Syllogisms in the CET

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Though the term syllogisms applies to Logical Set

theory questions, somehow in the students mind the
term has got associated with several other types of
questions. Generally students classify the following
questions under Syllogisms: Logical Set theory,
Conclusions, Inferences, Assumptions; Arguments;
Courses of Action; Cause- Effect; and Probably
True/Probably False. All these may be correctly seen
as verbal reasoning questions rather than syllogisms
questions.
This article tries to give some concepts and
methodology to solve these questions, because
classes and books are rather lacking in both, though
practice
material abounds.
Logical Set theory
These questions ask you to identify a conclusion that
follows through logical deduction from the given
premises. In order solve these questions correctly
you need to merely understand the knowledge and

ignorance dictated by the given data. For example, if

the data is All X are Y the knowledge
(certainty) is that Some Y are X. The ignorance
inherent in the data is: we have no knowledge about
whether there are or there arentY which are
not X. Hence the conclusion that follows from All X
are Y is that Some Y are X this also called the
converse of the proposition All X are Y. Since we do
not know whether there Y which are not X a
conclusion stating Some Y are not X does not follow
form
the
proposition. However, a conclusion All Y may be
X follows because the possibility exists and the
possibility is true. In CET what is true is your
answer and what is false or cant say is not your
answer.
This may look complicated on the surface. However,
when you understand that there are only 4
statements in Logic (called Categorical Propositions)
that
one
needs to analyse this way makes Logical Set theory
questions childs play. These statements are: 1. All X
are Y 2. Some X are Y 3. Some X are not Y, and 4. No
X are Y.
If you analyse Some X are Y, it gives the same
conclusion as the first, or Some Y are X. Some X are
not Y andSome Y are not X do not follow from this
premise because their existence is merely a
possibility. Some X may not be Y, and Some Y may
not be X follow as possibilities, hence are accepted as
conclusions. In other words, Some X are not Y is not
your
answer,
but Some X may not be Y is your answer.

Similarly, Some X are not Y does not yield any

conclusion, but only possibilities. Some X may not be
Y and Some
Y
may
not
be
X
are the possibilities and are accepted as answers. The
last of the categorical propositions No X are
Y yields No
Y
are
X.
No
possibilities arise from this proposition.
Venn diagrams are a convenient method of visually
representing the given data and can be used to verify
your answer. Syllogisms questions are not limited
to merely three variables as explained above. There is
always a third variable too. Hence a typical question
May look like:
Some
X
are
Y
, and No X is Z, hence Some Y are not Z. The
conclusion in this question, Some Y are not Z, is true
because
whatever
relationship you establish between Y and Z there will
always be some Y which are not Z, as there are some
Xs which are Y, and No X is Z , and these Y (XY)
cannot be Z.
Conclusions
This article assumes that you are familiar with the
format in which conclusion questions are asked in
CET. You are given a couple of sentences or a very
short paragraph, which is called the Main Statements.
The Main Statements are followed by two statements
generally numbered as I and II. You need to
identify whether I alone is an inference that can be
drawn from the main statements, or II alone is an
inference, whether both are inferences, neither is
an inference, or they contradict each other (either is
an inference).

Before trying to solve questions, let us try to

understand what exactly a conclusion is, when the
data presented to us is purely verbal. In the
examination, the instructions to these questions
sometimes ask you to identify what isimplicit, stated,
or
contrary
to
the
main
statement. The word implicit is our key to what an
inference means. What is implicit is not stated in the
paragraph but understood. In other words, a
conclusion is something that you understand by
listening to somebody (or by reading) though it is not
expressed
by
the speaker or writer in so many words. That means
in order to identify a conclusion you have to look for
things that are not said, but what become true
indirectly once those words are said or written.
In our daily life we make conclusions all the time. For
example, when I ask students why they are late for a
lecture,
most
often
the
reply
is
traffic
jam. If one is late because of traffic jam, we
understand that the person travels by road. Though
this is not stated explicitly it has to be true if
traffic jam has caused his delay. Hence he or she
travels by road is a conclusion that we can arrive at
from the statement that I was late because traffic
jam. If a CET question has to be written from this
data, it will most probably look like this:
Main statement: She was late for the class as she was
caught in a traffic jam.
Conclusion: She travels by road.
A conclusion is definitely true if the given data is true;
it is not explicit in the data (what is explicitly stated in
the
data;
what
is
explicitly
stated

is a restatement and not a conclusion. She was late

for the class is a restatement. Conclusion that is
something the listener conclusively arrives at by
listening to the speaker it follows form the data that
the speaker has presented.
Inferences
The difference between a conclusion and inference is
that while a conclusion is definitely true an inference
is only convincingly true. In other words, the
data supports the inference as a strong possibility
that cannot be completely ruled out. This happens
because the listener actively listening to a speaker
(Main Statements) arrives at certain decisions about
the intentions of the speaker. These are inferences. In
other
words
inferences
are
not
clearly
revealed or fully developed by the speaker or writer
but understood by the listener.
Or more elaborately an inference is based on the
given data and remains true unless proved otherwise.
The available data cannot contradict inferences. For
example, all scientific truths are inferences. When we
say, a carbon atom has six electrons it based on
several
independent
observations
and
experiments. It remains true as long as some scientist
disproves it. However, as long as new observation
that contradicts this is not available, a carbon atom
has six electrons remains true. It is an inference. You
can think of other scientific truths and analyse further
for clarity.
Assumptions
Assumption questions in competitive exams, more
often than not, follow the format of the conclusions

questions we saw earlier. If you have understood how

to identify a conclusion, you already know how to
identify an assumption. The reason is that
assumptions and conclusions are very similar. An
assumption
is
also what is implicit in the main statement. It is also,
hence, the unstated part of the main statement which
the writer and the reader take for granted,
leave unexpressed, and undeveloped. The truth of
what is written or spoken will depend on the
assumptions.
Now, try to uncover the assumptions behind my
writing this article. As a reader you may say that the
writer believes that someone will read this article.
The article is written assuming that someone will read
it. The way we conduct ourselves in our day to day
life i.e. what we speak and write in the normal
course of daily living contain a lot many assumptions.
Wouldnt the above qualify for a conclusion as well?
Yes it would. That is because all assumptions are
conclusions. However, the reverse is not true. If we
identify the exact assumption of the speaker it
becomes an assumption as well as a conclusion.
However, by analyse the data and come to our own
conclusions
which may not be the speakers that conclusion is not
an assumption. In other words, conclusions follow the
data, assumptions precede the data. If, for
example, after reading this article you conclude that
the syllogisms is difficult to understand it is your
conclusion , not necessarily the assumption
behind this article.
More elaborately, an assumption is different from a
conclusion in that the assumption is true even before

the main statement is made (Reasoning experts

call them a priori conditions) In other words, the truth
of the main statement depends on the validity of the
assumption.
If
the
assumption
is
not
true the main statement cannot be made or will be
meaningless. This is the only difference between a
conclusion
and
an
assumption.
Conclusion is necessarily true and is supported
completely by the main statement after the main
statement is made. An assumption is true even
before
the main statement is made in other words the
main statement is based on the assumption.
To
recapitulate
conclusions,
inferences,
assumptions, let us look at a sample question:

and

Statement: The railway authorities have decided to

considerably increase the passenger fares of only the
upper classes and marginally reduce the long
distance freight charges for the next financial year.
1. The upper class passengers may be able to afford
the higher fares.
2. The railway authorities have the power to decide
the fare structure.
3. There has been considerable reduction in freight
load in long distance routes.
4. People generally prefer to travel in low cost airlines
than by upper class railway routes.
5. None of these

Q1. Which of the above is an inference that can be

drawn from the above statement?
Q2. Which of the above is a conclusion that can be
made from the above statement?
Q3. Which of the above is an assumption which is
implicit in the above statement?
Answer to question 1 is option 1. Answer to question
2 is option 2. Answer to question 3 is also option 1.

Syllogisms

2009

2010

2011

2012

2014

2015

25 Qs

15 Qs

6 Qs

6 Qs

11 Qs

10-15 Qs

You can read the full article here: Syllogisms in the

CET