\_CHAPTER

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Working

mathematically

ne of the most common descriptions of mathematics is that it is

about doing pencil-and-paper calculations. This view is under
challenge in current reforms in mathematics education. Contemporary
mathematics education focuses on thinking and working mathematically
so that mathematics becomes a way of seeing and acting in the world,
rather than an activity in and of itself. To encourage students to think
and work mathematically requires that students engage in a range of
tasks, problems and investigations (Schoenfeld, 1992). The aim of this
chapter is to present the notion of working mathematically in relation
to problem solving, connecting mathematics beyond the mathematics
classroom, and communicating mathematics through multiliteracies,
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thinking

mathematically
Working mathematically is an important life Skill for effectiveliving
in the world beyond schools.In order to be competent and
effectivecitizens, students need to exit school with the dispositions and
competencies in mathematics/numeracy that will allow them to
participate fully in the
106

activities they undertake. This means being able to use and work with
mathematics in a way that empowers them in their everyday lives.
Contemporary approaches to mathematics education encourage
students to think mathematically. Thinking mathematically refers to a
dispo:;itrorr t\1 ~ m.rt~.ttks t<J s<ni\: probil'Y'ns Bn.d tasks}n;, .w:1.rme.,.
mat is logical and based on mathematical principles. Mathematics is a
YCry useful tool to work through problems. Thinking mathematically is
encouraged through the curriculum by posing problems that adopt and
apply mathematical knowledge, skills ar,d processes. The linking of
realistic examples to mathematics is a key feature of teaching since
students need to see the relevance and purposefulness of mathemctics
to real world situations.

Problem solving
The importance of problem solving for fostering mathematical thinking
gained prominence in the 1970s. It has been used in mathematics
classrooms with greater or lesser effect ever since. For problem solving
to have most effect and benefit it needs 'to be an integral part of
the classroom ethos rather than simply an activity. More recently,
problem posing has been emphasised as well as problem solving
(English, 1996).
A problem has been defined by Mason and Davis (1991) as
something that gets inside the head of the learners so that they become
motivated and challenged by the task or question. It is a question or
task that does not have an obvious answer or path for resolving it.
Problem solving is more than solving word problems such as, 'Three
birds were sitting on a fence, one flew away, how many are left" For
students who cannot determine that this is a subtraction task this is a
problem, but for most students it is little more than a routine task
embedded in a word problem. Fostering mathematical thinking requires
more motivating problems.
Teaching problem solving requires teaching through problem solving,
and teaching about problem solving.
Teaching through problem solving means immersing students in a
variety of novel, challenging and motivating problems as a natural part
of the mathematics program. Tea~hing about problem solving scaffolds
learning through the provision of.strategies. However, students also
need

'

to have an adequate understanding of the mathematics involved in the

problem before embarking on tasks ( Pen gaily, 1989 ).
Polya's (1973) four-stage model for problem solving is a generic
strategy that underpins much of the teaching through problem solving:
1. Understand the problem-what is the problem asking?
2. Devise a plan for solving it.
2. Carry out the plan.
2. Look back, reflect, on the solution obtained.
In classrooms this model is often referred to as 'see, plan, do, check:
\Vhile the four steps are proposed as isolated units, Mason and Davis
( 1991) have suggested that this is not the case, and in fact the steps tend
to blur. Students can move backwards and forwards between the steps
as they attempt to work out ,fays to solve the problem. It is possible for
students to become .caught in an endless cycle of reading the problem
and thinking about ways to solve it, then rereading, to the point that
they eventually give up without even attempting the problem. Students
need to be supported to move beyond the blueprint of problem solving
to enable them to develop specific strategies fer solving problems.
Problem solving is assisted through having a wide repertoire of
strategies from which to select when encountering different problems.
Particular strategies suit particular problems. Knowledge of strategics is
a product of experience and engagement in solving a variety of problems.
The teacher's role is to provide such experiences. Common problem
solving strategies include:

Create a table
Make a drawing
Think aloud
Act it out

Look for a pattern

Guess and check
Identify unwanted information
Use a simpler example
Identify other alternatives
Make generalisations
Work backwards
Check the answer

In the following section these strategies are discussed in more detail.

CREATE A TABLE

A carpenter constructs desks with 4 legs and stools with 3 legs. At

the end of the day she has used 43 legs. How many desks and
stools
have been made?
1desk

ldesl<s

3 desks

4desks

7 desks

43 - 4 :s 39
39 + 3 13

43 - 8 .,. 35
3S + 3 . no

43 - 12 31
31 + 3 ,. no

43 - 16 = 27
27 + 3 9

13 stools

no

no

9 stools

43 - 28
15 + 3
5 stools

10 desks

=s

15

Using a table to organise information helps students to see patterns

emerging and can help to identify any missing information. After the
first four attempts, a pattern seems to emerge wherebyevery time the
desk number increases by 3, there will be a remainder divisible by 3
which can result in the stoolbeing constructed. Usinga table allows
the student to see a pattern beginning to emerge (every third time} and
then to trial the idea (guessing and checking).
MAKE A DRAWING

If there are 5 people in a room and they all shake hands with each
other, how many handshakes are there altogether?
A frog in a well hops up 3 metres each day and slips back 2 metres
ea~h night. If the well is 10 metres deep, how Ieng will it take for
the frog to hop out?
Using drawings allowsstudents to visually construct the problem.
Some problemsare best solved using this strategy.These includespatial
problems (such as maps and paths). It allows students to 'see'
relationships.Wh~n, using this strategy, it is important to stress to
students that they should not be spending time on details in the
drawings but only providing sufficient information to demonstrate
the. problem. Doing this also s~pports students in learningwhat is the
keyinformation in a problem and ignoring redundant or irrelevant
information.
THINK ALOUD

As I was going to school, I met a teacher who had 24 students in

her class. Each student had 2 siblings. Each sibling had 2 pets. How
many teachers did I meet?

43 - 40
3 + 3

1 stool

=
1

By encouraging students to think aloud, they are able to hear their

verbalisations. This allows two processes-thinking and talking-to

support students' problem solving. Speaking their thinking processes
supports communication as well as encouraging metacognitive

processes.
ACT IT OUT

A party of 3 people goes to a restaurant. The dinner is $10 a head

so it costs $30. /..$ they are regulars. the manager decides they can
have a $5 discount The waiter decides it is too difficult to share $5 so gives each person a discount of $1 and keeps the other $2. The
meals are now $9 which means that the dinner cost a total of S27.
The waiter kept the other $2 which makes for a total of $29. Where
did the other dollar go?
In this case, the students would be able to act out the process of the bill
sharing to sci where the missing dollar went. By modelling the process,
they are able to see the problem.
LOOK FOR A PATTERN

83 ~

Square numbers are so called because of the pattern they form as

the square 'grows'. How many square's are there when the square has
a side of 5, or 10? How long will a side be when there are 81 squares
in the square?

A king has decided to reward his servant for his good deeds by
offering
a choice of whether he would like to take the wheat in each square
multiplied by 10 or whether he would prefer to place a grain of wheat
on a checkerboard and double the number in each subsequent square.
Which option would you take and why?

Early work in mathematics involves considerable work on patterning,

in number and spatially. This is a very important skill (and attitude) for
competent thin.king in mathematics and hence should be continually
encouraged and reinforced. Many mathematical discoveries have
been made through people identifying patterns
(such as
Fibonacci'snumbers). Often the pattern can be seen when the data is
entered into a table; in other cases. such as spatial patterns, the
patterning needs to be seen spatially.

GUESS AND CHECK

Using the numbers l to 9. place them in the grid so that the

numbers ad.d uv to 15 inal\'f du:ection.
The guess-and-checkstrategyis often frowned upon in mathematics,
as if it were an inferior process. However. it can be useful and should
be encouraged as one of many possible strategies.When using an
educated guess, students need to rely on identifying the key
informationand some strategies for the resolution of the problem.
Students should be encouraged to develop guessing strategies that are
based on some knowledge and experiences rather than indulging in
blind or wild guessing.
WORK BACKWARDS

You spent $21 at the supermarket. The fruit cost twice as much as
the meat, which cost twice as much as the chocolates. How much
did the meat cost?
A length of rope was cut in half to share between two landowners.
One owner needed to use 2/3 of it for tying his dog to the shed. The
piece that is left is 1 metre long; how long was the original rope?
The working backwards strategy encourages the student to see what the
answer is and then systematically work from that point to account for
what has happened earlier.
IDENTIFY UNWANTED INFORMATION

A new car purchase price is listed at $19 760. The fuel consumption
is listed as 100 km on 10 litres. If the new owner drives an average
of 1500 km per month, how many litres of petrol would have

been consumed in a year?

Often mathematics tasks and problems are given to students so that

they need to work with the numbers provided. However, in the

world beyond school such examples rarely exist so there is a need to
recognise what is important and relevant information to solve a
problem. Examplesshould be given to students that encouragethis
disposition to develop.

USE A SIMPLER EXAM1>LE

How many squares arc there on a chessboard?

Often problems can be complicated by the size of the numbers or the
nature of the patterns being used. Bi making the task smaller or
simpler, reducing the size of the pattern, or breaking the task into

smaller
components, the task can be seen

as manageable. With the example of

a
chessboard, by reducing the original chessboard pattern into a smaller
task-such as a 3 X 3 grid-the inherent components of the task remain
unaltered and the student is able to manage the task. Through gaining
insight into solvingthe smaller task, students can extend this learning to
the larger or more complex task.

.
~

IDENTIFY OTHER Ai..TERNATIVES

The monkey needs to get to the bananashow many ways can it get there? What is the
shortest route to the bananas?

Encouraging students to seek alternatives-either

in the resolution of the answer or the processallows them to generate new ways of seeing the
problem and of how to solve it. A useful process
8
for developing these outcomes is to promote
Bananas
group discussions-within a group and between
groups. Allowing students to hear how others
have solved the problem and the answers they have generated enables
them to see alternative modes and responses to the same task, Once this
ethos is_a part of the classroom culture, it is useful for students to evaluate
the responses their peers propose. Such a process should be undertaken
with care so that a negative ethos does not develop-a constructive
process should be nurtured. One way this can be achieved is through
the SWOT process where students identify Strengths, Weaknesses,
. Opportunities and Threats to the processes being used. Fosteringthis
;
metacognition is an important aspect of working mathematically.
MAKING GENERALISATIONS

When 3 consecutive numbers are added together their total is 3.

What are the numbers?
A rectangle has its sides twice as Jong as its height How long might
the sides of a rectangle be?
Whea using this type of que stion, the way in which it is resolved
.
.
can

lead to a general rule for this type of problem. Focusing on the broader
features of the problem (rather than the specifics) can result in students

gaining deeper insights of greater significance than when they focus on the
smaller elements of the specific task. Once students have gained proficiency
with problems with numbers, they can start to generate general
principles leading to algebraic thinking with problems that have no
numbers.
CHECK THE ANSWER

A most important strat~gy for students to learn is to check their answers.

This enables them to identify errors-in the answer as well as the process.
Using a strategy of reasonableness. of the answer, students can be
encouraged to see if their answer is plausible. Estimating before working
through a problem can be a useful process in that it allows students to
see whether the answer they arrive at is reasonable.

Problem posing
In contrast to problem solving, problem posing encourages students to
create their own problems. Using the principles and strategies discussed
above, problem posing is seen to create significant opportunities for
students to engage in mathematical ideas (English, 1997).
Moses et al (1990) propose four principles to support students with
problem posing:
Focus students' attention on key information to be-contained in the
problem;
Commence with familiar concepts or ideas;
Encourage the use of ambiguity when designing problems as this
opens up the problem; and
Encourage students to set restrictions (or domains) to their problems.
The problem posing approach is gaining a strong foothold in classrooms
where teachers are attempting to make teaching more authentic.

Technology for thinking mathematically

The changes in the wider society towards a much more technology
orientated lifestyle has resulted in significant changes in how mathematics

is developed. There is a substantive body of knowledge that demonstrates

how computers and calculators encourage much deeper levels of

mathematicalthinkingthan is possible with 'pencil-and-paperwork. For
example,in her work with calculators, Groves (1995) has shown that
students can gain a-greater sense o(number in theearly years
through guided play with calculators. Whereas most curriculum
documents demarcate the first year as being related to number study
of 1-10 or maybe 1-20, the following year with numbers to 100, and the
subsequent yea~ with numbers to 1000, Groves has shown that students
in their first, year of school can gain a strong grasp of numbers up to
1000. In part this is due to the reduction of other demands-such as
writing numerals- and a greater emphasis on thinking mathematically.
Similar studies have shown that graphic calculators have enormous
benefits in terms of gaining deep understandings of functions and
algebra (Doerr and Zangor,
2000). This is due to the capacity of the calculators to show the graphs
and how thegradients and intercepts change with changes to the function.
This dynamic process allows students to see the effects of changes quickly,
old methods focused on physically plotting the graphs, which meant
that few could be undertaken, thereby restricting the dynamic visualisation
process.
The computer and its applications have had similar effects on
mathematical thinking, fostering deeper understandings of mathematical
ideas. For example, the grap~ing function allows students to painlessly
construct bar graphs or pie graphs. Constructing pie graphs by hand is
very tedious. The spreadsheet function allows students to explore which
graphs are best for what purposes in ways not possible ( or at least
restricted) when constructing them through pencil-and-paper methods.
Similarly, the spreadsheet function requires students to develop simple
instructions for calculations-such as add cell Bl to cell B2. This process
requires some algebraic thinking and provides a strong rationale for
using algebra,
It becomes possible to pose deeper questions about mathematics
when using technology-questions about patterns and place value; higher
order questions such as 'Why".'What if?~ 'What happens when?', 'Why
is this happening?' The focus shifts from the process of construction
to understanding
the reasons, purposes and rationales for
undertaking particular work.
Young people in New Times have grown up in a technology-rich

society. Their familiarity with technology as a tool makes it amenable

to considerable innovations in mathematics education. Software such

as spreadsheets can be open-ended, with considerable potential for

using it in many ways to support various aspects ofmathematics. Other
packages tend to be closed and restricted to particular topic areas.
This includes specific packages sch as the software packages for learning
multiplication facts or other operations (Maths Blaster*). Such
packages can simply be up-market worksheets and hence encourage
rote learning rather than
mathematic~ thinking. Packages such as LOGO~ or Geometers
Sketch- pad may be orientated towards particular topic areas, but
still have an open-endedness to them allowing students to explore
other aspects of mathematics-particularly working mathematically.
When selecting software, teachers should be cognisant of what they
contain and critical of their shortcomings.

.Making connections
For too many students the experience of school mathematics is not
positive-they percdveit ro be a difficulr and irrelevant subject. The
task of the teacher is to create meaningful and purposeful connections
between mathematics and other spheres of life and school. That is;
mathematics need to be transdisciplinary+it must link realistically to
other curriculum areas-for students to see 'why ~ey study
mathematics. That it informs many other areas is a connection rarely
made explicit to students. It is not possible to studysocial studies
without a knowledge of number, area, graphing, location or statistics.
It is not possible to studyscience without a knowledge of number,
exponentials, measurement, or recording and interpreting data.
Mathematics applies to all areas of life. \A/ithout a deep understanding
of mathematics, peoples' lives are impoverished and, in many cases,
severely restricted. Not being able to undertake calculations can affect
salaries, budgets and banking; not being able to measure accurately
can affect such activities as cooking, gardening,handyman work and
so on. Mathematics is an integral part of quality life and yet
considerable numbers of school leavers exit with very negative
experiences and self- concepts of themselves as users of mathematics,
Teachers need to make connectionsbetween mathematics and other

curriculum areas and activities beyond the school. These activities should
not be tokenistic but realistic. In many early years classrooms a common
activity is that of the class shop, where students practise shopping through
purchasing and operating with money. Students see that these are not
real activities but pseudo-activities, where the shopping activity is a mask
to justify the mathematics. Making connections so that students can sec
the value of mathematics demands that realistic activities are undertaken.
The value of activities such as purchasing the items on a shopping list
becomes meaningful, relevant and purposeful when the items are realistically priced and there is some cuh~inating activity-such as $oing
shopping to purchase goods, making a class party where foods are
purchased and/or cooked. When the activity resembles the activity
undertaken in the world beyond schools, there is every opportunity for
the students to begin to make the connections between school mathematics
and the wide world. They can see why they need to study mathematics
and that mathematics is not an irrelevant area of study.
Making-connections happens on three levels:
Within mathematics-where links are made between the various
strands of the curriculum. It is not possible for number study to exist
in isolation from other areas. For example, area relies on a knowledge
of multiplication or repeated addition. These links need to be developed.
With other discipline areas-where connections are made with other
curriculum areas-such as science, health and physical education;
social science.
In worlds beyond schools where the mathematics is placed in realistic
contexts. These contexts represent how mathematics can be used to
suppo~t. and enhance problem solving.

Communicatingmathematically
Current thinking in the area of literacy involves the four different roles
of the reader (Freebody, 1992). This model of multillteracies provides
a strong link t~ the roles of the numerate student. More than simply
considering mathematics teaching as linking language to concrete and
symbolic representations, multilitcracies encompasses mathematic.al
reading, representing, recording and communicating mathematically.

Working mathematically--@)The role of the reader is not passive but integral to the
construction and interpretation of mathematical 'texts',
including: concrete materials; photographs, pictures or
books; video or non-static representations; teaching
episodes where there is considerable interpretation of
teacher actions by the students; or the traditional written
formats of textbooks, worksheets and board work ..Consider this photograph, A number of interpretations
can be made of what is happening here. rs one boy
helping the other? Is be telling the other he is wrong?
Right? Many interpretations are possible.
In terms of multiliteracies, the mathematics classroom
is a text of which students will make interpretations (or
readings). When teaching is seen in this way, it becomes
possible to understand the learner as a much more active
Students talking about
participant in the classroom and in so doing allows the teacher to realise representetions
that students can construct very different interpretations of what has
been said or done. This moves the emphasis away from seeing students
as giving right or wrong answers to one where the role of the teacher
becomes more of understanding why students construct responses and
understandings in the ways they do. Not only are the communications
related to mathematics, but so also are the texts within which the
mathematics is being conveyed-to the students. Meaning making becomes
multidimensional.
By applying the multiliteracies perspective to mathematics, communicating mathematically becomes more than simply recording with pen
and paper. Communicating mathematically encourages:

Oral communication-wherestudents 'talk' mathematically.

This

can be in open discussions or small groups. The teacher sets tasks

that require students to talk about the mathematics they are using,
the ways in which they are working, the answers they are
constructing. This form of communication can include plays and other
performances.
Visual c.ommunic.ation-this can be in the forms of displays which may
be fiat, two-dimensional representations such as written projects, or
three-dimensional displays such as working projects (e.g.
constructions).
Digital communicarion-<reating
displays using computer technology. This could include the use of specific programs such as

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pre-algebraic thinking); or PowerPoint to create a visual display that
documents learning.

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Examples of students'

own mathematics
questions

Textual communication-the traditional format where students

write mathematically. This can be
useful for explanations, justifications,
refu- tations, conjectures and soon,
This form of communication is
particu- lcu!yimportant in developing
students' metalanguage
of
mathematics
and their thinking
mathematically. Stu- dents can be
asked to write their own mathematics
questions, or to reflect in journals
on what they have learnt or have
difficulty with, or to write a letter to a
friend explaining what they have learnt
in mathematics. A com- monly used
example here has stu- dents write a
story about a graph depicting the
height of water in a bath. The
students'
stories indicate their
understanding
of graphs, interpretation of data, slope, gradient and
so on.
Symboliccommunication-the unique
feature of mathematics is its symbolic
form. To communicate in this truncated language students need to
know the specific language of
symbols. The use of symbols allows

mathematics
to develop a particular form of communication. For example, stu-

dents arc introduced earlyto the signs +, - , X 1 + and =; these

arc followedin lateryears by <, >, ~ and 1r, among others.
While these symbols arc an integral feature of mathematics, they
also are a key to a specific language. Common usage of these _signs
can result in
misconceptions being developed. For example, early addition