Chapter 1

Nature, Scope and Significance of Political Science

Political Science is the systematic study of politics. It means the study, not the practice of politics.
Political Science is an ancient field of learning which can be traced to the creative genius of the
Greeks of the fifth and fourth centuries BC and, most of all, to the Athenians. The Oriental peoples, of
course, had speculated on the State and its problems even before the Greeks but they mixed up the
study of politics with a great deal of religion, mythology and superstition. It was the Greeks who first
made an attempt to develop an independent science of politics and gave it a pure and systematic
form. Robert A. Dahl observes: It was in Athens that Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle raised to the
highest level of intellectual endeavour the kinds of questions about politics that concern thoughtful
men down to the present day".
Definition and Meaning of Political Science
The terms 'politics' and 'political science' have been derived from the Greek word 'polis' which means
'City-State'. For the Greeks 'politics' meant the science of the City-State which was the highest
organization of the community through which men strove for moral perfection. Thus Aristotle's
celebrated treatise has for its title the name Politics. Scholars of an earlier generation like Jellinek,
Holtzendorff and Sidgwick prefer the term politics to political science which is the current terminology.
Politics today means applied or practical politics dealing with day-to-day public affairs and the actual
problems of government. Those who take part in the actual conduct and management of the State,
government, political parties etc. are known as politicians. On the other hand political science refers to
the theoretical aspects of the study of politics a systematic body of knowledge relating to the
phenomena of the State.
Using the term politics in the broadest sense, Sir Frederick Pollock divides it into theoretical
politics and practical or applied politics. Under the first he includes: (a) the theory of the State, (b) the
theory of government, (c) the theory of legislation, and (d) the theory of State as an artificial person.
Under the second head are included: (a) the State (actual forms of government), (b) the government
(the working of government, administration etc), laws and legislation, and (c) the State personified
(diplomacy, peace, war, and international relations). Thus everything that relates to the basic problems
of the State including the principles of political organization and administration falls within the domain
of 'theoretical' politics, while that which is concerned with actual working of the government and other
political institutions comes under 'practical' or applied politics. The majority of writers, however, prefer
the term political science to theoretical politics and the simple term politics to applied or practical
politics.
The term political science in its current usage is, however, more comprehensive than the term
politics. It includes both theoretical and applied politics. It includes both the theory or State and the
actual conduct of affairs of State. From the plethora of definitions of political science, a few
representative ones may be cited for an understanding of the nature and central theme of political
science. In the words of the French scholar Paul Janet, "Political Science is that part of social science
which treats the foundation of the State and the principles of government". The Swiss scholar
Bluntschli defined political science as "the science which is concerned with the State, which
endeavours to understand and comprehend the state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential
nature, its various forms of manifestation, its development." Gilchrist defined it as "a study of State and
Government". According to Gettell, political science is "a historical investigation of what the State has
been, an analytical study of what the State is and a politico-ethical discussion of what the State should
be". Laski observes that "the study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation to
organized States." J. W. Garner holds "that the phenomena of the state in its varied aspects and
relationships constitute the subject of political science. In short, political science begins and ends with
the State".
The traditional definitions of political science have kept it confined to state, government and
formal political institutions. The State as the most universal and powerful association of human beings
and its apparatus, and the government are obviously at the very centre of political science. Concern
with 'political order' brought an emphasis on constitutions and laws which have remained an important
ingredient of the discipline. Associations and organizations like political parties and pressure groups
that help to determine what the organs of government actually do are very much a part and parcel of
the study of political science.

The traditional view of politics (institutional-legal approach) was challenged by scholars

like Arthur F. Bentley, Graham Wallas, Walter Lippmann and Charles E. Merrium in the first quarter of
the twentieth century who put stress on the psychological and sociological variables of politics. Later
scholars like Harold Lasswell, Kaplan, V.O. Key Jr., David Truman, David Easton, Herbert Simon and
Gabriel Almond gave a new orientation to Political Science by putting focus on political behaviour as
central object of political enquiry. Some of the definitions of the modern scholars highlight this new
orientation of political science as an academic discipline. Lasswell and Kaplan regard political science
as 'policy science' and defined it ''as an empirical discipline, the study of the shaping and sharing of
power." Hillman writes that "politics is the science of who gets what, when and why." David Easton
observes that "Political Science is concerned with the authoritative allocation of values for a society".
Values or resources are limited and political science is primarily concerned with the allocation of
values to individuals and groups in society. D. E. Butler writes: "Politics is entirely concerned with
people, with the way in which they react to decisions. It cannot usefully be studied except in the light of
actual behaviour." Thus the behaviouralists projected a broad perspective of political science by
shifting the focus from institutions and structures to functions and processes.
Political Science as a major social science deals with the relationship among men in
organized societies and the relationship between man and the State. Despite recent developments in
the discipline, the central problem of political science is how best to strike a balance between the
authority of the State and the liberty of the individual. In a good State the laws of the State enrich the
content of liberty and facilitate the development of human personality. In the modern world there is a
high degree of cooperation among the States and political science deals with the forces and
processes of such cooperation.
Nature of Politics
Political Science is, of course, the study of politics in both its theoretical and practical aspects. But the
meaning of politics has never been precise or static. The nature of politics may briefly be discussed
from three broad points of view, namely, the liberal, the Marxian and the modern.
Liberal view of Politics
Liberal view of politics is a product of Renaissance and Reformation in Europe. It has dominated
Western political thinking from the 17th century to the present. In the 19th century classical negative
liberalism transformed itself into positive, humane liberalism by the challenges of idealism and
Marxism. Liberal views on politics are founded on liberal views of man and society. Individual is the
centre of the study of politics and society is an aggregation of free, competing individuals. Politics is
required to resolve conflicts among competing individuals and maintenance of order, cooperation and
harmony. Modern liberals put stress upon the role of politics to serve the common good of the
community and to secure to all justice and welfare. Politics again is a process to bring about peaceful
and orderly change in society. Politics and State are not the monopoly of any single class. The aim of
politics is to establish unity and stability in the face of the diversities and conflicts which characterise
societies.
Marxian view of Politics
Marx added a new dimension to political and social thought which radically altered the nature and
content of politics in the 20th century. It forced individualistic (classical) liberalism to modify itself in the
direction of positive welfarism. Marxism put stress upon the innate goodness and sociality of man. It
does not find any basic conflict in man's self interest and social interest. Modes of production or
economic factors are the most important in determining the political, legal, social, moral, and cultural
condition of societies. On the basis of the relations of production class divisions of society take place
and politics reflects the struggle between classes. The State comes into being when society is
characterised by class conflict. It becomes an instrument of class rule - the economically dominant
class rules over and exploits the economically dispossessed. Politics cannot bring to an end the class
struggle which reflects the economic disparities in society.
The notion of common good of the community, in which the liberals pin their faith, does not
hold good for the Marxist so long as society is class-ridden. The ultimate goal for exploited and
oppressed human beings is to achieve a classless society which can be brought about by
revolutionary struggle. The working class in capitalist states can emancipate themselves only by taking
resort to revolutionary politics. In a classless society there is no need for the State and hence the state
withers away. The Marxian view, as opposed to the liberal view, looks at politics as an instrument of

class conflict and not as a conflict-resolving activity or welfare activity. It supports the 'conflict model'
as opposed to the 'consensus model' in politics. For the Marxists politics is a reflection of class
struggle and is used by those who own the means of production and distribution to safeguard their
interests and to perpetuate their overall hegemony in society.
Modern View
An analysis of the views of modern political scientists brings out three outstanding elements of politics,
namely, power, conflict and consensus.
(i) Politics as Power and Influence: Machiavelli, Max Weber, Bertrand Russel, Harold Lasswell,
Kaplan, Catlin and Hans Morganthau interpret politics in terms of power. Morganthau says that
"politics is struggle for power" a game played to attain and maintain power. Lasswell and Kaplan
write: "The concept of power is perhaps the most fundamental in the whole of political science; the
political process is shaping, distribution and exercise of power". Robert A. Dahl observes: "Politics
arises, whenever there are people living together in associations, whenever they are involved in
conflicts and whenever they are subject to some kind of power, rulership, or authority. These
phenomena exist everywhere, therefore politics is everywhere". Guild and Palmer plead that the
subject of politics should be power instead of the State. One advantage that power has over
earlier concepts of politics is that it focuses attention on a process, not on a legal abstraction such
as State. Political science becomes the study of the way power is accumulated, used and
controlled in modern society. Another advantage of using power as the central concept is that
political science pays greater heed to man, especially the political man, as a basic unit of analysis.
(ii) Politics as Conflict and Controversy: Another element in a definition of politics is controversy. J. D.
B. Miller holds that diversity is a permanent condition of man's social life. Social diversities lead to
conflicts which need settlement. "Politics is a natural reflex of the divergences between the
members of a society." Quincy Wright says, "Politics exists only when ends or means are
controversial." Politics may be defined as struggle among actors pursuing conflicting desires on
public Issues. Karl Marx viewed conflict as the central interest in the study of politics. His theory
has only two mutually exclusive social types: a society of conflict (pre-communist) and a society of
harmony (communistic). Alex de Tocqueville was the first to support the idea that democracy
involves a balance between the forces of conflict and consensus.
(iii) Politics as Cooperation and Consensus: While conflict and controversy, debates and dissentions
are frequently associated with politics, concentration on them to the exclusion of agreement or
consensus would give an incomplete picture of the political world. Human interests not only clash
but also coincide. Sometimes fundamentals are agreed on and only specifics are the subject of
argument but there are times when even basics become the area of clash. Austin Ranney holds
that political systems encompass not only the competing demands but also aggregative and
integrative forces as well. Robert A. Dahl and others highlight the consensual basis of politics.
There is consensus among groups and individuals because the interests of each are
acknowledged and accommodated. The integrative function of the polity promotes the much
desired consensus in society.
Scope of Political Science
The scope of political science implies its area of study or subject matter. It is a very comprehensive
and expanding social science. Political scientists are seldom agreed about its scope. An attempt was
made by the International Political Science Association in Paris in 1948 to delineate the scope of
political science. It demarcated the scope into four zones, viz., Political Theory, Political Institution
(Constitution, National Government, Regional and Local Government, and Comparative Political
Institution), Political Dynamics (Parties, Groups and Public Opinion), and International Relations. As
can be seen below, the expanding frontier of political science goes beyond this delimitation.
(1) Political Theory
It deals with the whole body of principles pertaining to the evolution, nature and functions of the State.
It deals with the definition and meaning of basic concepts like state, government, law, liberty, equality,
sovereignty, separation of powers, representation, democracy, political obligation, and various
ideologies. A clear understanding of such concepts is essential for the study of political science. A
student of political science starts his lessons with political theory.

(2) Political Philosophy

Some scholars treat political theory and political philosophy as synonymous. But most others maintain
a distinction between the two and demarcate the areas of each. Political philosophy is concerned with
the theoretical and speculative consideration of the fundamental principles used by political science. J.
H. Hollowell observes that political philosophy is not concerned so much with political institutions as
with the ideas and aspirations that are embodied in institutions. Eminent political philosophers like
Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Mill, Marx, and Gandhi have given their
views on the nature, functions and ends of the state and government. On the basis of their ideas
political theory defines political concepts. An important function of political philosophy has been to
project values, norms and ideals which political institutions strive to attain.
(3) Political Institutions
It covers the study of various political institutions and administrative systems of different countries.
Comparative government and comparative politics come under this category. The study of
constitutions and political institutions of various countries enables the political scientists to evolve
sound and workable principles for the conduct of government.
(4) Political Dynamics
It refers to the forces and processes at work in government and politics. These may be social,
economic and psychological. They influence and explain political action. It includes the study of
political parties, pressure groups, interest groups, lobbies, public opinion propaganda and political
semantics (meaning of words) which influence and control political attitudes and behaviour of
individuals and various groups. The shift in focus from institutions to processes and political behaviour
in political studies has made political dynamics a key area of political enquiry.
(5) Public Policy
Public policies refer to the numerous policy decisions that the governments take in running the day to
and governance. As an important instrument of governance, public policy affects each and every
aspect of our life. Therefore, an understanding of the processes by which public policy is actually
made and the institutions and actors that play a role in this process is vital for informed citizens and for
all of us interested in improving the quality of governance or promoting good governance. It not only
offers useful insights into why and how policies are formulated and implemented, and succeed or
fail, but also offers strategic choices and options necessary for coalition/support building for
appropriate and effective policy formulation and implementation. This may ultimately lead to ensuring
good governance.
Public policies are usually developed by governmental bodies and officials, though nongovernmental actors and agencies may also exert direct or indirect pressure or influence in the policymaking process. They are developed by governmental institutions and officials through the political
process (or politics). They are distinct from other kinds of policies because they result form the actions
of the legitimate authorities in a political system. The special characteristics of public policies stem
from their being formulated by what David Easton (1965) calls the authorities in a political system,
namely, elders, paramount chiefs, executives, legislators, judges, administrators, councillors,
monarchs, and the like, [who] engage in the daily affairs of a political system. Moreover, these people
are recognized by most members of the system as having responsibility for these matters, and take
actions which are accepted as binding most of the time by most of the members so long as they act
within the limits of their roles
While the institutionalists, who concern themselves with the formal, observable building
blocks of government, view public policy as a benign component of identified rules and procedures,
the behaviouralists, i.e. the scholars inspired with what people actually do, interpret public policy as
the result of interaction of powerful forces, some of which may be far removed from the halls of
government.
(6) Public Administration
It is a major branch of political science and has emerged as an independent discipline in recent times.
Modern government has become a gigantic business enterprise under the impact of socialism and
welfarism. The need for sound and efficient public administration and management has assumed
enormous significance. Public administration deals with the organization, control and coordination of

administrative machinery, personnel administration, financial administration, public relations,

administrative law and adjudication. The study of local governments like corporations, municipalities
and panchayati raj institutions is also covered by political science.
(7) International Relations and International Law
International relations has assumed great significance as an area of enquiry in political science and
there is an increasing tendency to impart it the status of an independent discipline. It is a significant
and expanding area of political science. It covers such important subjects as international politics,
diplomacy, foreign policies and international organizations like the United Nations. The imperative
need for maintaining international peace and security and harmony and cooperation among nations
has made the study of international relations very important. International Law or the Law among
Nations is a body of general principles and specific rules which regulates the relationship among
states and international institutions in times of peace and war. The sovereign states are the subjects of
international law enjoying certain rights and performing certain obligations.
(8) Relationship between the State and the Individual
The central problem with which political science is concerned, is to establish proper relationship
between the State and the individuals. The State guarantees certain rights and freedoms to the
individuals and regulates their conduct through laws. The proper adjustment between the authority and
power of the state and liberty of the individuals is a difficult problem. Political Science deals with the
proper spheres of state action, the limits of political control and the area of individual freedom. Thus
political science is both a 'science of liberty' and a 'science of power.'
Political Science is a dynamic discipline and its scope is ever expanding. The social life of
man has a direct and indirect bearing on his political life. Political Science enters into any sphere of life
which has political implications.
The methodology and focus of political science has undergone a sea change under the impact
of the behavioural revolution pioneered by some prominent American political scientists. They have
taken an inter-disciplinary approach to the study of political science and borrowed concepts, models
and tools of analysis and research from advanced sister social sciences like sociology, psychology,
economics and anthropology with a view to making political studies empirical and value-free. This
inter-disciplinary approach has resulted in the creation of new areas of enquiry for political science,
namely, political sociology, political economy and political anthropology. These hybrid disciplines have
further expanded the subject matter of political science.
Political Science: A Science or an Art?
There is a great deal of controversy among scholars whether political science is a Science or an Art.
Aristotle, the father of political science, called 'politics the 'master' or 'supreme' science. Other modern
writers like Hobbes, Vico, Hume, Frederick Pollock, John Seeley, Lord Bryce, Sidgwick and Bluntschli
consider it as a science. On the other hand, scholars like Mosca, Buckle, Comte and Maitland
question its claim as a science since it has failed to act up to the standard of science.
F. W. Maitland writes: "When I see a good set of examination questions headed by the words
'political science' I regret not the question but the title." Buckle remarked: "In the present state of
knowledge, politics far from being a science, is one of the most backward of all arts." Denying the
claim of 'politics' to be ranked as a science, Comte remarks that (a) there is no consensus of opinion
among experts as 'to its methods, principles, and conclusions; (b) lacks continuity of development, and
(c) it lacks the elements which constitute a basis of prevision.
The following arguments are advanced against the claim of political science as a science.
There is no agreement among political scientists as to its methods, principles and conclusions.
Political principles are not universally accepted and applied. Certain terms are given different
meanings and interpretations. Gettell writes: "The terms of political science are often used carelessly
in ordinary speech, are given double meanings and are frequently distorted deliberately by being given
a favourable or unfavourable connotation for partisan or national purposes".
It is impossible to apply to it rigorous scientific methods of investigation. "Political phenomena
are characterized by uncertainty, variableness and a lack of order and continuity." Laboratory

experiments are not possible in political science. The political researcher has to deal with human
beings whose behaviour and actions can seldom be regulated, while researcher in physical sciences
experiments with inanimate substances. Political scientist cannot dream of duplicating laboratory
experiments as in physical sciences. Political situations and events cannot be artificially created
because human beings cannot be treated like lifeless tools and conditions of life change. Social
phenomena are constantly undergoing change and are more difficult to control. President Lowell
considered politics observational and not an experimental science.
Unlike physical sciences, political science lacks uniform principles or laws that are universally
valid. This is owing to the variability of human behaviour. It is difficult, if not impossible, to draw precise
conclusions and universal principles on account of the complexity of social phenomena and the
changeability of human behaviour. Hence it is labelled as an inexact science.
Political scientists cannot make correct predictions because political phenomena do not follow
proper sequences like those physical sciences and political behaviour of men is unpredictable. The
keen political researcher and the bold political prophet cannot forecast future political happenings.
Passions, emotions and prejudices of human beings which influence political process defy absolute
prediction. The human material is ever changing and unpredictable. Objectivity which characterizes
the study of physical sciences is lacking in political studies. The approach of physical scientist in
dealing with lifeless substances in the laboratory is value-neutral and objective. On the other hand, the
political scientist cannot take a completely impartial attitude in dealing with political issues and
problems. The subjective bias of the political observer colours his judgement of political problems and
his findings may be one-sided and contain partial truth.
These arguments clearly show that political science cannot be an exact science like Physics,
Chemistry and Mathematics. But it is a social science like sociology, economics and psychology. The
whole question about the scientific character of political science hinges on what we regard to be the
test of a science. Science is broadly defined as "a body of systematized knowledge." Garner observes:
"For our purpose a science may be described as a fairly unified mass of knowledge relating to a
particular subject, acquired by systematic observation, experience, or study, the facts of which have
been coordinated, systematized, and classified". Systematization of facts is a fundamental
characteristic of science. Two other necessary elements of science are generality and verifiability.
Science aims at formulating general principles or laws which explain the behaviour of objects studied
and help in making predictions about their future mode of operation. Again, the general principles of
scientific study must be verified by observation or experiments. Physical and natural sciences fulfil all
these elements of science. But social sciences make use of the scientific method while studying social
phenomena and arrive at certain general propositions. Of course, it is admitted that the general
principles of social sciences including political science are neither universally valid nor are always
exact and precise. That is why Lord Bryce was content to compare political science to a relatively
undeveloped and inexact natural science like meteorology, somewhat in the same way as Marshall
had earlier compared economics to the science of the tides. Sir Frederick Pollock maintained that
"there is a political science in the same sense that there is a science of morals."
Political Science, like other social sciences, has a scientific character because the scientific
method is applicable to its phenomena, namely, the accumulation of facts, the linking of these together
in causal sequences and the generalization from the latter of general principles or laws. Appadorai
succinctly observes: "It is true that the laboratory method of experiment is difficult with social sciences;
but the whole field of historical facts and the facts of the contemporary world are there for the student
to observe, classify, connect, and compare for the formulation of general principles. Though laboratory
experiments are impossible, experiments under certain limitations are feasible and in several areas
political experiments have been successfully tried. While experiments in methods of direct democracy
have been made in Switzerland, in India, we have introduced Panchayati Raj institutions after its
experiment was found successful in some States.
Since the behavioural revolution in Political Science, sophisticated tools and techniques of
research, concepts and models borrowed from other sciences have enriched political studies and
imparted it greater scientific character.
Political Science is both a science and an art. An art is defined as the practical application of
knowledge for the achievement of a particular end. Political Science offers a body of systematized

knowledge which can be applied in drafting a constitution, in day-to-day administration, in legislation,

in foreign policy and above all in bringing about the all-round development of the State. Thus
knowledge of political science is made use of by states men, diplomats, politicians, administrators, and
social leaders to achieve their objectives. Political Science as an academic discipline has instrumental
value; it has practical utility. The theoretical knowledge gleaned from scientific political studies is being
constantly utilized for the service of mankind.
Significance and Utility of Studying Political Science
The study of political science has assumed greater popularity and significance in modem times. Man is
a political animal and in his actions is directly or indirectly involved in politics. Politics is a universal
activity. Robert A. Dahl rightly observes: "A citizen encounters politics in the government of a country,
town, school, church, business firm, trade union, club, political party, civic association and a host of
organisations. Politics is one of the unavoidable facts of human existence. Every one is involved in
some fashion at sometime in some kind of political system. The study of political science dealing with
both theoretical and practical politics has assumed enormous significance and has proved itself
socially useful on a number of counts.
Study of political Science imparts knowledge to the individuals with regard to the State,
Government and host of other political institutions and processes. Knowledge of the state is of great
significance to modem man. Politically enlightened people are capable of playing a useful part in social
and political affairs.
Political Science has high educative value for citizens. Its study makes them politically
conscious which is an essential condition for the successful working of democracy. It is said that
"eternal vigilance is the price of liberty". Study of political science makes a man alert about his place in
society by making him aware of his rights and responsibilities. A well informed electorate with a sound
knowledge of political science is very vigilant and responsive, and provides the best safeguard against
arbitrary rule and despotic tendency of the government. Political Science equips a citizen to
understand the complexities of modem government and make his own contribution to the proper
working of the political system. The citizen can develop a sense of participation and political efficacy in
the affairs of the State if he is intellectually equipped by a study of political-science.
Constructive political progress rests upon a sound and comprehensive knowledge of political
science. If governments can be shaped and improved by positive human effort, no study is more
valuable than political science. Political Science lays down principles which are to be followed in the
conduct of public affairs. Statesmen, politicians, legislators, administrators and diplomats, in a word all
practitioners of politics, require a sound knowledge of political science. They make a practical
application of the knowledge of political science in their respective fields. "If it is true that where there
is practice, there should be theory also, a study of political theory is invaluable to political practice."
Political Science is the science of state craft. Politics was taught in Plato's Academy and Aristotle's
'Lyceum' with a view to preparing prospective statesmen and administrators. The same tradition is
being followed in modern state to impart knowledge of political science to administrators and
diplomats. The understanding of politics and participation in revolutionary politics go a long way in
bringing about the much needed change in society.
Political Science is a study of both facts and values. Study of political science tells us about
different ideologies and helps us to formulate our own ideas. One of the main objects of the study of
political science is to make a proper adjustment between the individual and the State. The liberty of
the individual and the authority of the state should be happily balanced. Political Science determines
the boundary of freedom and the limits of political control. Again it teaches the lessons of cooperation,
toleration and peaceful co-existence. It broadens the outlook of man by freeing him from narrow
bounds of parochialism, regionalism and aggressive nationalism. It aims at a just world order
characterized by peaceful co-existence and a high degree of understanding and cooperation among
states. Outlawing nuclear war, progressive disarmament, strengthening the international machinery for
peace and the like are what political science can teach mankind to save itself from a nuclear
holocaust.
Apart from these utilitarian considerations, study of political science enriches man's mind and
makes a rich contribution to the realm of knowledge. Knowledge of political science expands the
intellectual horizon of man and equips him to understand the happenings in the world around him. A.

L. Rowse observes: "A people that neglects politics cannot as a people be happy". Political Science,
as an expanding and progressive social science, contributes to the enjoyment of a richer and better
life. Bernard Shaw stresses the crucial significance of Political Science when he says: "Political
Science is the science by which alone civilization can be saved". It enlightens mankind about
constructive political progress and the avoidance of pitfalls and dangers with which modern man is
beset.