r o u g h
w h i c h w a t e r is t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m a h i g h e r l e v e l t o a l o w e r level o f energy. T h e difference i n
energies a t various locations is caused b y a c o n t i n u o u s process o f infiltration and extract i o n o f water u n d e r g r o u n d . A basic parameter connected w i t h water m o v e m e n t t h r o u g h a
p o r o u s m e d i u m is t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y o r h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , w h i c h is a c o n stant o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y between the rate o f flow and the energy gradient causing that flow
in accordance w i t h Darcy's law.

3.6.1 H y d r a u l i c C o n d u c t i v i t y
Hydraulic conductivity combines the properties o f a porous m e d i u m and the fluid flowing
t h r o u g h i t . T h e r e l e v a n t f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s a r e d y n a m i c v i s c o s i t y , p, a n d s p e c i f i c w e i g h t , y .
T h e m e d i u m properties comprise porosity, grain-size distribution, a n d shape o f the grains.
A t e r m used t oc o m m u n i c a t e the effectiveness o f the p o r o u s m e d i u m alone as a t r a n s m i t t i n g m e d i u m i s t h e intrinsic ( s p e c i f i c ) permeability k, w h i c h h a s a d i m e n s i o n o f L ^ . W h e n
f l u i d a n d m e d i u m p r o p e r t i e s are c o m b i n e d , t h e t e r m is c a l l e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y o r h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y , e x p r e s s e d as:
K = k^
("

[LT-i]

(3.6)

where

130

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3

K = hydraulic conductivity
k = intrinsic permeability
7 = specific w e i g h t o f

fluid

jil = d y n a m i c v i s c o s i t y o f

fluid

D a r c y ' s l a w is u s e d t o d e f i n e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y . F r o m r e l a t i o n ( 3 . 3 ) , a m e d i u m has a
hydraulic conductivity o f 1 (having a d i m e n s i o n o f length per unit time) i f it transmits a
u n i t discharge t h r o u g h a cross-section o f u n i t area under a hydraulic gradient o f u n i t
c h a n g e i n h e a d t h r o u g h a u n i t l e n g t h o f flow.
S i m i l a r l y , t o d e f i n e t h e i n t r i n s i c p e r m e a b i l i t y , eq. ( 3 . 6 ) is s u b s t i t u t e d i n eq. ( 3 . 4 ) , a n d k
thus becomes
k = ^

[L^]

''^^^

"

(3.7)

w h e r e v = k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y = p /p a n d i = Ah/L.
A c c o r d i n g l y , a m e d i u m is s a i d t o h a v e
an intrinsic permeability o f 1 ( u n i t o f length squared) i f it transmits a u n i t discharge o f
fluid o f u n i t k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y t h r o u g h a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f u n i t a r e a u n d e r a u n i t p o t e n t i a l
g r a d i e n t . T h e u n i t s o f c m ^ , ft^, a n d d a r c y a r e u s e d f o r i n t r i n s i c p e r m e a b i l i t y . T h e i r e q u i v a l e n c e is s h o w n i n T a b l e 3.2.
T a b l e 3.2

Equivalence o f Intrinsic Permeability, Hydraulic

Conductiv-

ity, a n d T r a n s m i s s i v i t y

Intrinsic P e r m e a b i l i t y
darcy

cm^

ft^

0 . 9 8 7 x 10"^

1.062x10-"

Hydraulic Conductivity
meinzer or gpd/ft^
1

.
'

ft/day

m/day

0.134

0.041

Transmissivity
gpd/ft

fU/day

m^/day

0.134

0.0124

T h e u n i t s used for h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y are ft/day, m/day, a n d gallons per day/ft^.

T h e l a s t u n i t , a l s o k n o w n a s meinzers, h a s b e e n a d o p t e d b y t h e U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . F o r
l a b o r a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t , a w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e o f 6 0 F i s c o n s i d e r e d s t a n d a r d , w h e r e a s t h e
a c t u a l t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e field i s u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e field c o e f f i c i e n t o f p e r m e a b i l i t y . T h e
e q u i v a l e n c e o f t h e s e t e r m s is also i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 3.2.
Values o f hydraulic c o n d u c t i v i t y can be obtained f r o m empirical f o r m u l a s , f r o m labor a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d f r o m field t e s t s . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e s f o r v a r i o u s a q u i f e r
m e d i u m s are g i v e n i n Table 3.3.
E X A M P L E

3.4

D e t e r m i n e the hydraulic conductivity o f a m e d i u m w i t h intrinsic permeability o f 1 darcy

a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h w a t e r flows a t 6 0 F.
S e c t i o n 3.6

Parameters of Groundwater Movement

131

T a b l e 3.3
a n d

Representative Values o f Hydraulic

Conductivity for

Soils

Rocks

Formation
Unconsolidated

Hydraulic Conductivity,

Formations
1000-8600

Gravel, coarse

20-1000

Gravel, m e d i u m
Gravel,

20-50

fine

Sand, coarse

0.1-500

Sand, medium

0.1-50

Sand, fine

0.01-20

Silt, s a n d y

1-4

Silt, c l a y e y

0.2-1

Till, g a v e l

30

Till, s a n d y

0.2

Till, c l a y e y

< 10-5
< 0.0005

Clay
Sedimentary

m/day

Rocks
Limestone

IQ-USOO

Sandstone

10-5-3
10-5-0.001

Siitstone
SOLUTION

A t 6 0 F o r 1 5 . 6 C, p = 0 . 9 9 9 g / c m ^ a n d /7 = 1 . 1 2 c P o r 1 . 1 2 x I Q - ^ P o r g / c m - s e c .
F r o m eq. (3.6),
K = k ^ = k ^
p
p
K=

{I

darcy) 0.999
0.987x10"^

cm2

darcy

cm

980
c m 5 yV

sec'

cm-sec

1 . 1 2 x 1 0 -2

= 8 6 2 . 8 x l 0 " 5 cm/sec

T
from

T a b l e 3.2

Conversion to meinzers:
K

= 8 6 2 . 8 X 1 0 -6

cm^

I m

s e c J\_ 1 0 0

24x60x60
cm

1 day

sec

1 meinzer
0.041

m/day

= 18.2 m e i n z e r s
T h u s 1 d a r c y = 1 8 . 2 m e i n z e r s f o r w a t e r a t 6 0 F.

132

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3

E X A M P L E 3.5

A t s t a t i o n A t h e w a t e r - t a b l e e l e v a t i o n i s 6 5 0 ft a b o v e s e a l e v e l , a n d a t B , w h i c h i s 1 0 0 0 ft
a p a r t f r o m A , t h e e l e v a t i o n i s 6 3 2 ft. T h e a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y o f f l o w i s o b s e r v e d t o b e 0 . 1
ft/day.
D e t e r m i n e the coefficient o f permeability i n meinzers.
SOLUTION

F r o m eq. (3.4),
K =
Ah/L
where
V = specific discharge = v e l o c i t y = 0.1
Ah/L

ft/day

= hydraulic gradient = ( 6 5 0 - 6 3 2 ) 7 1 0 0 0 = 0.018

thus, K = 0.1/0.018 = 5.56

ft/day

Conversion t o meinzers:
K = 5.56T
day
= 41.9

1 meinzer
0.134

ft/day

meinzers

3.6.2 V a r i a t i o n o f H y d r a u l i c C o n d u c t i v i t y
H y d r a u l i c conductivity varies f r o m aquifer t o aquifer, f r o m l i q u i d t o liquid, f r o m location
t o l o c a t i o n , f r o m d i r e c t i o n t o d i r e c t i o n , a n d f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e t o t e m p e r a t u r e . W h e n K is
t h e s a m e i n a l l p l a c e s ( s p a c e ) , t h e m e d i u m i s homogeneous. W h e n i t v a r i e s i n s p a c e , t h e
m e d i u m i s s a i d t o b e heterogeneous. E v e n i n a h o m o g e n e o u s m e d i u m , K c a n v a r y w i t h t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f flow. T h e m e d i u m i s t h e n c a l l e d anisotropic.
W h e n the hydraulic conductivity is a continuous function o f depth.
Kdz

[LT-i]

(3.8)

where b is the thickness o f the m e d i u m .

W h e n a m e d i u m is stratified, t w o c o n d i t i o n s c a n exist: t h e d i r e c t i o n o f f l o w i s either
p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s o r n o r m a l t o i t . W h e n flow d i r e c t i o n i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e s t r a t i f i cations, as s h o w n i n E i g u r e 3.7, t h e average v a l u e o f h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y can b eg i v e n b y
K = ^(K,b,+K^b,+K,b,+-F o r flow p e r p e n d i c u l a r

+ K^b)

(3.9)

t o stratifications, as s h o w n i nE i g u r e 3.8,

K =

[LT-i]
bJK^+b^/K^+b^/Ky

Section 3.6

[LT-i]

Parameters of Groundwater Movement

(3.10)

b^/K^

133

F i g u r e 3.7

Flow parallel to stratifications.

h1
1
Direction
o f flow

K,^

\t
\

F i g u r e 3.8

Flow n o r m a l to stratifications.

b2

63

Direction
of flow

E X A M P L E

Kz

3.6

T h e s o i l u n d e r a d a m c o n s i s t s o f f o u r l a y e r s as

Layer

follows:

Hydraulic Conductivity
(cm/hr)

Depth(m)

4.8

8.0

0.6

18.0

1.0

3.0

W h a t is t h e a v e r a g e v e r t i c a l ( p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o f l o w ) c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s o i l ?
SOLUTION

F r o m e q . (3.10),

'

'

4.8 + 8.0 + 18.0 +

3.0

4.8/5 + 8.0/2 + 18.0/0.6 +

0.89

cm

h T y L100
= 0.214

134

= 0.89

cm/hr

3.0/1

24

hr

cm

day

m/day

Theory of Groundwater

Flow

Chapter

E X A M P L E

3.7

I n a soil s t r a t u m , t h eh y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t t h e surface is 2 x 10"^ cm/sec. I t u n i f o r m l y

reduces t o 4 x 10"^ c m / s e c a t a d e p t h o f 2 2 m , as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3.9. I f t h e w a t e r table is 3 m
b e l o w the surface, d e t e r m i n e the average h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s t r a t u m .
F i g u r e 3.9

2 X 10-5 c m / s

3 m

Stratum with

uniformly varying hydraulic

c o n d u c t i v i t y , E x a m p l e 3.7.

t
22 m

4 X 10-4 cm/s

(l4M44^MiM"^44^
SOLUTION

F o r l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n , t h e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t a h e i g h t x ( b o t t o m as

d a t u m ) can b e expressed as
JC = 4 x l O - 4 +

2x10-5 - 4 X 1 0 22

or
^ : = 4 x

10-'' + 0 . 7 2 7 x lO-^'x

F r o m eq. (3.8),
"^^^(4x10-4 + 0.727 X 1 0 - ^ x ) d x

k = 4

nl9

1
= <! 4 x 1 0 - 4 [ x l i ^ + 0 . 7 2 7 x 1 0 - 4
19 1
L Jo

= 10.9x10-4

cm/sec

Jo
or
r
cm
K = 10.9x10-4
V

3.6.3

SeCy

1 m

2 4 x 6 0 x 6 0 sec

L100 c m

= 0.942

m/day

day

Transmissivity

Transmissivity determines

t h e ability o fa n aquifer t o transmit water t h r o u g h its entire

thickness. I n a n aquifer o f u n i f o r m thickness.

T = Kb

S e c t i o n 3.6

[L^T-i]

Parameters of Groundwater Movement

(3.11;

135

'

where

'

T = transmissivity
JC = a v e r a g e h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y
b = thickness o f aquifer
F i e l d tests t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y o f a m e d i u m are described i n C h a p t e r 4.
E X A M P L E

3.8

W h a t is t h e t r a n s m i s s i v i t y o f t h e s o i l i n E x a m p l e 3.6 w h e n t h e w a t e r table is at t h e

ground

surface?
SOLUTION

F r o m E x a m p l e 3.6, iC = 0.214
F r o m eq. (3.11), r

m/day

0 . 2 1 4 (4.8 + 8.0 + 18.0 + 3.0) = 7.23

m^/day

3.6.4 L e a k a n c e , R e t a r d a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t } a n d L e a k a g e F a c t o r (for L e a k y
Aquifer)
F i a n t u s h ( 1 9 6 4 ) i n t r o d u c e d l e a k a n c e o r c o e f f i c i e n t o f l e a k a g e as a t e r m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e
s e m i p e r v i o u s c o n f i n i n g l a y e r t h r o u g h w h i c h w a t e r l e a k s o u t f r o m a n a q u i f e r . D e f i n e d , as
f o l l o w s , i t is a m e a s u r e o f t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e c o n f i n i n g layer t o t r a n s m i t v e r t i c a l leakage:
Le=y

[T-i]

^ , .

^^ ^^^

(3.12)

where
= leakance or coefficient o f leakage

'

J C ' = coefficient o f permeability o f semipervious layer o f thickness

b'

O t h e r factors, i n t r o d u c e d b y F i a n t u s h to indicate areal d i s t r i b u t i o n o f leakage and

used for the s o l u t i o n o f the equation o f f l o w t h r o u g h a leaky aquifer, were the retardation
c o e f f i c i e n t , a, a n d l e a k a g e f a c t o r , B, d e f i n e d a s
.

fl

= ^
K'/b'

[L]

(3.13)

and
B = 4 - ^
w h e r e K\s
E X A M P L E

[L]

^ :

the coefficient o f permeability o f aquifer o f thickness

'

(3.14)
b.

3.9

T h e b a n k s a n d b o t t o m o f a s t r e a m c o n s i s t o f s i l t y c l a y o f h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y 0 . 0 0 8 ml
day h a v i n g a n average d e p t h o f 150 c m . T h e u n d e r l y i n g aquifer o f line s a n d has a n average
t h i c k n e s s o f 2 0 m . D e t e r m i n e t h e (a) c o e f f i c i e n t o f l e a k a g e , (b) r e t a r d a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , a n d
(c) l e a k a g e f a c t o r o f t h e s t r e a m b e d . H y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y o f fine s a n d = 2 . 5 m / d a y .
136

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3

S O L U T I O N

Fromeq.(3.12),

b' = {l50 c m )

1 c m

= 1.5 m

100 m
I =

0.008

= 0.0053 perd a y

1.5
F r o m eq. (3.13),
a=

^'^
=471.7 m
0.0053

F r o m eq. (3.14),
2.5X20

B =J

=97.1 m
0.0053

3.7

PARAMETERS OFGROUNDWATER STORAGE

T w o i m p o r t a n t aspects o ft h e s t u d y o fg r o u n d w a t e r a r e t h em o v e m e n t o f w a t e r u n d e r g r o u n d t o s t r e a m s a n d w e l l s a n d u n d e r g r o u n d s t o r a g e i n w h i c h a n a q u i f e r serves as a storage reservoir. T h ev o l u m e o f w a t e r t a k e n o r released f r o m storage w i t h c h a n g e s i n w a t e r
l e v e l s i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f specific yield o r s p e c i f i c r e t e n t i o n f o r w a t e r - t a b l e
a q u i f e r s a n d b y specific storage o r s t o r a g e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r c o n f i n e d a q u i f e r s . T h e f u n d a m e n tal p a r a m e t e r o fg r o u n d w a t e r p h e n o m e n a , h o w e v e r , is porosity, w h i c h allows soil t o b e
considered a porous m e d i u m .

3.7.1

Porosity

A n e l e m e n t o f soil, separated i nthree phases, iss h o w n schematically i nF i g u r e 3.10. Porosity is d e f i n e d as t h e r a t i o o f t h e v o l u m e o f v o i d s t ot h e t o t a l v o l u m e , o r

77 =

(3.15)

[dimensionless]

F i g u r e 3.10
Three
p h a s e s in a soil
element.

Air
Weight

Volume

W.. -Z-Z-Z-3/VaterE

W
Solid

S e c t i o n 3.7

P a r a m e t e r s o fG r o u n d w a t e r S t o r a g e

137

T h e t e r m void ratio i s c o m m o n l y u s e d i n s o i l m e c h a n i c s t o p r o v i d e a n i n d i c a t i o n o f
v o i d s o r pores i n t h e soil. I t is defined as t h e r a t i o o f t h e v o l u m e o f v o i d s t o the v o l u m e o f
solids i n a soil sample, o r
V
e=

[dimensionless]

(3.16)

T h i s t e r m , however, israrely used i n groundwater flow.

P o r o s i t y a n d v o i d ratio are interrelated b y the expression
e = ^
l-T]

[dimensionless]

(3.17)

B u l k ( d r y ) d e n s i t y , pj^, o f s o i l i s t h e m a s s o f s o i l s o l i d s ( d r y s o i l ) p e r u n i t g r o s s v o l u m e o f
s o i l , a n d t h e d e n s i t y o f s o i l p a r t i c l e s ( g r a i n s ) , p^ i s e q u a l t o t h e m a s s o f s o i l s o l i d s p e r u n i t
v o l u m e o f soil solids. F o r the s a m e mass o f soil solids,

P j , ^

and

V,

"

U,

where
p^ = dry (bulk) density
= total soil v o l u m e

<.

Pj = grain density
Vj = dry soil v o l u m e
F r o m these relations a n d eq. ( 3 . 1 5 ) , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n emerges:
Pb

1-77

Ps

or
G

= 1-77

[dimensionless]

(3.18)

Gs

w h e r e Gj, a n d G^ are b u l k specific g r a v i t y a n d specific g r a v i t y o f soil solids, respectively.

P o r o s i t y is a m e a s u r e o f t h e w a t e r - b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f a f o r m a t i o n . H o w e v e r , i t is n o t j u s t
the total m a g n i t u d e o f porosity that isi m p o r t a n t f r o m the consideration o f water extraction
a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n , b u t t h e size o f v o i d s a n d t h e e x t e n t t ow h i c h t h e y are i n t e r c o n n e c t e d since
pores m a y b e o p e n (interconnected) o r closed (isolated). F o r instance, a clay f o r m a t i o n m a y
h a v e a v e r y h i g h p o r o s i t y b u t i t is a p o o r m e d i u m as a n aquifer. Specific y i e l d , o r effective
porosity, a n d specific r e t e n t i o n , as discussed b e l o w , are i m p o r t a n t f r o m this consideration.

E X A M P L E

3.10

A s a m p l e o f s a n d y s o i l is c o l l e c t e d f r o m a n aquifer. T h e s a m p l e r w i t h a v o l u m e o f 5 0 c m ^ is
filled

w i t h t h e soil. W h e n t h e soil isp o u r e d i n t o a g r a d u a t e d cylinder, i t displaces 30.5 c m ^

o f water. W h a t are the p o r o s i t y a n d the v o i d ratio o f the sand?

138

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3

SOLUTION

T h e v o l u m e o f w a t e r d i s p l a c e d is e q u a l t o t h e v o l u m e o f s o i l p a r t i c l e s ( s o l i d s ) ; t h u s

= 30.5

cm5 while 7^= 50 cm^

Hence

= v^ -

= 50 - 30.5 = 19.5 c m ^

F r o m eq. ( 3 . 1 5 ) ,

7?

V
= =

19 5
^
= 0.39 or
50.0

39%

F r o m eq. ( 3 . 1 7 ) ,
71
0.39
e = G- =
= 0.64
^ ~ l - 7 7
1-0.39

E X A M P L E

3.11

A soil s a m p l e occupies 0.132 ft^. W h e n d r i e d , i t w e i g h s 15.8 lb. I f the specific g r a v i t y o f soil

s o l i d s is 2 . 6 5 , c a l c u l a t e (a) t h e b u l k d e n s i t y o f t h e s o i l , a n d (b) t h e p o r o s i t y o f t h e s o i l .
SOLUTION

1.

15 8
D r y u n i t w e i g h t = ^ = 119.7 Ib/ft^
'
^
0.132

2 . D r y ( b u l k ) d e n s i t y , p^, =

119 7
119 7
' =
= 3.72 slugs/ft ^

3. U n i t w e i g h t o f s o i l g r a i n s =

G ^ 7 ^ = (2.65)(62.4)
= 165.36 lb/ft 5

.
r
.
165.36
165.36
,
4. D e n s i t y o f soil grains, p^ =
=
^ = 5.14 slugs/ft-'
5. F r o m e q . ( 3 . 1 8 ) ,
jy = l

6.

l ^= 0.276 or
5.14

27.6%

[ I n s t e a d o f d r y w e i g h t , t h e n a t u r a l ( w e t ) w e i g h t o f 18 I b / f t ^ w i t h a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , CO,
o f 1 4 % c o u l d h a v e b e e n g i v e n i n t h e p r o b l e m . I n s u c h a case,
W.

: .

=
'

18
=

1+CO/100

= 15.8lb
1+ 14/100

X
,

O t h e r s t e p s a r e t h e s a m e as a b o v e . ]

S e c t i o n 3.7

Parameters of Groundwater Storage

139

3.7.2 S p e c i f i c R e t e n t i o n (of W a t e r - T a b l e A q u i f e r )
W h e n t h e w a t e r table is l o w e r e d , w a t e r d r a i n s f r o m t h e p o r e spaces o f a n aquifer a n d is
replaced w i t h air. T h i s process occurs because t h e pressure o f w a t e r inside t h e pores
b e c o m e s less t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a i r p r e s s u r e . H o w e v e r , a p a r t o f t h e w a t e r i s r e t a i n e d
w i t h i n t h e p o r e s , d u e t o f o r c e s o f adhesion ( a t t r a c t i o n b e t w e e n p o r e w a l l s a n d a d j a c e n t
w a t e r m o l e c u l e s ) a n d cohesion ( a t t r a c t i o n b e t w e e n m o l e c u l e s o f w a t e r ) , w h i c h a r e s t r o n g e r
t h a n the pressure difference b e t w e e n the air pressure a n d the w a t e r pressure. T h e differe n c e o f a i r p r e s s u r e a n d w a t e r p r e s s u r e i s k n o w n a s capillary pressure, P^. T h e v o l u m e o f
water thus retained against the force o f gravity, c o m p a r e d to the total v o l u m e o f rock (soil),
i s c a l l e d t h e specific retention. I t i s a l s o k n o w n a s t h e field capacity o r w a t e r - h o l d i n g c a p a c ity. T h i s i sa m e a s u r e o f t h e w a t e r - r e t a i n i n g capacity o f t h e p o r o u s m e d i u m . Specific r e t e n t i o n is t h u s d e p e n d e n t o n b o t h p o r e characteristics a n d factors affecting t h e surface
t e n s i o n , s u c h as t e m p e r a t u r e , viscosity, m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n o f w a t e r , a n d s o o n .
As stated above, the a m o u n t o f water drained f r o m the saturated soil is a f u n c t i o n o f
capillary pressure. A characteristic curve o f this f u n c t i o n is s h o w n i n Figure 3.11.A s
i n c r e a s e s , t h e v o l u m e t r i c - m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t * d e c r e a s e s . A t a l a r g e v a l u e o f P^, t h e
v o l u m e t r i c - m o i s t u r e content tends t o w a r d a constant value because o f adhesion and cohes i o n ( e x p l a i n e d e a r l i e r ) a n d t h e g r a d i e n t Aco/AP^ a p p r o a c h e s z e r o . T h e v o l u m e t r i c m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t a t t h i s state is e q u a l t o t h e specific r e t e n t i o n , as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 . 1 1 .
A s i m p l e d e v i c e c o n s i s t i n g o f a p o r o u s p l a t e , c a p i l l a r y t u b e , a n d l e v e l i n g b o t t l e s is u s e d t o
measure v o l u m e t r i c - m o i s t u r e content a n d capillary pressure head o n a saturated sample. T h e
data are p l o t t e d as i n F i g u r e 3.11 t oo b t a i n t h e specific r e t e n t i o n o f t h e representative sample.
T h e p o r e w a t e r p r e s s u r e a t a n y d e p t h h b e l o w t h e w a t e r t a b l e i s e q u a l t o yh l i k e h y d r o static pressure, o rs i m p l y h i n t e r m s o f w a t e r head. T h u s , pressure above the w a t e r table, w i t h
reference t o t h e w a t e r table as a d a t u m , w i l l b e negative a n d e q u a l t o t h e h e i g h t o f t h e p o i n t
f r o m t h e w a t e r t a b l e . T h i s n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e i s s i m p l y t h e c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e , P^. I f w e f o l l o w
the relationship o f Figure 3.11 between capillary pressure a n d m o i s t u r e content, the same
curve indicates m o i s t u r e content ( i n v o l u m e t r i c terms) o f the soil at various heights above
t h e w a t e r table. C o n s i d e r t h e w a t e r table i n F i g u r e 3.12a a t level 1; t h e m o i s t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
c u r v e w i l l b e as s h o w n b y t h e o u t e r s o l i d c u r v e i n F i g u r e 3.12b. S u p p o s e t h a t t h e w a t e r table
d r o p s d o w n t o l e v e l 2 . W h e n e q u i l i b r i u m is a c h i e v e d , t h e m o i s t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c u r v e w i l l b e
s i m i l a r t o level 1 b u t w i l l b e displaced t o level 2, as s h o w n b y t h e d o t t e d c u r v e i n F i g u r e 3.12b.
T h e area u n d e r t h e curve represents t h e m o i s t u r e i n t h e soil. T h e shaded area b e t w e e n the
t w o curves o r a t the base between the t w o water-table lines represents the a m o u n t o f water
d r a i n e d from t h e s o i l w i t h t h e r e d u c t i o n o f w a t e r t a b l e f r o m l e v e l 1 t o l e v e l 2 .

E X A M IM F , 3 . 1 2

A 2 0 0 - g d r y s o i l s a m p l e is tested b y a p o r o u s p l a t e test. T h e n e g a t i v e ( c a p i l l a r y ) p r e s s u r e h e a d
a n d the i n c r e m e n t a l a m o u n t o f w a t e r released f r o m the s a m p l e are indicated below. T h e b u l k
d e n s i t y o f t h e s o i l i s 1.5 g / c c a n d a t s a t u r a t i o n t h e w e i g h t m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e s o i l i s
2 9 . 3 3 % . (a)Calculate the v o l u m e t r i c - m o i s t u r e content o f the soil for each capillary pressure
* M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , CO, i s a w e i g h t p a r a m e t e r . H e r e t h i s t e r m i s u s e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r i n s i d e t h e
pores i n terms of volume. T h e following relation holds:
,
.
.
,
.
b u l k density o f soil
v o l u m e t r i c m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t = w e i g h t m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t x ;
density o f water
or v o l u m e t r i c m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t = w e i g h t m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t x b u l k specific g r a v i t y

140

Theory of Groundwater Flow

Chapter 3