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GrapheneAsimpleintroductionExplainthatStuff

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byChrisWoodford.Lastupdated:March18,2016.
Ifthe20thcenturywastheageofplastics,the21stcenturyseemssettobecometheageofgraphenearecently
discoveredmaterialmadefromhoneycombsheetsofcarbonjustoneatomthick.Sciencejournalshavebeen
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runningoutofsuperlativesforthiswondrousstuff:it'sjustaboutthelightest,strongest,thinnest,bestheatand
electricityconductingmaterialeverdiscovered.Andifwe'retobelievethehype,itpromisestorevolutionize
everythingfromcomputingtocartiresandsolarcellstosmokedetectors.Whatisthisstrangeandremarkable
newstuff?Let'stakeacloserlook!
Photo:Apencillikethisisawoodenshaftfilledwithastickofsoftgraphite,atypeofcarbonmadefrom
stronglybondedlayersofatomsthatareveryweaklyheldtogetherbyVanderWaalsforces.Asyoudragyour
pencilalongthepage,thethinlayersofgraphiteshearoffandstaybehind,makingtheblacklineyoucansee.
Nowifyoucouldshaveoffasuperthinlayerofgraphite,justoneatomhigh,whatyou'dhavewouldbe
graphene.Therearetinyspecksofgrapheneinanypencilmarklikethis,butsincethey'reonlyoneatomhigh,
you'llbedoingwelltospotthem!

Whatisgraphene?
Inschoolyouprobablylearnedthatcarboncomesintwobasicbutstartlinglydifferentforms(orallotropes),
namelygraphite(thesoft,blackstuffinpencil"leads")anddiamond(thesuperhard,sparklycrystalsin
jewelry).Theamazingthingisthatboththeseradicallydifferentmaterialsaremadeofidenticalcarbonatoms.
Sowhyisgraphitedifferenttodiamond?Theatomsinsidethetwomaterialsarearrangedindifferentways,and
thisiswhatgivesthetwoallotropestheircompletelydifferentproperties:graphiteisblack,dull,andrelatively
soft(softandhardpencilsmixgraphitewithothermaterialstomakedarkerorfainterlines)diamondis
transparentandthehardestnaturalmaterialsofardiscovered.
Ifthat'swhatyoulearnedinschool,youprobablyfinishedyourstudiesquiteawhileago,becauseinthelastfew
yearsscientistshavediscoveredvariousothercarbonallotropeswithevenmoreinterestingproperties.Thereare
fullerenes(discoveredin1985hollowcagesofcarbonatoms,includingthesocalledBuckyball,
Buckminsterfullerene,madefromakindoffootballshapedcageof60carbonatoms),nanotubes(discoveredin
1991flatsheetsofcarbonatomscurledintoamazinglythin,hollowtubesonenanometerindiameter)and
(drumroll)graphene(discoveredin2004).

Sowhatexactlyisgraphene?Peerinsidelotsoffamiliarsolidmaterials(includingmostmetals)andyou'llfind
what'sknownasacrystallattice(anothernameforasolid'sinternal,crystallinestructure):lotsofatoms
arrangedinaregular,endlesslyrepeating,threedimensionalstructureabitlikeanatomicclimbingframe,only
insteadofbarsthereareinvisiblebondsbetweentheatomsthatholdthemtogether.Diamondandgraphiteboth
haveathreedimensionalstructure,thoughit'scompletelydifferent:indiamond,theatomsaretightlybondedin
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threedimensionaltetrahedrons,whereasingraphite,atomsarebondedtightlyintwodimensionallayers,which
areheldtothelayersaboveandbelowbyrelativelyweakforces.Theremarkablethingaboutgrapheneisthatits
crystallinestructureistwodimensional.Inotherwords,theatomsingraphenearelaidoutflat,likebilliardballs
onatable.Eachlayerismadeofhexagonal"rings"ofcarbon(likelotsofbenzeneringsconnectedtogether,
onlywithmorecarbonatomsreplacingthehydrogenatomsaroundtheedge),givingahoneycomblike
appearance.Sincethelayersthemselvesarejustoneatomhigh,you'dneedastackofaboutthreemillionof
theselayerstomakegraphene1mmthick!
Artwork:Right:Diamondhasa3D(threedimensional)crystallatticethatlooksabitlikethis(whichisactually
cadmiumsulfide).Theblobsaretheatomsandthelinesarethebondsthatjointhemtogether.Bondsare
invisible,butwedrawthemlikethissowecanvisualizethemmoreeasily.PicturebycourtesyofNASA
MarshallSpaceFlightCenter(NASAMSFC).

Grapheneorgraphenes?
Peopletalkabout"graphene"thewaytheytalkabout"plastic,"butit'simportanttorememberthatscientistsare
workingonmanydifferentkindsofgraphenebasedmaterials(justliketherearemanydifferentkindsof
plastics),allofwhicharealittlebitdifferentanddesignedtododifferentthings.Inthisarticle,I'vefollowedthe
conventionofcallingthematerial"graphene,"butit'saswelltorememberthatthisverynew,fastevolving
substancehasmanydifferentanglesandaspectsandthewordgraphenewillultimatelycometorefertoavery
widerangeofdifferentmaterials.Oneday,itmaybecommontotalkabout"graphenes"thewaywenowspeak
of"plastics."

Artwork:Left:Graphenehasaflatcrystallatticemadefrominterlinkedhexagonsofcarbonatoms(redblobs)
tightlybondedtogether(blacklines).

Whatisgraphenelike?
Peoplearediscoveringandinventingnewmaterialsallthetime,butweseldomhearaboutthembecausethey're
oftennotthatinteresting.Graphenewasfirstdiscoveredin2004,butwhat'scausedsuchexcitementisthatits
properties(thewayitbehavesasamaterial)areremarkableandexciting.Briefly,it'ssuperstrongandstiff,
amazinglythin,almostcompletelytransparent,extremelylight,andanamazingconductorofelectricityand
heat.Italsohassomeextremelyunusualelectronicproperties.

Generalproperties
Grapheneisanamazinglypuresubstance,thankslargelytoitssimple,orderlystructurebasedontight,regular,
atomicbonding,Carbonisanonmetal,soyoumightexpectgraphenetobeonetoo.Infact,itbehavesmuch
morelikeametal(thoughthewayitconductselectricityisverydifferent),andthat'sledsomescientiststo
describeitasasemimetalorasemiconductor(amaterialmidwaybetweenaconductorandaninsulator,suchas
siliconandgermanium).Evenso,it'saswelltorememberthatgrapheneisextraordinaryandquitepossibly
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unique.

Strengthandstiffness
Ifyou'veeverscribbledwithasoftpencil(somethinglikea4B),you'llknowthatgraphiteishorriblysoft.That's
becausethecarbonlayersinsideastickofgraphiteshaveoffveryeasily.Buttheatomswithinthoselayersare
verytightlybondedso,likecarbonnanotubes(andunlikegraphite),grapheneissuperstrongevenstronger
thandiamond!Grapheneisbelievedtobethestrongestmaterialyetdiscovered,some200timesstrongerthan
steel.Remarkably,it'sbothstiffandelastic(likerubber),soyoucanstretchitbyanamazingamount(2025
percentofitsoriginallength)withoutitbreaking.That'sbecausetheflatplanesofcarbonatomsingraphenecan
flexrelativelyeasilywithouttheatomsbreakingapart.
Nooneknowsquitewhattodowithgraphene'ssuperstrongproperties,butonelikelypossibilityismixingit
withothermaterials(suchasplastics)tomakecompositesthatarestrongerandtougher,butalsothinnerand
lighter,thananymaterialswehavenow.Imagineanenergysavingcarwithsuperstrong,superthin,superlight
plasticbodypanelsreinforcedwithgraphenethat'sthekindofobjectwemightenvisageappearinginafuture
turnedupsidedownbythisamazingmaterial!

Thinnessandlightness
Somethingthat'sonlyoneatomthickisboundtobeprettylight.Apparently,youcouldcoverafootballfield
withasheetofgrapheneweighinglessthanagramalthoughit'sprettyunlikelyanyonehasactuallytried!
Accordingtomyquickcalculations,thatmeansifyoucouldcoveredtheentireUnitedStateswithgraphene,
you'donlyneedamassofaround15002000tons.Thatmightsoundalot,butit'slessthanthemassofasingle
SpaceShuttleandit'scompletelycoveringoneoftheworld'sbiggestcountries!

Heatconductivity
Asifsuperstrengthandfeatherweightlightnessaren'tenough,grapheneisbetteratcarryingheat(ithasvery
highthermalconductivity)thananyothermaterialbetterbyfarthanbrilliantheatconductorssuchassilver
andcopper,andmuchbetterthaneithergraphiteordiamond.Again,we'remostlikelytodiscoverthebenefitof
thatbyusinggraphenesincompositematerials,wherewecouldusethemtoaddextraheatresistanceor
conductivitytoplasticsorothermaterials.

Electricalconductivity
Thisiswheregraphenestartstogetreallyinteresting!Materialsthatconductheatverywellalsoconduct
electricitywell,becausebothprocessestransportenergyusingelectrons.Theflat,hexagonallatticeofgraphene
offersrelativelylittleresistancetoelectrons,whichzipthroughitquicklyandeasily,carryingelectricitybetter
thanevensuperbconductorssuchascopperandalmostaswellassuperconductors(unlikesuperconductors,
whichneedtobecooledtolowtemperatures,graphene'sremarkableconductivityworksevenatroom
temperature).Scientificallyspeaking,wecouldsaythattheelectronsingraphenehavealongermeanfreepath
thantheyhaveinanyothermaterial(inotherwords,theycangofurtherwithoutcrashingintothingsor
otherwisebeinginterrupted,whichiswhatcauseselectricalresistance).Whatuseisthis?Imagineastrong,
light,relativelyinexpensivematerialthatcanconductelectricitywithgreatlyreducedenergylosses:onalarge
scale,itcouldrevolutionizeelectricityproductionanddistributionfrompowerplantsonamuchsmallerscale,
itmightspawnportablegadgets(suchascellphones)withmuchlongerbatterylife.

Electronicproperties

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Electricalconductivityisjustabout"ferrying"electricityfromoneplacetoanotherinarelativelycrudefashion
muchmoreinterestingismanipulatingtheflowofelectronsthatcarryelectricity,whichiswhatelectronicsisall
about.Asyoumightexpectfromitsotheramazingabilities,theelectronicpropertiesofgraphenearealsohighly
unusual.Firstoff,theelectronsarefasterandmuchmoremobile,whichopensupthepossibilityofcomputer
chipsthatworkmorequickly(andwithlesspower)thantheonesweusetoday.Second,theelectronsmove
throughgrapheneabitlikephotons(wavelikeparticlesoflight),atspeedscloseenoughtothespeedoflight
(about1millionmeterspersecond,infact)thattheybehaveaccordingtoboththetheoriesofrelativityand
quantummechanics,wheresimplecertaintiesarereplacedbypuzzlingprobabilities.Thatmeanssimplebitsof
carbon(graphene,inotherwords)canbeusedtotestaspectsofthosetheoriesonthetabletop,insteadofby
usingblisteringlyexpensiveparticleacceleratorsorvast,powerfulspacetelescopes.
Photos:Advancesinnanotechnology,includingthedevelopmentofgraphene,willdrivefaster,smaller,cheaper
computers.PicturebycourtesyofArgonneNationalLaboratorypublishedonFlickrunderaCreativeCommons
Licence.

Opticalproperties
Asageneralrule,thethinnersomethingis,themorelikelyitistobetransparent(ortranslucent),andit'seasyto
seewhy:withfeweratomstobattle,photonsaremorelikelytopenetratethroughthinobjectsthanthickones.
Asyoumightexpect,superthingraphene,beingonlyoneatomthick,isalmostcompletelytransparentinfact,
graphenetransmitsabout9798percentoflight(comparedtoabout8090percentforabasic,singlepaneof
windowglass).Bearinginmindthatgrapheneisalsoanamazingconductorofelectricity,youcanstartto
understandwhypeoplewhomakesolarpanels,LCDs,andtouchscreensaregettingveryexcited:amaterialthan
combinesamazingtransparency,superbelectricalconductivity,andhighstrengthisaperfectstartingpointfor
applicationslikethese.

Impermeability
Sheetsofgraphenehavesuchcloselyknitcarbonatomsthattheycanworklikesuperfineatomicnets,stopping
othermaterialsfromgettingthrough.Thatmeansgrapheneisusefulfortrappinganddetectinggasesbutit
mightalsohavepromisingapplicationsholdinggases(suchashydrogen)thatleakrelativelyeasilyfrom
conventionalcontainers.Oneofthedrawbacksofusinghydrogenasafuel(inelectriccars)isthedifficultyof
storingitsafely.Graphenes,potentially,couldhelptomakefuelcellcarsrunningonhydrogenamoreviable
prospect.

Howdowemakegraphene?

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Takeapencilandsomestickytape.Stickthetapetothegraphite,peelitaway,andyou'llgetalayerofgraphite
madeupofmultiplelayersofcarbonatoms.Repeattheprocessverycarefully,overandoveragain,andyou'll
(hopefully)endupwithcarbonsothinthatit'llcontainjustonelayerofatoms.That'syourgraphene!Thisrather
crudemethodgoesbythetechnicalnameofmechanicalexfoliation.Analternativemethodinvolvesloadingup
asuperpreciseatomicforcemicroscopewithapieceofgraphiteandthenrubbingitverypreciselyon
somethingsothatsinglelayersofgrapheneflakeoff,abitlikegraphitefromapencilleadonlyonelayerata
time.Techniqueslikethisarefiddlyandintricateandexplainwhygrapheneiscurrentlythemostexpensive
materialontheplanet!
Thesemethodsarefineformakingtinytestsamplesofgrapheneinalaboratory,butthere'snowaywecould
makegraphenelikethisonthekindofindustrialscaleonwhichit'slikelytoberequired.Sohowdoyoumake
lotsofgraphene?Oneapproachistoputanorganic(carbonbased)gassuchasmethaneintoaclosedcontainer
withsomethinglikeapieceofcopperinthebottom,thenmonkeywiththetemperatureandpressureuntilalayer
ofgrapheneisformedonit.Becausethegrapheneisformedbydepositinglayersofachemicalfromagas
(vapor),thismethodiscalledchemicalvapordeposition(CVD).Anotherapproachinvolvesgrowingcrystalsof
graphenestartingfromacarbonrichsolid,suchassugar.
Photo:Vapordepositionisusedtocreatealayerofgrapheneonanothersurface(knownasasubstrate).Picture
byWarrenGretzcourtesyofUSDepartmentofEnergy/NationalRenewableEnergyLaboratory(DOE/NREL).

Howcanweusegraphene?
Wecananswerthatquestioninatleastthreedifferentways.First,becausegraphenehassomanyexcellent
properties,andbecauseallthosepropertiesprobablyaren'tneededinthesamematerial(forthesame
applications),itmakessensetostarttalkingaboutdifferenttypesofgraphene(orevendifferentgraphenes)that
arebeingusedindifferentwaysorbeingoptimizedforparticularpurposes.Sowe'relikelytoseesome
graphenesbeingdevelopedforstructuraluses(incompositesmaterials),somebeingoptimizedtomakethemost
oftheirextraordinaryelectroncarryingproperties(foruseinelectroniccomponents),otherswherewemakethe
mostoflowresistivity(inenergysavingpowersystems),andstillotherswhereexcellenttransparencyand
electricalconductivityaretheimportantthings(insolarcellsandcomputerdisplays).

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Second,wecanseegrapheneasanexcitingreplacementforexistingmaterialsthathavebeenpushedtotheir
physicallimits.Silicontransistors(theswitchingdevicesusedasmemoriesand"decisionmaking"logicgatesin
computers),forexample,haveconsistentlybecomesmallerandmorepowerfuloverthelastfewdecades,
followingatrendknownasMoore'slaw,butcomputerscientistshavelongexpressedconcernsthatthesame
rateofprogresscan'tcontinueasweapproachbasiclimitationsimposedbythelawsofphysics.Somescientists
arealreadyimaginingsmallerandfastertransistorsinwhichsiliconisreplacedbygraphene,takingcomputer
devicesevenclosertotheabsolutelimitsofphysics.Intheory,wecouldusegraphenetomakeballistic
transistorsthatstoreinformationorswitchonandoffatsuperhighspeedsbymanipulatingsingleelectrons.In
muchthesameway,graphenecouldrevolutionizeotherareasoftechnologyconstrainedbyconventional
materials.Forexample,itcouldspawnlighterandstrongerairplanes(byreplacingcompositematerialsormetal
alloys),costcompetitiveandmoreefficientsolarpanels(replacingsiliconagain),moreenergyefficientpower
transmissionequipment(inplaceofsuperconductors),andsupercapacitorswiththinnerplatesthatcanbe
chargedinsecondsandstoremoreenergyinasmallerspacethanhaseverpreviouslybeenpossible(replacing
ordinary,chemicalbatteriesentirely).CompaniessuchasSamsung,Nokia,andIBMarealreadydeveloping
graphenebasedreplacementsforsuchthingsastouchscreens,transistors,andflashmemories,thoughthework
isataveryearlystage.
Photo:Computermemorychipslikethismightbecomesmallerandfasterifgraphenereplacesthesiliconwe
currentlyuse.
Third,andmostexcitingofall,isthelikelihoodthatwe'lldevelopallkindsofbrandnew,currently
unimaginabletechnologiesthattakeadvantageofgraphene'samazingproperties.Inthe20thcentury,plastics
didn'tsimplyreplaceoldermaterialssuchasmetalandwood:forbetterorworse,theycompletelychangedour
cultureintoonewheredisposabilityandconvenienceovertookdurability.Ifgraphenesleadustoultralight,
ultrathin,strong,transparent,opticallyandelectricallyconductingmaterials,whoknowswhatpossibilities
mightlieahead.Howaboutsuperlightweightclothesmadeofgraphenes,wiredtobatteries,thatchangecolorat
theflickofaswitch?Oranemergencyhousebuiltfordisasterareas,withgraphenewallssostrongandlightthat
youcanfolditupandcarryitinabackpack?

Ourgraphenefuture?
Isitfullsteamaheadtoafuturewheregraphenerulestheworld?Maybeormaybenot.It'simportantnotto
getcarriedawaywiththehype:mostoftheexcitingworkongraphenehassofarbeendoneonaverysmall
scaleinchemicalandphysicslaboratories.Mostoftheresearchisstillwhatwe'ddescribeas"bluesky":itcould
bemanyyearsorevendecadesbeforeitcanbedevelopedpractically,letalongcosteffectively.Bythesame
token,it'sstillveryearlydaysforbasicscientificresearchintographene.Forgettingalltheamazingapplications
foramoment,there'sdoubtlessmuchmoreexcitingsciencetoemerge.Forexample,wedon'tyetknowif
grapheneistheonlymaterialwithatwodimensionalcrystallatticeorifsimilarbutevenmoreextraordinary
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materialsarejustwaitingtobediscovered.Onethingwedoknowisthatthisisaveryexcitingtimefor
materialsscience!

Whodiscoveredgraphene?

Scientistshavebeenpuzzlingovergraphenefordecades.Backin1947,CanadianphysicistPhilipWallacewrote
apioneeringpaperabouttheelectronicbehaviourofgraphitethatsparkedconsiderableinterestinthefield.
NobelPrizewinningchemistLinusPaulingwasspeculatingabouthowflat,singlelayersofcarbonatomswould
behaveaslongagoas1960.In1962,suchmaterialswerenamed"graphene"byGermanchemistHannsPeter
Boehm,whohadspottedthemunderhiselectronmicroscopetheyearbefore.
Theoreticalresearchintographenecontinuedforthenextfourdecades,boostedinthe1980sand1990sbythe
discoveriesoffullerenes(effectively,graphenecurledupintoballs)andcarbonnanotubes(graphenefoldedinto
apipe).Evenso,noonecouldeveractuallymakethestuffinpracticegraphenewasonlyproducedina
laboratoryin2004,byRussianbornscientistsAndreGeimandKonstantinNovoselovworkingattheUK's
UniversityofManchester.Theymadegraphenebyusingpiecesofstickytapetopulloffflakesofgraphite,then
foldingthetapeandpullingitaparttocleavethegraphiteintoevensmallerlayers.Eventually,afteragreatdeal
ofwork,theywereamazedtofindtheyhadsomebitsofgraphiteonlyoneatomthickgraphene,inother
words.
Fouryearslater,theManchesterteammanagedtocreateagraphenetransistorjustoneatomthickandtenatoms
wide.Thesameyear,workersatRiceUniversityintheUnitedStatesbuiltthefirstgraphenebasedflash
memory.Inrecognitionofthehugeimportanceoftheirwork,GeimandNovoselovwereawardedthe2010
NobelPrizeinPhysics.
Photos:Thediscoveryofcarbonnanotubesin1991helpedspurresearchersontoproducethefirstsampleof
graphenein2004.PictureofalignedcarbonnanotubesbyJunbingYangcourtesyofArgonneNational
LaboratorypublishedonFlickrunderaCreativeCommonsLicence.
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Onthiswebsite
Youmightliketheseotherarticlesonoursitecoveringsimilartopics:
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Alloys
Atoms
Compositesandlaminates
Materialsscience
Nanotechnology
Plastics
Materials:Afulllistofallourmaterialssciencearticles.

Otherwebsites
General
Wired:Graphenegallery:Somegreatphotosofgraphenefromresearchlabsaroundtheworld.
NobelPrizeinPhysics2010:Agreatsetofbackgroundmaterialaboutthediscoveryofgrapheneandthe
prizeawardedtoAndreGeimandKonstantinNovoselov.
Researchgroups
Thisisasmallbutrepresentativeselectionofinstitutionsatthecuttingedgeofgrapheneresearcharoundthe
world:
UniversityofManchester:NationalGrapheneInstitute:TheUK'snewspecialistresearchinstitute,home
toAndreGeim,KostyaNovoselov,and230otherresearchersworkingongraphenerelatedmaterials.
KimGroup,DepartmentofPhysics,HarvardUniversity:Anotheractiveresearchgroup,ledbyPhilip
Kim.
NationalUniversityofSingaporeCentreforAdvanced2DMaterialsandGrapheneResearchCentre:
DirectedbyAntonioH.CastroNeto.
HoneGroup:ColumbiaUniversity:HeadedbyJamesHone.
CambridgeGrapheneCentre:DirectedbyAndreaC.Ferrari.

Books
Graphene:FundamentalsandemergentapplicationsbyJamieH.Warneretal.Newnes/Elsevier,2012.A
verywellillustratedguidethattakesusfromthelatestingraphenesciencetothelatestingraphene
technologywhatwillwedowithitinthefuture?
GrapheneandItsFascinatingAttributesbySwapanK.Pati,ToshiakiEnoki,C.N.R.Rao(eds).World
Scientific,2011.Anintroductiontothesynthesisandscientificpropertiesofgraphene.
CarbonnanomaterialsbyYuryGogotsi.CRC/Taylor&Francis,2006.Anintroductiontonanotubes,
fullerenes,andgraphene.

Articles
General
CarbonWonderlandbyAndreGeimandPhilipKim.ScientificAmerican,April2008,pp9097.Agreat
overviewbytwooftheleadinggraphenescientists.Aneasytounderstand,nontechnicaloverview.
Graphene:theperfectatomiclatticeNobelprize.org.13Sep2011.Asummaryofgraphenepitchedata
similar"popularscience"levelasthisarticle.ClickonthelinkatthebottomforaPDFofthearticle.
WhygrapheneisthestuffofthefuturebyAndreGeim.NewScientist,5October2010.Aquicksummary
ofgraphene'spotential.
[PDF]Graphene:exploringcarbonflatlandbyAndreGeimandAllanMacDonald.PhysicsToday,August
2007.Amuchmoredetailedexplanation(youmayfindittoocomplexifyoudon'thaveaphysicsdegree).
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News
GrapheneCompositesGoBigbyCharlesQ.Choi.IEEESpectrum.18May2015.Graphenecomposites
aresuperstrongandhaveexcellentconductivity.
BendIt,ChargeIt,DunkIt:Graphene,theMaterialofTomorrowbyNickBilton.TheNewYorkTimes.
13April2014.Agood,accessiblereviewofgraphene'smaterialpropertiesandcommercialpromise.
Isgraphenereallyawondermaterial?byDavidShukman,BBCNews,15January2013.Cangraphene
reallydeliveronthehype?Orwouldthehugesumsofmoneybeingpumpedintoresearchingitbebetter
spentelsewhere?
Graphene:PatentsurgerevealsglobalracebyDavidShukman,BBCNews,15January2013.Theraceis
ontocommercializegraphene.
Graphenesupercapacitorbreaksstoragerecord:PhysicsWorld,November26,2010.Howgraphenesare
improvingtheperformanceofenergystoringsupercapacitorstothepointwheretheycancompetewith
batteries.

Videos
GrapheneandtheCarbonRevolution:byDrJonathanHare,VegaScienceTrust.AnotherofJonathan's
excellent,crystalclearvideointroductions.(7minutes.)
Graphene:NobelWinners'Thin,MightyMaterialHoldsMuchPromise:Asimple,clearnewsreportfrom
MilesO'BrienonPBSNewshour.(6minutes.)
Sponsoredlinks

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