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Sandcasting
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Sandcasting,alsoknownassandmoldedcasting,isametalcastingprocesscharacterizedbyusingsandasthe
moldmaterial.Theterm"sandcasting"canalsorefertoanobjectproducedviathesandcastingprocess.Sand
castingsareproducedinspecializedfactoriescalledfoundries.Over70%ofallmetalcastingsareproducedvia
sandcastingprocess.[1]
Sandcastingisrelativelycheapandsufficientlyrefractoryevenforsteelfoundryuse.Inadditiontothesand,a
suitablebondingagent(usuallyclay)ismixedoroccurswiththesand.Themixtureismoistened,typicallywith
water,butsometimeswithothersubstances,todevelopthestrengthandplasticityoftheclayandtomakethe
aggregatesuitableformolding.Thesandistypicallycontainedinasystemofframesormoldboxesknownasa
flask.Themoldcavitiesandgatesystemarecreatedbycompactingthesandaroundmodels,orpatterns,orcarved
directlyintothesand.

Contents
1 Basicprocess
1.1 Components
1.1.1 Patterns
1.1.2 Tools
1.1.3 Moldingboxandmaterials
1.1.4 Chills
1.1.5 Cores
1.1.6 Designrequirements
2 Processes
2.1 Greensand
2.2 "Airset"method
2.3 Coldbox
2.4 Nobakemolds
2.5 Vacuummolding
2.6 Fastmoldmakingprocesses
2.6.1 Mechanizedsandmolding
2.6.2 Automatichighpressuresandmoldinglines
2.6.2.1 Horizontalsandflaskmolding
2.6.2.2 Verticalsandflasklessmolding
2.6.2.3 Matchplatesandmolding
3 Moldmaterials
3.1 Moldingsands
3.1.1 Typesofbasesands
3.1.1.1 Silicasand
3.1.1.2 Olivinesand
3.1.1.3 Chromitesand
3.1.1.4 Zirconsand
3.1.1.5 Chamottesand
3.1.2 Othermaterials
3.2 Binders
3.2.1 Clayandwater
3.2.2 Oil
3.2.3 Resin
3.2.4 Sodiumsilicate
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4
5
6
7

3.2.4 Sodiumsilicate
3.3 Additives
3.4 Partingcompounds
History
Seealso
Notes
References
7.1 Bibliography

Basicprocess
Therearesixstepsinthisprocess:
1.Placeapatterninsandtocreateamold.
2.Incorporatethepatternandsandinagatingsystem.
3.Removethepattern.
4.Fillthemoldcavitywithmoltenmetal.
5.Allowthemetaltocool.
6.Breakawaythesandmoldandremovethecasting.

Components
Patterns
Fromthedesign,providedbyanengineerordesigner,askilledpatternmakerbuildsapatternoftheobjecttobe
produced,usingwood,metal,oraplasticsuchasexpandedpolystyrene.Sandcanbeground,sweptorstrickled
intoshape.Themetaltobecastwillcontractduringsolidification,andthismaybenonuniformduetouneven
cooling.Therefore,thepatternmustbeslightlylargerthanthefinishedproduct,adifferenceknownascontraction
allowance.Patternmakersareabletoproducesuitablepatternsusing"Contractionrules"(thesearesometimes
called"shrinkallowancerulers"wheretheruledmarkingsaredeliberatelymadetoalargerspacingaccordingto
thepercentageofextralengthneeded).Differentscaledrulesareusedfordifferentmetals,becauseeachmetaland
alloycontractsbyanamountdistinctfromallothers.Patternsalsohavecoreprintsthatcreateregisterswithinthe
moldsintowhichareplacedsandcores.Suchcores,sometimesreinforcedbywires,areusedtocreateundercut
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profilesandcavitieswhichcannotbemoldedwiththecope
anddrag,suchastheinteriorpassagesofvalvesorcooling
passagesinengineblocks.
Pathsfortheentranceofmetalintothemoldcavityconstitute
therunnersystemandincludethesprue,variousfeederswhich
maintainagoodmetal'feed',andingateswhichattachthe
runnersystemtothecastingcavity.Gasandsteamgenerated
duringcastingexitthroughthepermeablesandorvia
risers,[note1]whichareaddedeitherinthepatternitself,oras
separatepieces.
Tools

Cope&drag(topandbottomhalvesofasand
mold),withcoresinplaceonthedrag

Inadditiontopatterns,thesandmoldercouldalsousetoolsto
createtheholes.
Moldingboxandmaterials
Amultipartmoldingbox(knownasacastingflask,thetopandbottom
halvesofwhichareknownrespectivelyasthecopeanddrag)ispreparedto
receivethepattern.Moldingboxesaremadeinsegmentsthatmaybe
latchedtoeachotherandtoendclosures.Forasimpleobjectflatonone
sidethelowerportionofthebox,closedatthebottom,willbefilledwith
amoldingsand.Thesandispackedinthroughavibratoryprocesscalled
SandMoldingtoolsandbooksused
ramming,andinthiscase,periodicallyscreededlevel.Thesurfaceofthe
inAucklandandNelsonNewZealand
sandmaythenbestabilizedwithasizingcompound.Thepatternisplaced
betweenapproximately1946and
onthesandandanothermoldingboxsegmentisadded.Additionalsandis
1960
rammedoverandaroundthepattern.Finallyacoverisplacedonthebox
anditisturnedandunlatched,sothatthehalvesofthemoldmaybeparted
andthepatternwithitssprueandventpatternsremoved.Additionalsizingmaybeaddedandanydefects
introducedbytheremovalofthepatternarecorrected.Theboxisclosedagain.Thisformsa"green"moldwhich
mustbedriedtoreceivethehotmetal.Ifthemoldisnotsufficientlydriedasteamexplosioncanoccurthatcan
throwmoltenmetalabout.Insomecases,thesandmaybeoiledinsteadofmoistened,whichmakescasting
possiblewithoutwaitingforthesandtodry.Sandmayalsobebondedbychemicalbinders,suchasfuraneresins
oraminehardenedresins.
Chills
Tocontrolthesolidificationstructureofthemetal,itispossibletoplacemetalplates,chills,inthemold.The
associatedrapidlocalcoolingwillformafinergrainedstructureandmayformasomewhathardermetalatthese
locations.Inferrouscastings,theeffectissimilartoquenchingmetalsinforgework.Theinnerdiameterofan
enginecylinderismadehardbyachillingcore.Inothermetals,chillsmaybeusedtopromotedirectional
solidificationofthecasting.Incontrollingthewayacastingfreezes,itispossibletopreventinternalvoidsor
porosityinsidecastings.
Cores

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Toproducecavitieswithinthecastingsuchasforliquidcoolinginengineblocksandcylinderheadsnegative
formsareusedtoproducecores.Usuallysandmolded,coresareinsertedintothecastingboxafterremovalofthe
pattern.Wheneverpossible,designsaremadethatavoidtheuseofcores,duetotheadditionalsetuptimeandthus
greatercost.
Withacompletedmoldattheappropriatemoisturecontent,the
boxcontainingthesandmoldisthenpositionedforfillingwith
moltenmetaltypicallyiron,steel,bronze,brass,aluminium,
magnesiumalloys,orvariouspotmetalalloys,whichoften
includelead,tin,andzinc.Afterbeingfilledwithliquidmetal
theboxissetasideuntilthemetalissufficientlycooltobe
strong.Thesandisthenremoved,revealingaroughcasting
that,inthecaseofironorsteel,maystillbeglowingred.Inthe
caseofmetalsthataresignificantlyheavierthanthecasting
sand,suchasironorlead,thecastingflaskisoftencovered
withaheavyplatetopreventaproblemknownasfloatingthe
mold.Floatingthemoldoccurswhenthepressureofthemetal
pushesthesandabovethemoldcavityoutofshape,causing
thecastingtofail.
Aftercasting,thecoresarebrokenupbyrodsorshotand
removedfromthecasting.Themetalfromthesprueandrisers
iscutfromtheroughcasting.Variousheattreatmentsmaybe
appliedtorelievestressesfromtheinitialcoolingandtoadd
hardnessinthecaseofsteeloriron,byquenchinginwateror
oil.Thecastingmaybefurtherstrengthenedbysurface
compressiontreatmentlikeshotpeeningthatadds
resistancetotensilecrackingandsmoothstheroughsurface.
Andwhenhighprecisionisrequired,variousmachining
operations(suchasmillingorboring)aremadetofinish
criticalareasofthecasting.Examplesofthiswouldincludethe
boringofcylindersandmillingofthedeckonacastengine
block.
Designrequirements

Twosetsofcastings(bronzeandaluminium)from
theabovesandmold

Left:Corebox,withresulting(wirereinforced)
coresdirectlybelow.Right:Pattern(usedwiththe
core)andtheresultingcastingbelow(thewiresare
fromtheremainsofthecore)

Theparttobemadeanditspatternmustbedesignedto
accommodateeachstageoftheprocess,asitmustbepossibletoremovethepatternwithoutdisturbingthe
moldingsandandtohaveproperlocationstoreceiveandpositionthecores.Aslighttaper,knownasdraft,mustbe
usedonsurfacesperpendiculartothepartingline,inordertobeabletoremovethepatternfromthemold.This
requirementalsoappliestocores,astheymustberemovedfromthecoreboxinwhichtheyareformed.Thesprue
andrisersmustbearrangedtoallowaproperflowofmetalandgasseswithinthemoldinordertoavoidan
incompletecasting.Shouldapieceofcoreormoldbecomedislodgeditmaybeembeddedinthefinalcasting,
formingasandpit,whichmayrenderthecastingunusable.Gaspocketscancauseinternalvoids.Thesemaybe
immediatelyvisibleormayonlyberevealedafterextensivemachininghasbeenperformed.Forcritical
applications,orwherethecostofwastedeffortisafactor,nondestructivetestingmethodsmaybeappliedbefore
furtherworkisperformed.

Processes
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Ingeneral,wecandistinguishbetweentwomethodsofsandcastingthefirstoneusinggreensandandthesecond
beingtheairsetmethod.

Greensand
Thesecastingsaremadeusingsandmoldsformedfrom"wet"sandwhichcontainswaterandorganicbonding
compounds,typicallyreferredtoasclay.[3]Thename"GreenSand"comesfromthefactthatthesandmoldisnot
"set",itisstillinthe"green"oruncuredstateevenwhenthemetalispouredinthemould.Greensandisnotgreen
incolor,but"green"inthesensethatitisusedinawetstate(akintogreenwood).Unlikethenamesuggests,
"greensand"isnotatypeofsandonitsown(thatis,notgreensandinthegeologicsense),butisratheramixture
of:
silicasand(SiO2),chromitesand(FeCr2O4),orzirconsand(ZrSiO4),75to85%,sometimeswitha
proportionofolivine,staurolite,orgraphite.
bentonite(clay),5to11%
water,2to4%
inertsludge3to5%
anthracite(0to1%)
Therearemanyrecipesfortheproportionofclay,buttheyallstrikedifferentbalancesbetweenmoldability,
surfacefinish,andabilityofthehotmoltenmetaltodegas.Thecoal,typicallyreferredtoinfoundriesasseacoal,
whichispresentataratiooflessthan5%,partiallycombustsinthepresenceofthemoltenmetalleadingto
offgassingoforganicvapors.GreensandfornonferrousmetalsdoesnotusecoaladditivessincetheCOcreatedis
noteffectivetopreventoxidation.Greensandforaluminumtypicallyusesolivinesand(amixtureoftheminerals
forsteriteandfayalitewhicharemadebycrushingduniterock).Thechoiceofsandhasalottodowiththe
temperaturethatthemetalispoured.Atthetemperaturesthatcopperandironarepoured,theclaygetsinactivated
bytheheatinthatthemontmorilloniteisconvertedtoillite,whichisanonexpandingclay.Mostfoundriesdonot
havetheveryexpensiveequipmenttoremovetheburnedoutclayandsubstitutenewclay,soinstead,thosethat
pourirontypicallyworkwithsilicasandthatisinexpensivecomparedtotheothersands.Astheclayisburnedout,
newlymixedsandisaddedandsomeoftheoldsandisdiscardedorrecycledintootheruses.Silicaistheleast
desirableofthesandssincemetamorphicgrainsofsilicasandhaveatendencytoexplodetoformsubmicronsized
particleswhenthermallyshockedduringpouringofthemolds.Theseparticlesentertheairoftheworkareaand
canleadtosilicosisintheworkers.Ironfoundriesspendaconsiderableeffortonaggressivedustcollectionto
capturethisfinesilica.Thesandalsohasthedimensionalinstabilityassociatedwiththeconversionofquartzfrom
alphaquartztobetaquartzat680C(1250F).Oftenadditivessuchaswoodflourareaddedtocreateaspacefor
thegrainstoexpandwithoutdeformingthemold.Olivine,chromite,etc.areusedbecausetheydonothaveaphase
conversionthatcausesrapidexpansionofthegrains,aswellasofferinggreaterdensity,whichcoolsthemetal
fasterandproducesfinergrainstructuresinthemetal.Sincetheyarenotmetamorphicminerals,theydonothave
thepolycrystalsfoundinsilica,andsubsequentlydonotformhazardoussubmicronsizedparticles.

"Airset"method
Theairsetmethodusesdrysandbondedwithmaterialsotherthanclay,usingafastcuringadhesive.Thelatter
mayalsobereferredtoasnobakemoldcasting.Whentheseareused,theyarecollectivelycalled"airset"sand
castingstodistinguishthemfrom"greensand"castings.Twotypesofmoldingsandarenaturalbonded(banksand)
andsynthetic(lakesand)thelatterisgenerallypreferredduetoitsmoreconsistentcomposition.
Withbothmethods,thesandmixtureispackedaroundapattern,formingamoldcavity.Ifnecessary,atemporary
plugisplacedinthesandandtouchingthepatterninordertolaterformachannelintowhichthecastingfluidcan
bepoured.Airsetmoldsareoftenformedwiththehelpofacastingflaskhavingatopandbottompart,termedthe
copeanddrag.Thesandmixtureistampeddownasitisaddedaroundthepattern,andthefinalmoldassemblyis
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sometimesvibratedtocompactthesandandfillanyunwantedvoidsinthemold.Thenthepatternisremoved
alongwiththechannelplug,leavingthemoldcavity.Thecastingliquid(typicallymoltenmetal)isthenpoured
intothemoldcavity.Afterthemetalhassolidifiedandcooled,thecastingisseparatedfromthesandmold.There
istypicallynomoldreleaseagent,andthemoldisgenerallydestroyedintheremovalprocess.[4]
Theaccuracyofthecastingislimitedbythetypeofsandandthemoldingprocess.Sandcastingsmadefrom
coarsegreensandimpartaroughtexturetothesurface,andthismakesthemeasytoidentify.Castingsmadefrom
finegreensandcanshineascastbutarelimitedbythedepthtowidthratioofpocketsinthepattern.Airsetmolds
canproducecastingswithsmoothersurfacesthancoarsegreensandbutthismethodisprimarilychosenwhendeep
narrowpocketsinthepatternarenecessary,duetotheexpenseoftheplasticusedintheprocess.Airsetcastings
cantypicallybeeasilyidentifiedbytheburntcoloronthesurface.Thecastingsaretypicallyshotblastedto
removethatburntcolor.Surfacescanalsobelatergroundandpolished,forexamplewhenmakingalargebell.
Aftermolding,thecastingiscoveredwitharesidueofoxides,silicatesandothercompounds.Thisresiduecanbe
removedbyvariousmeans,suchasgrinding,orshotblasting.
Duringcasting,someofthecomponentsofthesandmixturearelostinthethermalcastingprocess.Greensandcan
bereusedafteradjustingitscompositiontoreplenishthelostmoistureandadditives.Thepatternitselfcanbe
reusedindefinitelytoproducenewsandmolds.Thesandmoldingprocesshasbeenusedformanycenturiesto
producecastingsmanually.Since1950,partiallyautomatedcastingprocesseshavebeendevelopedforproduction
lines.

Coldbox
Usesorganicandinorganicbindersthatstrengthenthemoldbychemicallyadheringtothesand.Thistypeofmold
getsitsnamefromnotbeingbakedinanovenlikeothersandmoldtypes.Thistypeofmoldismoreaccurate
dimensionallythangreensandmoldsbutismoreexpensive.Thusitisusedonlyinapplicationsthatnecessitateit.

Nobakemolds
Nobakemoldsareexpendablesandmolds,similartotypicalsandmolds,excepttheyalsocontainaquicksetting
liquidresinandcatalyst.Ratherthanbeingrammed,themoldingsandispouredintotheflaskandhelduntilthe
resinsolidifies,whichoccursatroomtemperature.Thistypeofmoldingalsoproducesabettersurfacefinishthan
othertypesofsandmolds.[5]Becausenoheatisinvolveditiscalledacoldsettingprocess.Commonflask
materialsthatareusedarewood,metal,andplastic.Commonmetalscastintonobakemoldsarebrass,iron
(ferrous),andaluminumalloys.

Vacuummolding
Vacuummolding(Vprocess)isavariationofthesandcasting
processformostferrousandnonferrousmetals,[6]inwhich
unbondedsandisheldintheflaskwithavacuum.Thepattern
isspeciallyventedsothatavacuumcanbepulledthroughit.A
heatsoftenedthinsheet(0.003to0.008in(0.076to
0.203mm))ofplasticfilmisdrapedoverthepatternanda
vacuumisdrawn(200to400mmHg(27to53kPa)).Aspecial
vacuumformingflaskisplacedovertheplasticpatternandis
filledwithafreeflowingsand.Thesandisvibratedtocompact
thesandandasprueandpouringcupareformedinthecope.
Anothersheetofplasticisplacedoverthetopofthesandin
theflaskandavacuumisdrawnthroughthespecialflaskthis
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hardensandstrengthenstheunbondedsand.Thevacuumisthenreleasedonthepatternandthecopeisremoved.
Thedragismadeinthesameway(withoutthesprueandpouringcup).Anycoresaresetinplaceandthemoldis
closed.Themoltenmetalispouredwhilethecopeanddragarestillunderavacuum,becausetheplasticvaporizes
butthevacuumkeepstheshapeofthesandwhilethemetalsolidifies.Whenthemetalhassolidified,thevacuumis
turnedoffandthesandrunsoutfreely,releasingthecasting.[7][8]
TheVprocessisknownfornotrequiringadraftbecausetheplasticfilmhasacertaindegreeoflubricityandit
expandsslightlywhenthevacuumisdrawnintheflask.Theprocesshashighdimensionalaccuracy,witha
toleranceof0.010inforthefirstinchand0.002in/inthereafter.Crosssectionsassmallas0.090in(2.3mm)
arepossible.Thesurfacefinishisverygood,usuallybetween150and125rms.Otheradvantagesincludeno
moisturerelateddefects,nocostforbinders,excellentsandpermeability,andnotoxicfumesfromburningthe
binders.Finally,thepatterndoesnotwearoutbecausethesanddoesnottouchit.Themaindisadvantageisthatthe
processisslowerthantraditionalsandcastingsoitisonlysuitableforlowtomediumproductionvolumes
approximately10to15,000piecesayear.However,thismakesitperfectforprototypework,becausethepattern
canbeeasilymodifiedasitismadefromplastic.[7][8][9]

Fastmoldmakingprocesses
Withthefastdevelopmentofthecarandmachinebuildingindustrythecastingconsumingareascalledforsteady
higherproductivity.Thebasicprocessstagesofthemechanicalmoldingandcastingprocessaresimilartothose
describedunderthemanualsandcastingprocess.Thetechnicalandmentaldevelopmenthoweverwassorapidand
profoundthatthecharacterofthesandcastingprocesschangedradically.
Mechanizedsandmolding
Thefirstmechanizedmoldinglinesconsistedofsandslingersand/orjoltsqueezedevicesthatcompactedthesand
intheflasks.Subsequentmoldhandlingwasmechanicalusingcranes,hoistsandstraps.Aftercoresettingthe
copesanddragswerecoupledusingguidepinsandclampedforcloseraccuracy.Themoldsweremanuallypushed
offonarollerconveyorforcastingandcooling.
Automatichighpressuresandmoldinglines
Increasingqualityrequirementsmadeitnecessarytoincreasethemoldstabilitybyapplyingsteadilyhigher
squeezepressureandmoderncompactionmethodsforthesandintheflasks.Inearlyfiftiesthehighpressure
moldingwasdevelopedandappliedinmechanicalandlaterautomaticflasklines.Thefirstlineswereusingjolting
andvibrationstoprecompactthesandintheflasksandcompressedairpoweredpistonstocompactthemolds.
Horizontalsandflaskmolding

Inthefirstautomatichorizontalflasklinesthesandwasshotorslungdownonthepatterninaflaskandsqueezed
withhydraulicpressureofupto140bars.Thesubsequentmoldhandlingincludingturnover,assembling,pushing
outonaconveyorwereaccomplishedeithermanuallyorautomatically.Inthelatefiftieshydraulicallypowered
pistonsormultipistonsystemswereusedforthesandcompactionintheflasks.Thismethodproducedmuchmore
stableandaccuratemoldsthanitwaspossiblemanuallyorpneumatically.Inthelatesixtiesmoldcompactionby
fastairpressureorgaspressuredropovertheprecompactedsandmoldwasdeveloped(sandimpulseandgas
impact).Thegeneralworkingprincipleformostofthehorizontalflasklinesystemsisshownonthesketchbelow.
Todaytherearemanymanufacturersoftheautomatichorizontalflaskmoldinglines.Themajordisadvantagesof
thesesystemsishighsparepartsconsumptionduetomultitudeofmovableparts,needofstoring,transportingand
maintainingtheflasksandproductivitylimitedtoapproximately90120moldsperhour.
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Verticalsandflasklessmolding

In1962,DanskIndustriSyndikatA/S(DISADISAMATIC)inventedaflasklessmoldingprocessbyusing
verticallypartedandpouredmolds.Thefirstlinecouldproduceupto240completesandmoldsperhour.Today
moldinglinescanachieveamoldingrateof550sandmoldsperhourandrequiresonlyonemonitoringoperator.
Maximummismatchoftwomoldhalvesis0.1mm(0.0039in).Althoughveryfast,verticallypartedmoldsarenot
typicallyusedbyjobbingfoundriesduetothespecializedtoolingneededtorunonthesemachines.Coresneedto
besetwithacoremaskasopposedtobyhandandmusthanginthemoldasopposedtobeingsetonparting
surface.

Matchplatesandmolding

Theprincipleofthematchplate,meaningpatternplateswithtwopatternsoneachsideofthesameplate,was
developedandpatentedin1910,fosteringtheperspectivesforfuturesandmoldingimprovements.However,first
intheearlysixtiestheAmericancompanyHunterAutomatedMachineryCorporationlauncheditsfirstautomatic
flaskless,horizontalmoldinglineapplyingthematchplatetechnology.
ThemethodaliketotheDISA's(DISAMATIC)verticalmoldingisflaskless,howeverhorizontal.Thematchplate
moldingtechnologyistodayusedwidely.Itsgreatadvantageisinexpensivepatterntooling,easinessofchanging
themoldingtooling,thussuitabilityformanufacturingcastingsinshortseriessotypicalforthejobbingfoundries.
Modernmatchplatemoldingmachineiscapableofhighmoldingquality,lesscastingshiftduetomachinemold
mismatch(insomecaseslessthan0.15mm(0.0059in)),consistentlystablemoldsforlessgrindingandimproved
partinglinedefinition.Inaddition,themachinesareenclosedforacleaner,quieterworkingenvironmentwith
reducedoperatorexposuretosafetyrisksorservicerelatedproblems.

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Moldmaterials
Therearefourmaincomponentsformakingasandcastingmold:basesand,abinder,additives,andaparting
compound.

Moldingsands
Moldingsands,alsoknownasfoundrysands,aredefinedbyeightcharacteristics:refractoriness,chemical
inertness,permeability,surfacefinish,cohesiveness,flowability,collapsibility,andavailability/cost.[10]
RefractorinessThisreferstothesand'sabilitytowithstandthetemperatureoftheliquidmetalbeingcast
withoutbreakingdown.Forexample,somesandsonlyneedtowithstand650C(1,202F)ifcastingaluminum
alloys,whereassteelneedsasandthatwillwithstand1,500C(2,730F).Sandwithtoolowrefractorinesswill
meltandfusetothecasting.[10]
ChemicalinertnessThesandmustnotreactwiththemetalbeingcast.Thisisespeciallyimportantwithhighly
reactivemetals,suchasmagnesiumandtitanium.[10]
PermeabilityThisreferstothesand'sabilitytoexhaustgases.Thisisimportantbecauseduringthepouring
processmanygasesareproduced,suchashydrogen,nitrogen,carbondioxide,andsteam,whichmustleavethe
moldotherwisecastingdefects,suchasblowholesandgasholes,occurinthecasting.Notethatforeachcubic
centimeter(cc)ofwateraddedtothemold16,000ccofsteamisproduced.[10]
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SurfacefinishThesizeandshapeofthesandparticlesdefinesthebestsurfacefinishachievable,withfiner
particlesproducingabetterfinish.However,astheparticlesbecomefiner(andsurfacefinishimproves)the
permeabilitybecomesworse.[10]
Cohesiveness(orbond)Thisistheabilityofthesandtoretainagivenshapeafterthepatternisremoved.[11]
FlowabilityTheabilityforthesandtoflowintointricatedetailsandtightcornerswithoutspecialprocessesor
equipment.[12]
CollapsibilityThisistheabilityofthesandtobeeasilystrippedoffthecastingafterithassolidified.Sands
withpoorcollapsibilitywilladherestronglytothecasting.Whencastingmetalsthatcontractalotduringcooling
orwithlongfreezingtemperaturerangesasandwithpoorcollapsibilitywillcausecrackingandhottearsinthe
casting.Specialadditivescanbeusedtoimprovecollapsibility.[12]
Availability/costTheavailabilityandcostofthesandisveryimportantbecauseforeverytonofmetalpoured,
threetosixtonsofsandisrequired.[12]Althoughsandcanbescreenedandreused,theparticleseventuallybecome
toofineandrequireperiodicreplacementwithfreshsand.[13]
Inlargecastingsitiseconomicaltousetwodifferentsands,becausethemajorityofthesandwillnotbeincontact
withthecasting,soitdoesnotneedanyspecialproperties.Thesandthatisincontactwiththecastingiscalled
facingsand,andisdesignedforthecastingonhand.Thissandwillbebuiltuparoundthepatterntoathicknessof
30to100mm(1.2to3.9in).Thesandthatfillsinaroundthefacingsandiscalledbackingsand.Thissandis
simplysilicasandwithonlyasmallamountofbinderandnospecialadditives.[14]
Typesofbasesands
Basesandisthetypeusedtomakethemoldorcorewithoutanybinder.Becauseitdoesnothaveabinderitwill
notbondtogetherandisnotusableinthisstate.[12]
Silicasand

Silica(SiO2)sandisthesandfoundonabeachandisalsothemostcommonlyusedsand.Itismadebyeither
crushingsandstoneortakenfromnaturaloccurringlocations,suchasbeachesandriverbeds.Thefusionpointof
puresilicais1,760C(3,200F),howeverthesandsusedhavealowermeltingpointduetoimpurities.Forhigh
meltingpointcasting,suchassteels,aminimumof98%puresilicasandmustbeusedhoweverforlowermelting
pointmetals,suchascastironandnonferrousmetals,alowerpuritysandcanbeused(between94and98%
pure).[12]
Silicasandisthemostcommonlyusedsandbecauseofitsgreatabundance,and,thus,lowcost(thereinbeingits
greatestadvantage).Itsdisadvantagesarehighthermalexpansion,whichcancausecastingdefectswithhigh
meltingpointmetals,andlowthermalconductivity,whichcanleadtounsoundcasting.Italsocannotbeusedwith
certainbasicmetalbecauseitwillchemicallyinteractwiththemetalformingsurfacedefect.Finally,itcauses
silicosisinfoundryworkers.[15]
Olivinesand

Olivineisamixtureoforthosilicatesofironandmagnesiumfromthemineraldunite.Itsmainadvantageisthatit
isfreefromsilica,thereforeitcanbeusedwithbasicmetals,suchasmanganesesteels.Otheradvantagesincludea
lowthermalexpansion,highthermalconductivity,andhighfusionpoint.Finally,itissafertousethansilica,
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thereforeitispopularinEurope.[15]
Chromitesand

Chromitesandisasolidsolutionofspinels.Itsadvantagesarealowpercentageofsilica,averyhighfusionpoint
(1,850C(3,360F)),andaveryhighthermalconductivity.Itsdisadvantageisitscostliness,thereforeit'sonly
usedwithexpensivealloysteelcastingandtomakecores.[15]
Zirconsand

Zirconsandisacompoundofapproximatelytwothirdszirconoxide(Zr2O)andonethirdsilica.Ithasthehighest
fusionpointofallthebasesandsat2,600C(4,710F),averylowthermalexpansion,andahighthermal
conductivity.Becauseofthesegoodpropertiesitiscommonlyusedwhencastingalloysteelsandotherexpensive
alloys.Itisalsousedasamoldwash(acoatingappliedtothemoldingcavity)toimprovesurfacefinish.However,
itisexpensiveandnotreadilyavailable.[15]
Chamottesand

Chamotteismadebycalciningfireclay(Al2O3SiO2)above1,100C(2,010F).Itsfusionpointis1,750C
(3,180F)andhaslowthermalexpansion.Itisthesecondcheapestsand,howeveritisstilltwiceasexpensiveas
silica.Itsdisadvantagesareverycoarsegrains,whichresultinapoorsurfacefinish,anditislimitedtodrysand
molding.Moldwashesareusedtoovercomethesurfacefinishproblem.Thissandisusuallyusedwhencasting
largesteelworkpieces.[15][16]
Othermaterials
Moderncastingproductionmethodscanmanufacturethinandaccuratemoldsofamaterialsuperficially
resemblingpapiermch,suchasisusedineggcartons,butthatisrefractoryinnaturethatarethensupportedby
somemeans,suchasdrysandsurroundedbyabox,duringthecastingprocess.Duetothehigheraccuracyitis
possibletomakethinnerandhencelightercastings,becauseextrametalneednotbepresenttoallowforvariations
inthemolds.Thesethinmoldcastingmethodshavebeenusedsincethe1960sinthemanufactureofcastiron
engineblocksandcylinderheadsforautomotiveapplications.

Binders
Bindersareaddedtoabasesandtobondthesandparticlestogether(i.e.itisthegluethatholdsthemoldtogether).
Clayandwater
Amixtureofclayandwateristhemostcommonlyusedbinder.Therearetwotypesofclaycommonlyused:
bentoniteandkaolinite,withtheformerbeingthemostcommon.[17]
Oil
Oils,suchaslinseedoil,othervegetableoilsandmarineoils,usedtobeusedasabinder,howeverduetotheir
increasingcost,theyhavebeenmostlyphasedout.Theoilalsorequiredcarefulbakingat100to200C(212to
392F)tocure(ifoverheatedtheoilbecomesbrittle,wastingthemold).[18]
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Resin
Resinbindersarenaturalorsynthetichighmeltingpointgums.Thetwocommontypesusedareurea
formaldehyde(UF)andphenolformaldehyde(PF)resins.PFresinshaveahigherheatresistancethanUFresins
andcostless.Therearealsocoldsetresins,whichuseacatalystinsteadofaheattocurethebinder.Resinbinders
arequitepopularbecausedifferentpropertiescanbeachievedbymixingwithvariousadditives.Otheradvantages
includegoodcollapsibility,lowgassing,andtheyleaveagoodsurfacefinishonthecasting.[18]
MDI(methylenediphenyldiisocyanate)isalsoacommonlyusedbinderresininthefoundrycoreprocess.
Sodiumsilicate
Sodiumsilicate[Na2SiO3or(Na2O)(SiO2)]isahighstrengthbinderusedwithsilicamoldingsand.Tocurethe
bindercarbondioxidegasisused,whichcreatesthefollowingreaction:

Theadvantagetothisbinderisthatitcanbeusedatroomtemperatureandit'sfast.Thedisadvantageisthatits
highstrengthleadstoshakeoutdifficultiesandpossiblyhottearsinthecasting.[18]

Additives
Additivesareaddedtothemoldingcomponentstoimprove:surfacefinish,drystrength,refractoriness,and
"cushioningproperties".
Upto5%ofreducingagents,suchascoalpowder,pitch,creosote,andfueloil,maybeaddedtothemolding
materialtopreventwetting(preventionofliquidmetalstickingtosandparticles,thusleavingthemonthecasting
surface),improvesurfacefinish,decreasemetalpenetration,andburnondefects.Theseadditivesachievethisby
creatinggasesatthesurfaceofthemoldcavity,whichpreventtheliquidmetalfromadheringtothesand.
Reducingagentsarenotusedwithsteelcasting,becausetheycancarburizethemetalduringcasting.[19]
Upto3%of"cushioningmaterial",suchaswoodflour,sawdust,powderedhusks,peat,andstraw,canbeaddedto
reducescabbing,hottear,andhotcrackcastingdefectswhencastinghightemperaturemetals.Thesematerialsare
beneficialbecauseburnoffwhenthemetalispouredcreatingvoidsinthemold,whichallowittoexpand.They
alsoincreasecollapsibilityandreduceshakeouttime.[19]
Upto2%ofcerealbinders,suchasdextrin,starch,sulphitelye,andmolasses,canbeusedtoincreasedrystrength
(thestrengthofthemoldaftercuring)andimprovesurfacefinish.Cerealbindersalsoimprovecollapsibilityand
reduceshakeouttimebecausetheyburnoffwhenthemetalispoured.Thedisadvantagetocerealbindersisthat
theyareexpensive.[19]
Upto2%ofironoxidepowdercanbeusedtopreventmoldcrackingandmetalpenetration,essentiallyimproving
refractoriness.Silicaflour(finesilica)andzirconflouralsoimproverefractoriness,especiallyinferrouscastings.
Thedisadvantagestotheseadditivesisthattheygreatlyreducepermeability.[19]

Partingcompounds
Togetthepatternoutofthemold,priortocasting,apartingcompoundisappliedtothepatterntoeaseremoval.
Theycanbealiquidorafinepowder(particlediametersbetween75and150micrometres(0.0030and
0.0059in)).Commonpowdersincludetalc,graphite,anddrysilicacommonliquidsincludemineraloilandwater
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basedsiliconsolutions.Thelatteraremorecommonlyusedwithmetalandlargewoodenpatterns.[20]

History
ClaymoldswereusedinancientChinasinceShangDynasty(c.1600to1046BC).ThefamousHoumuwuding(c.
1300BC)wasmadeusingclaymolding.
TheAssyriankingSennacherib(704681BC)castmassivebronzesofupto30tonnes,andclaimstohavebeen
thefirsttohaveusedclaymoldsratherthanthe"lostwax"method:[21]
Whereasinformertimesthekingsmyforefathershadcreatedbronzestatuesimitatingreallifeforms
toputondisplayinsidetheirtemples,butintheirmethodofworktheyhadexhaustedallthe
craftsmen,forlackofskillandfailuretounderstandtheprinciplestheyneededsomuchoil,waxand
tallowfortheworkthattheycausedashortageintheirowncountriesI,Sennacherib,leaderofall
princes,knowledgeableinallkindsofwork,tookmuchadviceanddeepthoughtoverdoingthatwork.
Greatpillarsofbronze,colossalstridinglions,suchasnopreviouskinghadeverconstructedbefore
me,withthetechnicalskillthatNinushkibroughttoperfectioninme,andatthepromptingofmy
intelligenceandthedesireofmyheartIinventedatechniqueforbronzeandmadeitskillfully.I
createdclaymouldsasifbydivineintelligence....twelvefiercelioncolossitogetherwithtwelve
mightybullcolossiwhichwereperfectcastings...IpouredcopperintothemoverandoveragainI
madethecastingsasskillfullyasiftheyhadonlyweighedhalfashekeleach
SandcastingmoldingmethodwasrecordedbyVannoccioBiringuccioinhisbookpublishedaround1540.
In1924,theFordautomobilecompanysetarecordbyproducing1millioncars,intheprocessconsumingone
thirdofthetotalcastingproductionintheU.S.Astheautomobileindustrygrewtheneedforincreasedcasting
efficiencygrew.Theincreasingdemandforcastingsinthegrowingcarandmachinebuildingindustryduringand
afterWorldWarIandWorldWarII,stimulatednewinventionsinmechanizationandlaterautomationofthesand
castingprocesstechnology.
Therewasnotonebottlenecktofastercastingproductionbutratherseveral.Improvementsweremadeinmolding
speed,moldingsandpreparation,sandmixing,coremanufacturingprocesses,andtheslowmetalmeltingratein
cupolafurnaces.In1912,thesandslingerwasinventedbytheAmericancompanyBeardsley&Piper.In1912,the
firstsandmixerwithindividuallymountedrevolvingplowswasmarketedbytheSimpsonCompany.In1915,the
firstexperimentsstartedwithbentoniteclayinsteadofsimplefireclayasthebondingadditivetothemoldingsand.
Thisincreasedtremendouslythegreenanddrystrengthofthemolds.In1918,thefirstfullyautomatedfoundryfor
fabricatinghandgrenadesfortheU.S.Armywentintoproduction.Inthe1930sthefirsthighfrequencycoreless
electricfurnacewasinstalledintheU.S.In1943,ductileironwasinventedbyaddingmagnesiumtothewidely
usedgreyiron.In1940,thermalsandreclamationwasappliedformoldingandcoresands.In1952,the"D
process"wasdevelopedformakingshellmoldswithfine,precoatedsand.In1953,thehotboxcoresandprocess
inwhichthecoresarethermallycuredwasinvented.In1954,anewcorebinderwaterglass(sodiumsilicate),
hardenedwithCO2fromambientair,cameintouse.

Seealso
Casting
Veining(metallurgy),commonsandcastingdefect
Foundrysandtesting
Handmould
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