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M. Carreras, P. Ridao, R. Garcia and T. Nicosevici
Institute of Informatics and Applications
University of Girona
Campus Montilivi, Girona 17071, Spain
I. INTRODUCTION
su
rg
e
Y
6 . -31 * . !
pitch
X1
X
6 ) ) * %
& +!. ( 1 " # $ #
heave
'9 '(1-
yaw
Z1
Z
a) b) %
& ' ( ) * ( & ) +
Fig. 2. URIS’s AUV, a) picture b) schema
, -/. 0 1324 . +!1
X
b) e)
Y
1
Time [s]
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0.2
Z [m]
0.3
0.4
Time [s]
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0.1
Roll [rad] Fig. 7. Histogram of the estimated position and orientation
0
Time [s]
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 tank1 . After studying the nature of the source of errors
0.1 (refer to Section III-E), it has been assumed that the
Pitch [rad]
localization system behaves as an aleatory process in
0
which the mean of the estimates coincides with the real
Time [s] position of the robot. It is important to note that the system
-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 estimates the position knowing the global position of the
2
Yaw [rad]
dots seen by the camera. In normal conditions, the tracking
1.5 of dots and the detection of global marks never fails, what
1
0.5
means that there is not drift in the estimates. By normal
Time [s]
0 conditions we mean, when the water and bottom of the
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
pool are clean, and there is indirect light of the Sun.
To find out the standard deviation of the estimates, the
Fig. 6. Position and orientation before and after filtering
robot has been placed in 5 different locations. In each
location, the robot was completely static and a set of
2000 samples was taken. Normalizing the mean of each
E. Filtering
set to zero and grouping all the samples, a histogram can
Main sources of error that affect the system are the be plotted, see Fig. 7. From this data set, the standard
imperfections of the pattern, the simplification on the deviation was calculated obtaining these values: 0.006[m]
camera model, the intrinsic parameters of the camera, in X and Y, 0.003[m] in Z, 0.2[◦ ] in roll, 0.5[◦ ] in pitch
the accuracy in detecting the centers of the dots and, the and 0.2[◦ ] in yaw.
error of least-square and Levenberg-Marquardt algorithms The only drawback of the system is the pattern detection
on its estimations. These errors cause small oscillations when direct light of the Sun causes shadows to appear in
on the vehicle position and orientation even when the the image. In this case, the algorithm fails in detecting the
vehicle is not moving. To eliminate these oscillations, a dots. Any software improvement to have a robust system
first order Savitzky-Golay [7] filter was used. Fig. 6 shows in front of shadows would increase the computational
the estimated three-dimensional position and orientation time, and the frequency of the algorithm would be too
with and without filtering. Finally, the velocity of the robot slow. However, the algorithm is able to detect these kind
respect the onboard coordinate system is also estimated of situations, and the vehicle is stopped.
applying a first order Savitzky-Golay filter with a first The system is fully integrated on the vehicle’s con-
order derivative included on it. Refer to section IV to show troller, giving new measures 12.5 times per second. Due
results about the estimated velocities. to the high accuracy of the system, other measures like
the heading from a compass sensor, or the depth from a
IV. RESULTS pressure sensor, are not needed. An example of a trajectory
measured by the localization system can be seen in Fig. 8.
The vision based localization system, that has been
presented in this paper, offers a very accurate estimation 1 Some videos showing the performance of the system can be seen at:
of the position and orientation of URIS inside the water http://eia.udg.es/∼marcc/research
3.5 0,3
Velocity SURGE DOF
3
[m/s]
2.5 0,2
X 2
1.5
0,1
1
0.2 0.5
0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Y 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0.3 Time [s]
-0,1
Z 0.4
4
0.25
Z 0.3
0.5 0.35 -0,2
3 0.4
0.6
0.45
-0,3 setpoint measured value
0.7 2 Y 0.5
0.55
3.5 4
3 2.5 0.6 2
0,5 YAW DOF
2 1.5 3.5 3 2.5 2 Y Velocity [rad/s]
1 1 1.5 1 0.5 0
0.5 X 0,4
X
0,3
0,2
Fig. 8. Three-dimensional trajectory measured by the localization 0,1
system. Three views are shown 0
-0,1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time [s]
-0,2
V. CONCLUSIONS
[5] N. Gracias and J. Santos-Victor. Underwater video
This paper has presented a vision-based localization
mosaics as visual navigation maps. Computer Vision
system for an underwater robot in a structured envi-
and Image Understanding, 79(1):66–91, 2000.
ronment. The paper has detailed the experimental set-
[6] S. Negahdaripour, X. Xu, and L. Jin. Direct estimation
up, as well as, the different phases of the algorithm.
of motion from sea floor images for automatic station-
Main feature of the system is its high-accuracy drift-
keeping of submersible platforms. IEEE Trans. on
free estimations. The system is fully integrated on the
Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 24(3):370–
vehicle’s controller, giving new measures 12.5 times per
382, 1999.
second. Due to the high accuracy of the system, other
[7] A. Savitzky and M.J.E. Golay. Analytical Chemistry,
measures like the heading from a compass sensor, or the
volume 36, pages 1627–1639. 1964.
depth from a pressure sensor, are not needed. In addition,
the localization system can also be used to evaluate the
performance of the video mosaicking system, designed to
work in unstructured environments.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was sponsored by the Spanish commis-
sion MCYT (DPI2001-2311-C03-01).
VII. REFERENCES
[1] O. D. Faugeras and G. Toscani. The calibration
problem for stereo. In Proc. of the IEEE Computer
Vision and Pattern Recognition, pages 15–20, 1986.
[2] R. Garcia, J. Batlle, X. Cufi, and J. Amat. Positioning
an underwater vehicle through image mosaicking.
In IEEE International Conference on Robotics and
Automation, pages 2779–2784, Rep.of Korea, 2001.
[3] R. Garcia, J. Puig, P. Ridao, and X. Cufi. Augmented
state kalman filtering for auv navigation. In IEEE In-
ternational Conference on Robotics and Automation,
pages 4010–4015, Washington, 2002.
[4] R.C. Gonzalez and R.E. Woods. Digital Image Pro-
cessing. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1992.