Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Psychology
MODULE 1
Functions Of
Educational
Learning Objectives:
After completion of module 1, you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the different methods of educational psychology.
2. Explain the functions of educational psychology.
Introduction
In educational psychology, there are methods of obtaining data. These are
ways which are utilized to study and investigate the problems solved in learning
and teaching. Educational psychology derives its data on many sources including
the following: observation, interviews and questionnaires, standardized tests,
case studies, correlational research, experimental research, and time span of
research ( Santrock, 2001).
In order to meet the obligation for the demand of science and the demand
of religion, the course in educational psychology must serve certain functions and
must stress certain aspects ( Kelly ). Kelly listed eight functions of educational
psychology. The first three functions are basic. They are concerned with the
application of Christian principles, which present the true and valid concept of
human destiny as well as the nature and aim of education. The remaining four
functions involve the presentation and application of laws and application of the
laws and techniques which will be of use in directing the experience by which
knowledge and skills, habits, and attitudes, ideals and virtues are acquired; in
solving the problems that arise in the educative process; and in determining and
evaluating methods of instruction.
D. Case Studies
A case study is an in depth look at an individual. Case studies often
are used when unique circumstances in a persons life cannot be duplicated,
for either practical, or ethical reasons. Although case studies provide
dramatic, in-depth portrayals of peoples lives, we need to exercise caution
when interpreting them. The subject of a case study is unique, with a genetic
makeup and set of experiences that no one else shares. For these reasons,
the findings might not generalize to other people.
E.Correlational Reseach
In correlational research, the goal is to describe the strength of the
relation between two or more events or characteristics. Correlational research
is useful because the more strongly two events are correlated. ( related or
associated), the more effectively we can predict one from the other. However,
correlation by itself does not equal causation.
E. Experimental Research
Experimental research allows educational psychologists to determine
the causes of behavior. Educational psychologists accomplish this task by
performing an experiment, a carefully regulated procedure in which one or
more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied is
manipulated and all other factors are help constant. Cause is the event being
manipulated. Effect is the behavior that changes because of the
manipulation.
Experiments involve at least one independent variable and one
dependent variable. The independent variable is the manipulated,
influential, experimental factor. The dependent variable is the factor that is
measured in an experiment.
F.Time Span of Research
We can study groups if individuals all at one time or study the same
individuals over time.
Individual differences
The learning process
The motivation of learning
The factors and conditions which influence the efficiency of learning
Transfer of learning
Development of effective study habits and skills
Learning Activities
A. Post Test
I.
Enumerate
psychology.
B. Enrichment Activity
Read more about the different methods of educational psychology and
give some specific cases where these methods were applied. Discuss each
example comprehensively.
References:
Kelly, William A., Educational Psychology. Shore Wood, Wisconsin
Santrock, John, W., (2001). Educational Psychology. New York: Mc-Graw- Hill
Company Inc.
MODULE 2
Teacher Centered And Learner Centered Classroom
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to :
1. Differentiate
classroom.
teacher-
centered
classroom
from
student-centered
Introduction
What kind of teaching yields active learning?
There are many ways to facilitate active learning. In this module, you
are going to examine the traditional teaching techniques that have been around
for hundred of years as well more recent techniques. The major distinction made
in this module is between teacher- centered instruction and student- centered
instruction. This distinction refers to the locus of the learning activity. Teachers
who present the key concepts of a unit through lecture are at the center of
learning activity in their classrooms. If the students are in need of clarification,
they go to the source of information. This is a teacher- centered instruction. In
1. LECTURING
Lecturing is a discourse given in a class for the purpose of instruction.
It is practical and efficient because one teacher can present material to
many students at one time. Lecturing is also flexible and adaptable because
teachers can exercise a high degree of control and can change the content as
circumstances in the classroom require.
How to Deliver a Lecture that Encourages Active Learning ( McCown,1995)
2. EXPLAINING
Explanations are more focused than lectures. The purpose of
explanation is to define. clarify, or provide an account of concepts, events, and
relationships ( Gage & Berliner, 1988).
The teacher who presents explanations effectively tends to be more
responsive to the specific needs of the student and has a clearer idea of the
students misunderstanding. The explanation that such a teacher offers provides
information that goes to the heart of the students problem. Effective teachers
also tend to provide a context or framework for the answers that their
explanations provide ( Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, & Vavrus, 1986). Explanations are
also occasions for instructing students on how to use the information in other
learning situations, thus contributing to metacognitive awareness and transfer of
learning.
3. QUESTIONING
Questioning refers to anticipating, soliciting, and reacting to student
responses as a means of instruction.
4. INDEPENDENT PRACTICE
Independent practice refers to tasks a student completes
independently while in the classroom or at home. In many classrooms, seat
work constitutes a large proportion of the students day.
If you use seat work as a regular feature in your classroom, spend
time early in the year establishing rules and procedures that will enable students
to work independently. Establishing seatwork procedures will allow the teacher
to be available as possible to students during their practice sessions. Moving
about the room while monitoring seat works also sends a message to students
that the teacher is aware of their behavior and that the teacher place some
importance on the hand at hand.
LEARNER-CENTERED CLASSROOM/INTRUCTION
Santrock (2001) listed some strategies that are used in a learnercentered instruction.
a gap between the theoretical level of student- centered learning and its actual
application.
Keep in mind that although teacher- centered and student- centered
instruction are presented separately, many teachers use aspects of both
approaches.
Discover and analyze the metaphors for teaching and learning that form
the basis of your theory of teaching.
Through personal investigation, professional collaboration, and
classroom practice, expand your knowledge about instructional
approaches, techniques, and formats and about the instructional goals
and learning outcomes.
Remain open in trying new ideas and new teaching behaviors.
Continually integrate your expanding knowledge base with your theory of
teaching through reflective construction.
Learning Activities
Answer the following question::
1. Differentiate teacher-centered classroom from student centered classroom.
2. What are the seven elements that constitute an effective lesson?
3. List down and discuss the common teaching behaviors or techniques used
in a teacher-centered classroom.
4. Identify the techniques in a student- centered classroom and discuss how
each encourages active learning
References
Gage, N.L. et. al (1988). Educational Psychology. 4 th ed. Boston, Houghton
Mifflin Company.
McCown, Rick et al. (1995). Educational Psychology. 2 nd ed. Massachusetts:
Simon & Schuster Comp.
Santrock, John, W. (2001) Educational Psychology .New York: Mc-Graw Hill
Company Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita (1998), Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon
MODULE 3
Piagets Cognitive Development Theory
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Identify and discuss the key concepts in Piagets theory.
2. Discuss Piagets stages of cognitive development.
3. Cite implications of cognitive theories in the teaching- learning process.
Introduction
During the past half-century, the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget devised
a model describing how humans go about making sense of their world by
gathering and organizing information ( Piaget,1954,1962,1970a).
Piaget call himself a genetic epistemologist, a term that reflected his
interest in the process of how we acquire knowledge changes as we develop.
Among the early concepts explaining cognitive development, Piagets formulation
of the stages of cognitive development had the greatest impact in the study of
thinking and learning.
This module focuses on the key concepts of Piagets theory on
cognitive development and its implication to the teaching-learning process.
Organization
Organization is the combining, arranging, recombining, and
rearranging of behaviors and thoughts. People are born with a tendency to
organize their thinking into psychological structures. Simple structures are
continually combined and coordinated to become more sophisticated and thus
more effective.
For example, young infants can either look at an object or grasp it
when it comes in contact with their hands. They cannot coordinate looking and
grasping at the same time. As they develop, however, infants organize this two
separate behavior or structures into a coordinated high-level. structure of looking
at, reaching for, and grasping the object( Ginsburg & Opper,1998).
In Piagets theory, he called these structures schema (plural is
schemata). Schemata are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are
organized systems of actions or thought that allows us to mentally represent or
think about the objects and events in the world.
Adaptation
People inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment. Two basic
processes are involved in adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation takes place when people use their existing schemes to
make sense of events in their world. Assimilation involves trying to understand
something by fitting it into what we already know. For example, the first time
many children see a skunk, they call it a kitty. Then try to match the new
experience with an existing scheme for identifying animals.
Accomodation occurs when a person must change existing schemes
to respond to a new situation. We adjust our thinking to fit the new information,
instead of adjusting the information to fit our thinking. For example, children
demonstrate accommodation when they add the scheme for recognizing skunks
to their other systems for identifying animals.
Equilibrum
In Piagets theory, the actual changes in thinking take place through
the process of equilibrum the act of searching for mental balance between
cognitive schemes and information from the environment. This is Piagets
term for the balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Briefly, the process of equilibrum works like this. If we apply a
particular scheme to an event or situation and the scheme works. the equilibrum
exists. If the scheme does not produce a satisfying result, then diesquilibrum
exists and we become uncomfortable. This motivates us to keep searching for a
solution through assimilation and accommodation; and thus our thinking changes
and moves ahead.
Table 1
STAGE
APPROXIMATE
AGE
CHARACTERISTICS
> begins to make use of
imitation, memory, and
thought
Sensorimotor
0-2 years
Pre- operational
2-7 years
Concrete
operational
7-11 years
Formal operational
11-adult
Some of Piagets ideas about how people learn and think as discussed by
Ormrod (1990) and Woolfolk (1998) are presented here. Some implications of
these concepts to teaching-learning are also included.
1. The rate of cognitive development is controlled to some extent by maturation.
Educational implication: Remember that some students, especially those
younger than eleven or twelve may not yet be capable of understanding
certain ideas, particular and the abstract and hypothetical.
2.People are active processors of information and are motivated learners
Educational implication: Capitalize in student natural curiosity. For example, let them experiment with new objects.
3.Knowledge can be described in terms of structures that change with
development.
Educational implication: Childrens schemata may differ depending on
their responses to stimuli. Help students develop appropriate schema of
objects or events.
4.Cognitive development results from the interaction of individuals with
their physical and social environment.
Educational Implication: Give students many hands- on experiences. Provide opportunities for students to share opinions, perspectives and beliefs
with others.
5.Cognitive development involves an increasing integration and organization of knowledge.
among
Learning Activities
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the key concepts in Piagets theory of cognitive development?
Discuss each.
2. Identify the four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget and
describe each.
3. Cite implications of Piagets assumptions on human learning and cognition to the teaching-learning process.
References :
1. Elliot, Stephen N. et al. (2000) Educational Psychology. New York. McGraw Hill Inc.
2. Ormrod Jeanne Ellis. (1998) Human Learning: Theories, Principles and
Applications. New York. McMillan Publishing Company.
3. Santrock, John W.(2001) Educational Psychology. New York. McGraw
Hill Inc.
4. Woolfolk, Anita E. (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts. Allyn
and Bacon.
MODULE 4
Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module , you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the concept of Zone of Proximal Distance and inner speech of
Vgotskys theory of cognitive development .
2. Discuss the application of Vygotskys socio- cultural theory in classroom.
Introduction
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian Philosopher in the 1930s, is most often
associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of
cultural and social contexts in learning and support a discovery model of learning.
The major theme of Vygotskys theoretical framework is that social
interaction play fundamental role in the development of cognition. This type of
model places the teacher in an active role while the students mental abilities
develop naturally through various paths of discovery.
Vygotsky modeled his theory after the Soviet view that each person has
a role in transforming the society where he belongs.
This module focuses on the basic concepts of Vygotskys socio-cultural
theory on cognitive development and its application in the classroom .
Before the age of two years, the development of thought and speech
are separate. However, at two years, they join to initiate a new form. Thought
becomes verbal and speech becomes rational. Speech serves as the intellect as
thoughts are spoken. Thus, social environment is important to childrens
development because it can accelerate or decelerate development.
6. Language and Egocentric and Inner Speech
Language is a tool for organizing thinking because it bears the
concepts. The primary function of speech is communication. Communicative and
egocentric speech are both social with different functions. Speech develops first
with external communicative/ social speech, then egocentric speech, and finally
inner speech.
Vygotsky theorized that egocentric speech has a genetic connection
with inner speech. Egocentric speech is the key to studying inner speech
because it is the stage that precedes it. Both fulfill intellectual functions and have
similar structures. Around the time that children turn 3, egocentric speech
emerges. This is a form of speech in which children carry on lively
conversations, whether or not anyone is present or listening to them. Egocentric
speech is speech on its way inward but still mostly outward. Finally, speech
turns inward (inner speech) and serves as important function in guiding and
planning behavior. Inner speech is for oneself while external, social speech is for
others.
Learning Activities
A. Test yourself. Answer the following:
1. What are the key concepts in Vygotskys socio- cultural theory of
cognitive development? Discuss each.
2. Discuss the applications of Vygotskys principles in classroom.
B. Enrichment Activity
Read more about ZPD. Discuss other ways on the implication of ZPD on
teaching.
References :
Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior, 3 rd ed. California:
Brooks/ Cole Publishing.
Santrock, John W. ( 2001) Educational Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita. E. (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon
MODULE 5
Classical And Operant Conditioning
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to :
1. Define classical and operant conditioning.
2. Illustrate and explain Pavlovs experiment on classical conditioning.
3. Cite applications of classical conditioning theory.
4. Discuss Thorndikes and Skinners operant conditioning and the key
concepts of each theory.
5. Cite the applications of Thorndikes and Skinners theory.
Introduction
When you administer a test, your students will respond to you. When you
ask and answer questions, your students will respond to you. How will they
respond? Will they do what you ask of them? Will they ignore you?
The behavioral approach to learning represents a school of thought
in which learning is explained through observable aspects of the environment.
Behavioral scientist would observe first the students behavior and then analyze
what happened to the behavior.
The behavior approach to learning offers strategies for classroom
management and student learning and suggest ways to prevent and resolve
discipline problems. Behavior defines, for educators, the concept of
ringing of the bell with the food, the bell acquired the characteristics of the food,
that is eliciting salivation on the dog.
The bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the dogs salivation to
the sound of the bell is a conditioned response (CR). According to Santrock
(2001) conditioned response is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus
that occurs after the US- CS pairing.
This type of learning by conditioning is illustrated as follows:
BEFORE CONDITIONING
Neutral stimulus (bell)----------------------Response ( no salivation)
U S ( FOOD) ------------------------U R ( dog salivates)
DURING CONDITIONING
Neutral Stimulus (bell) + U S ( food)--------------- U R ( dog salivates)
AFTER CONDITIONING
C S ( bell)------------------------------------------------ C R ( dog salivates)
____________________________________
Have aHave
breakafrom
your
readings!
break
from
your readings!
Take a Take
glassaofglass
cold of
water
coldwhile
water while
internalizing the ideas gained
Thorndikes Connectionism
Edward Lee Thorndikes experiment with hungry cats in a puzzle box
was a precursor to B.F. Skinners operant conditioning. Thorndike called this type
of learning instrumental because through trail and error method, the cat was
able to open the latch ( e.g. an instrument ) inside the box and was able to
escape from the box to get the food. outside.
From his studies on cats, dogs , and chickens, Thorndike came up with his
Laws of Learning. He recognized two laws of learning, the stimulus ( S ) and
the response (R)). From him , learning involves the establishment for stimulusresponse connections thus paving the ways for the development of the S-R
theory of learning. His methods is also called association learning or
connectionism because it involves forming bonds between the stimulus
impressions and the responses.
=Sprinthall & Sprinthall (2000) cited Thorndikes laws of learning which
is still influential in modern thinking and practice.
1. Law of Effect
It states that behavior followed by a positive outcome or reward are
strengthened and those that are followed by a negative consequence or
dissatisfiers are weakened. Thus, the strengthening or weakening of the S-R
bond is dependent on the consequence or what follows the response. For
example, when pupil is praised for doing well in his project, he continues to
strive to have superior work. On the other hand, if he is not recognized and
was even criticized, he may not strive to improve his performance.
2. Law of Readiness
It posits that when the S-R connections are to conduct, then the
learner is ready to learn. This readiness to learn differs from maturation which
is a prerequisite to learning. As emphasized by Lupdag (1984), readiness to
learn here refers to a temporary neuropsychological state, referred to as
neurologically teachable moment. Thus a child is ready to learn to dance
when his bones are matured for such an activity and when he has the mind
set and eagerness to learn.
3. Law of Exercise
It simply means that learning occurs with constant practice. The S-R
connections are strengthened when they are used and are weakened when
not utilized. The drill method is a good example of the use of this law.
BEHAVIOR
Student gives a
good answer to
teachers question
BEHAVIOR
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Teacher praises the
student
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student submits
Teachers stops
homework on time criticizing the student
BEHAVIOR
Student makes
noise in class
PUNISHMENT
CONSEQUENCE
Teacher verbally
reprimands the student
Student increasingly
submits homework on time
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student stops making
noise in the class
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
shaped. And once the desired behavior is learned, it may not use reinforcing
anymore.
Learning Activities
A . Answer the following questions:
1. What is classical conditioning?
2. Show through illustration Pavlovs classical conditioning
experiment. Explain the experiment.
3. Cite some applications and contributions of classical conditioning
to teaching-learning process.
4. What is operant conditioning?
5. Explain Thorndikes laws of learning.
6. Differentiate classical conditioning from operant conditioning.
7. List some applications of operant conditioning.
B.
Enrichment Activity
References :
Domjan, M. (1993). The Principle of Learning and Behavior 3 rd ed., California:
Brooks/ Cole Publishing.
Gines, Adelaida C. et. al. (2002). Educational Psychology, Manila: Rex Book
Store.
Lupdag, Anselmo D. (1984). Educational Psychology, Quezon City: National
Bookstore
Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao L. (1998). Psychology of Learning. Quezon
City: KEN Inc.
Santrock, John W. (2001). Educational Psychology, New York: McGarw Hill
Comp. Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita E., (1998). Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
MODULE 6
The Learning Process: Views From
The Cognitive Constructivists
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Differentiate Bruners discovery learning from Ausubels expository
learning.
2. Discuss Bruners three ways of representing objects and events.
3. Explain the different conditions that promote effective discovery learning
Introduction
Even though information processing theorists believe that we actively
construct knowledge based on what we already know and the new
information we encountered, many constructivists believe that information
processing does not take the idea of knowledge construction for enough
(Deny,1992, Garrison,1995 as cited in Woolfolk,1998).
Constructivism is an educational philosophy which holds that learners
ultimately construct their own knowledge that then resides within them, so
that each persons knowledge is a s unique as him or her (ALN Magazine
1997) . In other words, learners construct knowledge for themselves- each
learner individually and socially constructs meaning- as he or she learns.
PROCESS
EXAMPLE
USE
Represented in
the muscle
( doing)
Tying a knot
motor skills
Iconic
Using mental
Having an
sensory skills
image to stand image of what ( mental picture
for objects
the knots look
of things)
like
Symbolic
Using symbol
Describing the
systems knot and how to
(thinking
tie it.
and reasoning)
Intellectual skills
( knowing the
reality of things)
which it can be related. He believed that a signifier ( i.e. word) has a meaning
when its effect upon the learner is equivalent to the effect of the object it
signifies. He described three main categories on meaningful reception of
information.
1. Representation- the meaning of a single word or symbol is learned.
2. Conceptual the learner begins to recognize the features or
attributes of a concept.
3. Prepositional the learner combines words and/ or symbols to form
new ideas.
Subsumption Process
A subsumer is a concept similar to schema or coding system. It
leads us to think of cognitive structure as a type or organization where higher
level concepts incorporate or subsume other ideas. In describing the
process of subsumption, Ausubel contended that the most important single
factor in influencing learning is what the learner already knows.
Derivative subsumption occurs if the material is similar to existing
structure that could have bee derived directly from it.
Correlative subsumption occurs if the new materials requires an
extension of structure because some of it is entirely new
Learning Activities
A. Answer the following questions:
1.Compare and contrast Bruners discovery learning from Ausubels expository
teaching. Discuss the advantages of each.
2. Discuss the ways of representing objects and events as identified by Bruner.
3. What are the different conditions that promote effective discovery learning?
B. Enrichment Activity
Read more about advance organizer. Assuming that you are a teacher
and you will be presenting to your class a topic of your choice, prepare an
advance organizer for your presentation of this topic.
References:
ALN Magazine. Volume1, Issue 1. March,1997.
Ausubel, David P. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New
York: Grune and Statton.
McCown, Rick,et al. 2nd ed.(1995).Educational Psychology . Massachusetts:
Simon and Schuster Comp.
Woolfolk, Anita,E, (1998). Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon
MODULE 7
Basic Concepts On Motivation
Learning Objectives:
After going through this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Explain how motivation affects learning and performance.
2. Explain and give examples of the different views on the sources of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
3. List the different sources of motivation within the learner and from the
learning environment
4. Explain the different factors that affect motivation.
5. Device ways on how to enhance your students motivation to learn.
Introduction
Are you reading this module because your instructor assigned it? Are
you reading this module because you want to understand why your students
differ in their pursuit of academic achievement? Are you reading this because
you are concerned about motivating your students? What motivates you to do
this? The material in this module will help you understand why and how people
are motivated to learn.
When students develop a motivation to learn, they initiate learning
activities, they stay involved in a learning task, and they exhibit a commitment to
learning ( Ames, 1990). These are all outcomes that we desire of students in
school, and effective school are those that help students, acquire goals, beliefs,
and attributes that will sustain a long-term engagement in learning.
Motivation has become a central construct in both educational and
psychological research for the past sixty years and plays a significant role in
several theories of human development and learning. Motivation is the reason
why people behave the way they do. Motivated behavior is energized, directed,
and sustained ( Santrock,2001)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Before you move on to the next topics, try to recall the sources
of your motivation as a student when you were in elementary and high
school. Are they still the same at present?
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2. Attribution
Attribution theory states that in their effort to make sense of
their own behavior or performance, individuals are motivated to discover
its underlying causes. Attributions are perceived causes of
outcome( Santrock, 2001).
3. SELF- EFFICACY
As cited by Santrock, it is the belief that one can master a
situation and produce positive
outcomes( Bandura,1997,1982). Selfefficacy is the belief that I can; helplessness is the belief that I cannot
( Stipek, 1996). Students with high self- efficacy endorse such statements
that I know that I will be able to learn the materials in this class and I
expect to be able to do well at this activity.
Students beliefs about their own ability to perform successfully
influence their motivation. On future tests of this nature, students who
believe they cant do well will not put forth the effort required to perform well.
Students develop expectations of self- efficacy from a number
of sources. These are the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
simple self-observation
observation of others
encouragement
emotional arousal
5.
6.
7.
5. LEARNED HELPLESSNESS
According to Santrock (2001),an ability attribution for failure
provides learners with a negative self- perception. They have failed and the
reason they have failed is that they lack ability, an internal, stable source.
Students who fail consistently and attribute these failures to causes that
are not under their control can develop a serious motivation problem
called learned helplessness ( Dweck, 1975; Seligman & Meier, 1967)
Students who have learned helplessness orientation feel that they nothing
they do matters. They tend to attribute failures to reasons that are internal
and stable. For example, I do not succeed because I am dumb.
Therefore, nothing I do will improve my situation. I will always fail.
6. ANXIETY
Summary
Motivation is an important psychological construct that affects
learning and performance. It increases an individuals energy and
activity level toward certain goals. Many sources of motivation arise
within the learner, but as many come from the learning environment.
Understanding these factors can aid teachers in helping students to
develop adaptive motivational patterns.There are also factors that
affect students motivation- beliefs about knowledge and ability,
attribution, self-efficacy, learned helplessness, anxiety, and cultural
beliefs and values.
The various tasks used in instruction( such as meaningful
learning opportunities), teacher-student relations ( such as giving
students opportunities for responsibility and independence) , and
evaluation/ recognition ( such as recognizing students efforts) ,can
influence students motivation in areas like intrinsic motivation,
attributions based on effort, and live engagement. It is important to
consider the students self- generated motivational beliefs and
performance, as well as the teachers expectations.
Learning Activities
A. Test Yourself
Direction: Read and understand each statement below. State
whether the item is correct or incorrect. If the item is incorrect,
restructure the sentence to make it a correct one. Write your answer in
the blank space before the number.
___________1. Motivation increases the likehood that people will begin
something on their own effort and persist in the face of
difficulty.
___________2. High school teachers can benefit students by thinking of
ways
to make these school settings more personal, less
formal, and
more extrinsically challenging.
___________3. Flow occurs more often when people develop a sense of
mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while
they
engage in an activity.
___________4. When rewards convey information and mastery, they are
more
likely to increase student feeling of anxiety.
___________5. When tangible rewards were offered contingent on the
task performance or given unexpectedly, intrinsic motivation
was maintained.
___________6. Combination of locus, stability, and controllability produce
different explanations of failure and success.
___________7. Over aroused and anxious students result to increase of
selfefficacy.
___________8. High anxiety can result from unrealistic parental
expectations.
___________9. Instructional strategies that emphasize I can do it
benefit
students.
___________10. A student with mastery information focuses on the task
rather
than on his ability and includes solution on the problem as part
of his strategies.
B. Answer the following questions:
1. Explain how motivation affects learning and performance.
2. Discuss the different views on the sources of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation.
3. List the different sources of motivation which comes from the learner and
from the environment.
4. Discuss the different factors that affect motivation.
B. Enrichment Activities
1. Observe a group of pre-school or elementary students undergoing instruction
or engaging in an activity. Note and list instances where motivation has taken place. Explain why do you consider such as examples of motivation.
Identify also the possible sources of these motivations.
2. Read thoroughly about B. Weiners three dimensions of causal attributions
( locus, stability , and controllability). Cite its implication in the teachinglearning process.
3. Go back to enrichment number 1. If you were the teacher during that activity,
how can you enhance your students motivation to learn.Devise your own strategies of enhancing your students motivation.
.
References
1. Elliot, Stephen N. ,et.al (2000) Educational Psychology .New York. McGraw Hill Comp. Inc.
2. McCrown, Rick, et.al ( 1995) Educational Psychiology. 2 nd ed. New York.
Mc-Graw Hill Comp. Inc.
3. Santrock, John W. ( 2001) Educational Psychology. New York. Mc-Graw
Hill Comp. Inc.
MODULE 8
Intelligence : Traditional And
Views
Current
Learning Objectives
After going through this module, you are expected to be able to:
1. Discuss the early views or concepts of intelligence.
2. Explain the Sternbergs Triarchic theory of intelligence.
3. Discuss the eight types of intelligence of Gardner.
4. Discuss the implication of multiple intelligence theory to teaching and
learning.
Introduction
What does intelligence mean? The idea that people vary in what
we call intelligence has been with us for a long time. Plato discussed similar
variations over 2,000 years ago. Most early theories about the nature of
intelligence involved one or more of the following three themes: 1) the capacity to
learn; 2) the total knowledge a person has acquired; and 3) the ability to adapt
successfully to new situations and to the environment in general (Woolfolk,1998).
In this century, Santrock (2001) claims that there has been
considerable controversy over the meaning of intelligence.In 1986 at a
symposium on intelligence, 24 psychologists offered 24 different views about the
nature of intelligence (Sternberg & Detterman,1986). Over half of the experts did
mention higher level thinking processes such as abstract reasoning, problem
solving, and decision making as important aspects of intelligence- whether it is a
single ability or many separate abilities ( Gustafsson & Undheim, 1996).
This module focuses on the traditional and current definitions of
intelligence.
Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) believes that there are eight types of
intelligence ( Santrock,2001).They are described below:
1) Verbal skills: the ability to think in words and use language to
express meaning ( authors, journalists, speakers)
2) Mathematical skills: the ability to carry out mathematical
operations ( engineers, accountants)
3) Spatial skills: the ability to think three-dimensionally (architects,
artist, sailors)
4) Bodily: kinesthetic skills: the ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept ( surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes
5) Musical skills: a sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm and tone
( composers, musicians, and sensitive listeners)
6) Interpersonal skills: the ability to understand and effectively
interact with others ( successful teachers, mental health
professionals)
7) Intrapersonal skills: the ability to understand oneself and
effectively direct ones life ( theologians, psychologists)
8) Naturalist skills: the ability to observe patterns in nature and
understand natural and human-made systems ( farmers,
botanists, ecologists, landscapers)
Gardner says that the different forms of intelligence can be destroyed by
brain damage, that each involves unique cognitive skills, and that each shows up
in unique ways in both the gifted and idiot savants.
Learning Activity
Answer the following questions.
1.Discuss the early views on intelligence.
2. Explain the Triarchic theory of intelligence.
3. Identify and discuss the eight types of intelligence according to Gardner .
References
Elliot, Stephen, et al. (2000). Educational Psychology. New York. McGrawHill Comp. Inc.
Santrock, John W.( 2001) Educational Psychology . New York. McGraw- Hill
Hill Comp. Inc.
Woolfolk, Anita (1998) Educational Psychology . Massachusetts. Allyn &
Bacon
MODULE 9
Andragogy: Concepts, Approaches, and
Principles of Adult Learning
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this module , you are expected to be able to:
1. Define andragogy and pedagogy.
2. Differentiate the basic assumptions of andragogy and pedagogy.
3. Cite some characteristics of adult learners and discuss their implications
to teaching.
Introduction
Andragogy is the science and the art of teaching adults. This module
presents differences between andragogy and pedagogy, the characteristics of
adult learners, the elements of the andragogical process and a summary of
principles of adult learning.
Training and technology transfer programs and activities are often
directed to adult populations. It is important to know the assumptions about how
adults learn and their characteristics to enable us to plan approaches and
strategies suited to them.
CHILD LEARNING
( Pedagogy)
1. Self- concept
2. Role of the learners
experience
3. Readiness to learn
4.Time Perspective
5. Motivation to learn
Dependent; guided by
adults; teacher more
directive
Children have limited
experience, teacher is
primary resource learning
Curriculum is set by the
teacher ( what top learn
and when and how
learning will take place)
Children learn for the
future; subject- centered
External motivators like
grades, praise, etc.,work
best
Instructors Response
Encourage discussion and trainee
contribution
Self- directed; autonomous
Share objectives and goals with
trainees;
Let
them
evaluate
their
own
performance
Task-oriented
Emphasize relevance of content to job;
Establish the need to know
Anxious, cautious in new situation
Provide reinforcement, encouragement
Easily discouraged; fearful or failure
Foster
sense
of
achievement;
discourage excessive competition
Lacks confidence in ability to learn
Provide over learning, plenty of practice
Resistant to change/ innovation
Stress need to know for any new
material
Expect good instruction
Come to class well prepared
Self- esteem based on experience and Respect trainees age and experience
past achievement
Lack recent study experience
Be patient
1. Climate setting
Climate conducive to learning should be provided. The physical
environment should be comfortable. The psychological climate should be
characterized by mutual respect, collaborativeness, mutual trust,
supportiveness, openness, pleasure, and humaneness.
2. Involving learners in mutual planning
Learners should be involved in planning their learning experiences.
People tend to be committed in the activity if they have a part in decisionmaking.
3. Involving participants in diagnosing their own needs
Teachers should help learners clarify their own aspirations, diagnose
the gaps between their aspirations and their recent level of performance.
4. Involving learners in formulating learning objectives
The learner should be involved in formulating learning objectives in
which the needs of students, the institution, the teachers, and of the subject
matter are taken into account. They should know their goals and the steps
necessary to reach these goals.
5. Involving learners in designing learning planning
Teachers should assist learners identify resource and devise
strategies for using these resources to accomplish their objectives.
6. Helping learners carry out their learning plans
Teachers should assist students in their individual needs. Option
available to the learners should be explored. Opportunities for
experimentation should be provided. Learning should proceed at the learners
own pace.
7. Involving learners in evaluating their learning
Adults learn more effectively if they receive feedback about their
progress. They should also have a sense of their own accomplishment since
this is an important motivation for learning.
In andragogical model, the role of the facilitator ( i.e. teacher) is
primarily that of a designer and manager of the processes and procedures
that will facilitate acquisition of content, and secondly as a content resource.
Learning Activities
A. Activity Dyad
Select a partner whom you are most comfortable with and
discuss your worries and concerns as an adult learner .
B. Answer the following questions:
:
1. What is pedagogy?
2. Who is the main advocate of pedagogy?
3. In what ways do adult learners differ from children? In what ways
are they alike?
4. Cite some characteristics of adult learners and discuss their
implications to teaching.
5. Explain the seven elements of the andragogical process design.
References: