Contribution of Buddhism to the status of women in society

Alvin Concha, MD
Women and Spirituality
MA Gender Studies
Ateneo de Davao University

“When one’s mind is well concentrated and wisdom never fails,

does the fact of being a woman make any difference?”

A Buddhist Bhikkhuni
What Buddhists Believe

Introduction and methods

Why a question-and-answer format for this paper?

The feminist tradition in doing research has been notorious for drawing into the
limelight the ways of knowing (and presenting that knowledge) which have been
suppressed in order to privilege “standard” procedures and formats. Presenting this
paper in a question-and-answer format is my way of bringing back into the
academic scene what has long been familiar to us in the magazines of popular
culture that some of us read everyday. It is also my way of advocating for an
outlook in society that is egalitarian, and that celebrates diversity rather than
assign hierarchies in matters of everyday existence, even in term paper formats.

What does this paper attempt to achieve?

This paper aims to explore the contributions of the Buddhist religion on the status
of women in the society, specifically in relation to women’s liberation from
patriarchy.

1
What do we already know about Buddhism?

Religion shapes what we do, to a very considerable extent. The notion of a

Supreme Being makes religious teachings very influential in a person’s way of
living. Yet even in godless religions like Buddhism, religious precepts constitute
the rules by which people negotiate a personal as well as a social life. Siddharta
Gautama, The Buddha, was the first religious teacher who gave opportunities for
spiritual development to women with a status equal to that of men
(Dhammananda, 1989). The Buddhist life, as prescribed by The Buddha, therefore
carries with it an innate emancipatory character that ought to be practiced by his
followers. It is from this context that I will set out to delve into the present
practices of Buddhism in relation to the feminist vision of gender justice.

What are the two main traditions of Buddhism?

Buddhism has two main traditions, namely the Mahayana tradition and the
Theravada tradition. These traditions differ in their philosophical interpretation of
the dharma. The Mahayana tradition is widespread in China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan
and Tibet, while the Theravada tradition is common in Sri Lanka, Thailand,
Cambodia, Lao and Burma. “The position of nuns [female Buddhists in the
religious order] is different in the Mahayana and Theravada traditions. While both
traditions originally permitted nuns, there are currently no surviving orders of
fully-ordained nuns in the Theravada countries.” (Fitz-Gerald, 1992).

How was the general aim of this paper approached?

In this paper I critically reviewed existing articles on the status of women in

Buddhism. These articles were acquired from the books available in the Sakya
Buddhist Temple in Cabaguio Avenue, Davao City. I also conducted an online
search for articles on the subject matter. The search brought me to some websites
and online journals specializing on women and Buddhism, from which I got
relevant articles.

A second methodology I employed in approaching the objective of this paper is a

key person interview with a Buddhist. Mr Nhuan Pham is an English-speaking
male Vietnamese who is a member of the Sakya Buddhist community here in
Davao. He was a monk aspirant when he came to Davao City seven years ago. He
stayed in the Sakya Buddhist Temple in Cabaguio for 2 ½ years before he decided
to pursue a Buddhist layman’s life and eventually got married.

2
Why a male Buddhist as a respondent for a paper on women?

The Sakya Buddhist community in Davao City is very small. Sakya Buddhists
follow the Mahayana tradition of Buddhism. There are only about thirty Buddhists
who frequent the Sakya Buddhist Temple in Cabaguio Avenue. Most of these
Buddhist practitioners, including one monk and two nuns, are Chinese-speaking.
Owing to the paucity of possible research partners, I have decided to conduct a
key person interview to the only English-speaking Buddhist that I have met here in
Davao City.

The articles on the status of Buddhist women, which I will review in a while, are
mostly written by females. Nhuan’s accounts of his experiences in the temple
could elucidate Buddhist women’s role in a place of religious activity from the
point of view of a man.

Luminary Buddhist Nuns in contemporary Taiwan: A quiet

feminist movement

Who are the Luminary nuns in Taiwan?

Luminary nuns are Mahayana Buddhist nuns in Taiwan who are well-trained in
Buddhist doctrines, practices and precepts. Luminary nuns nowadays project an
image of knowledgeable and disciplined nuns. Their temple can be found in a rural
village in Southern Taiwan.

Are Luminary nuns feminists?

Luminary nuns have been labeled by Wei-yi Cheng as feminists. Cheng

emphasizes, however that the label “feminist” is her own. Buddhist nuns in Taiwan
do not like to be labeled feminist for religious and political reasons. Feminism, for
them, connotes challenging a patriarchal tradition. The act of challenging what has
been present for so many generations is not something very familiar to them.
Besides, Buddhism believes that the difference in sex is an illusion. The ideal
practice of Buddhism attempts to transcend whatever biological differences there
is in sex. Being feminist may run counter to this pursuit, since feminism
acknowledges men/women duality and does not aim to transcend such.

3
What religious symbols do Luminary nuns have that suggest feminism?

Guanyin, Boddhisatva of Compassion, is the main diety represented in the

Luminary Temple. As the story goes, in the Chinese tradition, Guanyin used to be
a male who was transformed into a female. Cheng reads this high regard of
Luminary nuns for Guanyin as their realization of a great need for female imagery.
One of the leaders of the nunnery, Bhikkuni Tianyi, is most remembered by the
nuns to have been the advocate for women’s independence form male support.
When she was still alive, Bhikkuni Tianyi urged nuns to take up the responsibility
of guiding the lives of other nuns instead of depending on the guidance of monks.

A second religious symbol, which might be viewed as a feminist practice is the

way nuns dress themselves. In Buddhism, monks and nuns alike shave their heads
and wear the same kind of robes. This practice makes it difficult to distinguish
monks from nuns. For the nuns, the monastic robe symbolizes the ultimate
renunciation of worldly life and, more specifically, transcendence from the
worldly concepts of difference of the sexes and difference in social status.
“Because monks and nuns have to wear the same robe, the monastic robe liberates
the nuns from socially-constructed concepts of femininity as well as the social
pressure for women to be slim and beautiful” (Cheng, 2003).

What are present in the structure of the order of Luminary nuns that are
indicative of feminism?

Luminary nuns have been trained to work for themselves and to be independent
from men. Bhikkhuni Tianyi, one of the leaders of the order, urged the nuns to
learn to do tasks by themselves and to solve their own problems without asking
help from the monks. She also repeatedly said that “women must be taught by
women” and “bhikkhuni, stand up.”

The order of Luminary nuns also recognizes the special religious needs of
Buddhist laywomen. They organized religious retreats for women in order to
“establish women’s righteous faith in Dharma. We wish that through involving
themselves with various activities in the retreat, women can discover the
wholeness of Dharma in their daily-life and eventually enable themselves for
further growth” (Cheng, 2003). This recognition of women’s needs and subsequent
action to respond to such needs follows the feminist tradition of proactively
working towards women’s emancipation and empowerment.

The establishment of a publishing house by the Luminary nuns can also be viewed
as a feminist move. In the androcentric and patriarchal framework of religious
writings of history, women never had a voice. A publishing house that facilitates

4
the Luminary nuns to record their own stories is very enabling and emancipatory
for them. Apart from that, the nuns also maintain an Internet discussion board,
which allows women to share their experiences with each other.

Lastly, Luminary nuns is also undertaking a project of writing down the stories of
Buddhist nuns in the past in order to reclaim women’s experiences in history, from
which contemporary women can gain inspiration and a sense of importance in the
society.

What makes the education of Luminary nuns feminist?

Bhikkhuni Wu-Yin was largely responsible for the kind of education that
Luminary nuns have today. Out of a realization that nuns should be self-reliant,
Wu-Yin established in 1980 the Luminary Buddhist Institute, presently a well-
respected Buddhist university. The university now provides monastic education. At
the same time, nuns in the Luminary order also teach laywomen attending the
university to be self-reliant and to take control of their own situations. The
teachings of Luminary nuns on women empowerment is not rooted on confronting
patriarchy, but rather on enhancing oneself to be empowered. The emphasis on a
woman’s responsibility for her own situation leads to the emphasis on the need to
develop survival skills and a righteous mind; consequently, the woman is given the
internal strength to face whatever oppression she might find herself in” (Cheng,
2003). The Dalai Lama also said, referring to women’s rights: “It is correct to
struggle for one's rights, not with pride or jealousy, but with a view toward taking
on one's own share of responsibility in the critical task of improving the quality of
human society” (Fitz-Gerald, 1992).

How may we read Cheng’s article on Luminary nuns?

This is a good feminist reading of Buddhism by Cheng. Although she claimed that
feminism is indeed her own label of the Luminary nuns’ life, and that Buddhists
would tend to dislike being associated with feminism, she had nonetheless
defended very well her label. Gathering stories of “good practices” along the line
of any struggle like feminism is a logical move and is very enabling for advocates.
Identifying good practices boosts the morale of advocates and, at the same time,
grounds the advocates on the real score of the struggle.

The thing with this phenomenon among the Luminary nuns is that it may not be
universal. The monastery has a set of rules and a structure, which integrity has
been taken care of by its leaders. What the monastery has done so far have been
very beneficial at least to their immediate Buddhist community in Taiwan, but it is

5
quite possible that their works may not influence other Buddhist communities in
the world.

Status of women in Buddhism & Buddhism and women

What was the status of the women during Buddha’s time?

During The Buddha’s time, women had a very low position in Indian society.
Women’s works were limited to the kitchen and taking care of the children. The
women were not allowed to enter the temple or to recite religious scripture
because they were considered unclean. Married women with no children or those
who did not bear a son had a great chance of being superseded by a second or a
third wife or even banished out of the house. This was due to the strong belief sons
are necessary for fathers to be able to go to heaven and that only sons were worthy
to continue the family line and perform the rites of the ancestors. Women were
also believed to be incapable of going to heaven in their own merits. She could
only reach heaven by unquestioningly obeying her husband.

What was so feminist about The Buddha?

“The Buddha was the first religious teacher who gave this religious freedom to
women” (Dhammananda, 1989b). The Buddha’s act of allowing the women to
enter religious life was therefore a very radical move during his time. He also said
that women, like men, can possess wisdom and have the capacity to attain
Enlightenment. It is believed that, in his past lives, The Buddha had been born as a
woman in several occasions, during which time he developed wisdom and other
noble qualities until he gained Enlightenment.

Buddhism also promoted a culture counter to the prevailing Indian culture at the
time of The Buddha. A son was no longer considered necessary for the father’s
passage to heaven. Marriage was no longer required for all women and women
were given freedom to lead an independent life if they wish to do so.

6
Buddhism needs feminism

Where is patriarchy and misogyny in Buddhism rooted?

Patriarchy and misogyny, as seen in most Buddhist communities, are not offshoots
of the teachings of The Buddha. “Nothing in the most basic tenets of Buddhism
entails the inferiority of women. The Buddha taught the Dharma to all people, men
and women alike, without making gender distinctions” (Fitz-Gerald, 1992). But
patriarchy and misogyny can be traced to the culture from which Buddhism is
interpreted and practiced and from the hierarchy and written history of the
religion. A good investigation of contemporary sexism in Buddhism, therefore,
may start from the specific cultural context where women come from and from a
meticulous deconstruction of the Buddhism history and structure.

Where there signs of the Buddha being sexist?

Some historians would claim that Buddhism is as sexist as Jainism or

Brahmanism. The Buddha used to be reluctant in admitting women into the
religious order. To be admitted into the order of nuns, women must have the
consent of either their parents or their husbands. A feminist reading of this could
be that, in the context of the times when the consent of persons other the nun
aspirant was needed for admission into the order, such was the most appropriate
move in order to facilitate women’s emancipation. The Buddha was also said to
have prophesied that Buddhism will only last for 500 years because of the
admission of women into the religious order. A critical reading of this came from
the Dalai Lama himself: “many of these explanations came about in relation to the
times, the place, and the social conditions, and most probably were not the original
thought of the Dharma itself” (Fitz-Gerald, 1992).

Why is the number of bhikkhunis low in some countries?

A specified number of fully-ordained bhikkhus and bikkhunis is required during a

nun’s ordination ceremony. Many countries could not even reach this specified
number, and therefore failed to be able to ordain bhikkhunis. Establishing a
bhikkhuni order has also been feared by the religious to cause a drift among
people in the Sangha. This seems to be an unfounded fear and might really be
attributed to another fear, that of confronting patriarchy. “Still another difficulty is
belief in the prophecy that the Dharma will decline 500 years after the admission
of women. As women were admitted into the Sangha 2500 years ago and the
Dharma is still strong, this seems a weak objection.” (Fitz-Gerald, 1992).

7
Man and woman in the teachings of the Buddha.

What is The Buddha’s view of men and women?

The Buddha believed that salvation can be gained by women in the same manner
as by men. He also believed that being male or female is not important in
achieving spiritual freedom. A female arahant is in no way subordinate to a male
one. Adultery is as objectionable for men as it is for women. In one of the
renditions of monastic law, “there exist 227 numbered rules for monks and 311 for
nuns. The additional rules are not an added burden, but only elucidate other rules.
As for the unnumbered rules, there are many more for monks than for nuns”
(Hecker, 1992).

The case of Buddhist nuns in Thailand

What is the difference between the Theravada tradition and the Mahayana
tradition of Buddhism in terms of view of women?

The Theravada tradition of Buddhism stresses monastic life and celibacy as

necessary for Enlightenment. The Mahayana tradition has a more liberal view of
women and recognizes the possibility of Enlightenment within marriage. Women
are also more respected and revered as partners of men in the Mahayana tradition.
“Mahayana Buddhism is relatively egalitarian in that it allows for the ordination of
women as
bhikkhuni. The religious status of Mahayana bhikkhunis is eminent and the general
images of women are positive.” (Hinshiranan, 1993)

How are women viewed in Buddhism as practiced in Thailand?

In Thailand, where Theravada Buddhism is more dominant, many religious

scholars assert that men and women have different potentials in attaining nirvana.
“In popular Buddhist culture the dominant image of woman is... of the mother who
nurtures the religion by bearing sons who will one day enter the Sangha... Because
women are not allowed to ordain as bhikkhuni, the ultimate merit that they can
gain is from allowing their sons to enter monkhood... It is believed that
accumulating merit in this way will allow a woman to be reborn as a man and gain

8
a better chance of salvation through monkhood in the next life (Hinshiranan,
1993).

Women are also believed to represent worldly attachment and sensual pleasures,
which are perceived as obstacles to men’s spiritual advancement. Women are often
associated with the imperfect, secular, powerless and profane.

Who are the mae chis of Thailand?

Mae chis are the religious women in Thailand. They are not considered nuns or a
counterpart of monks because they have not been ordained. “Mae chi are not
accepted as part of the Sangha (the ordained Buddhist assembly) because they are
not deemed to be propagators of the Dhamma. They are not allowed to interpret
the Dhamma, do not officially teach Buddhism or hold religious rituals” Mae chis
usually live in the temple, but their living conditions are relatively poor. They are
considered subordinate to monks and their daily chores include cooking, washing,
cleaning the temple and maintaining the temple grounds. There is a social stigma
attached to being a mei chi. They are sometimes regarded as outcasts or eccentrics.

Women and Buddhism: Theravada nuns of Nepal

How are Nepali nuns treated by monks?

Nepali nuns in the Theravada tradition had a lower position than monks. The nuns
cook, clean, wait on monks and receive secondary treatment by them. The nuns
are not fully ordained as bhikkhunis so monks believe that requiring the nuns to
serve them does not violate any rights. Monks, in turn, lead prayers and
ceremonies, a task not given to the nuns. During gatherings the nuns are seated at
the feet of the monk. Nuns may only receive food after all the monks have been
given food.

9
Reflection on gender bias in popular Buddhism: Women and
Buddhism in Vietnam

How are women Buddhists treated in Vietnam?

Girls do not have an equal chance at education as boys, and there is also a great
need to establish an institute for higher education for women. There are many
temples in Vietnam, but there is no temple that is exclusively for women. Despite
that, laywomen, not laymen, are the main caretakers of temples. Laywomen also
play a very important role of providing food for the monks.

Shih, J. (1992). Buddhist Nuns from a modern perspective

What is the status of Buddhist nuns in Japan?

In Japan, the number of nuns is decreasing and the average age of nuns is
increasing. The nuns are always in a subordinate position compared to the monks.
Before, they were expected to serve by cleaning, cooking and sewing for the
monks, and they were not allowed any position of power or responsibility.
Nowadays, nuns may gain a higher position and, in concept, may attain a rank
equal to the monks. In reality, however, this does not usually happen. “Generally
speaking, the relative inequality in the positions of women and men still exists...
nuns in almost every tradition were not given opportunities for proper training or
education. Nevertheless... in modern times Japanese nuns have been learning to be
strong and independent... They seem to have become aware of the importance of
improving the quality and elevating the status of nuns” (Shih, 1992)

What is the status of Buddhist nuns in Taiwan?

Buddhist nuns in Taiwan enjoy relatively high positions in the Sangha. “More
importantly, the majority of Taiwanese men are not as malechauvinistic as those in
other countries” (Shih, 1992). Most monks have attitudes which are emancipatory
to women. This may be partly because monks in Taiwan are a minority in the
Sangha. But the contribution of nuns to the community through education, social
welfare and religion is responsible for the high regard afforded to them.

10
What is the status of Buddhist nuns in China?

In China, nuns often have subordinate positions compared to monks and laymen.
In one of the famous temples in mainland China, the seating order in the worship
hall and at meals is arranged with monks and laymen before nuns. Nuns also often
experience ill-treatment from monks with disparaging attitudes in some of the
temples.

Interview with Nhuan

Is it easy to become a Buddhist nun?

It is more difficult to become a nun than to become a monk. The stepmother of the
Buddha wanted to become a nun and asked him three times. The Buddha refused,
but Ananda, The Buddha’s cousin and assistant, had to convince the Buddha to
allow women to enter the religious order. Nowadays, if a married woman wants to
become a nun, she should ask the permission of her husband first. The primary
concern of the woman should be her duties in the household and to her husband.
Once inside the religious order, men can get in and out of the monastery 8 times,
but women can only enter once. After the women quit religious life, they cannot
go back to the monastery anymore.

How equal are men and women in terms of decision making?

Buddhists believe that women will destroy religion because women talk a lot and
they always change their decisions. If a woman holds power in the house or in the
society, problems arise. In community meetings that concern how the religious life
can be practiced, ideas and suggestions of women may be heard but the last
decision comes from the men. When I wanted to stay in the Sakya Buddhist
temple and asked one of the nuns if I could, a monk had to be called to make the
decision. When I deal with my wife, I always have the last say. Men should be the
head of the house.

11
Summary

In summary, what are the contributions of the Buddhist religion on the status
of women in the society?

Buddhism provides a religion that is anchored on a spirituality of transcendence

from worldly life. Buddhism attempts to transcend male/female duality. This gives
the original Buddhist teachings a feminist color, in that the religion aims to portray
men and women as equals in spiritual pursuit. The Buddha can be considered as
the first emancipator of women. Because of his teachings, feminism is given an
opportunity to be practiced within Buddhism. Following the Buddhist tradition of
living life, there is great freedom in Buddhism to redress what has been done
wrongly in the past. This defines the self-reflexivity of Buddhist practitioners. The
practice of Buddhism is sometimes different from the original teachings.
Geographical variation even makes the assessment of Buddhist practices more
difficult to generalize. What is important, though, is that, as a self-reflexive
religion, much of the lessons we should take towards feminism can come from
Buddhism. It is now a matter of religiously translating what The Buddha taught in
order to realize the egalitarian gender relations we have long sought for.

12
References
Cheng, W. (2003). Luminary Buddhist Nuns in Contemporary Thailand: A Quiet
Feminist Movement. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, volume 10.

Dhammananda, K.S. (1989). Status of women in Buddhism. In: The Buddhist way.
Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation.

Dhammananda, K.S. (1989). Buddhism and women. In: What Buddhists believe.
Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation.

Fitz-Gerald, K.L. (1992). Buddhism needs feminism. Sakyadhita Newsletter,

volume 3 number 2.

Hecker, H. (1992). Man and Woman in the Teachings of the Buddha. Sakyadhita
Newsletter, volume 3 number 1.

Hinshiranan, N. (1993). The case of Buddhist nuns in Thailand. Sakyadhita

Newsletter, volume 4 number 1.

Kita, K. (1996). Women and Buddhism: Theravada nuns of Nepal. Sakyadhita

Newsletter, volume 7 number 1.

Pratt, N.F. (1993). Reflection on gender bias in popular Buddhism: Women and
Buddhism in Vietnam. Sakyadhita Newsletter, volume 4 number 1.

Shih, J. (1992). Buddhist Nuns from a modern perspective. Sakyadhita Newsletter,

volume 3 number 2.

Wikipedia. (n.d.). Buddhist terms and concepts. Internet. Retrieved July 1, 2005
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_terms_and_concepts

13
Appendix

Glossary

arahant: a living person who has reached Enlightenment

bhikkhu: a Buddhist monk

bhikkhuni: a Buddhist nun

bodhisattva: a person with the intention to become a Buddha in order to liberate all
other beings from suffering.

dharma/dhamma: doctrines and teaching of the Buddhist faith

Enlightenment/nirvana: Buddhahood; the state of being spiritually awakened; the

highest level of spirituality in Buddhism

sangha: the community of Buddhist nuns and monks

sutra: Buddhist scriptures

14