Drummers in the British Army during the American Revolution

Steven M. Baule
___________
By your profession, you are evidently destined to make a noise in the world
Opening statement to drummers in Advice to the Officers of the British Army1.
___________

Drummer, 17th Regiment of Foot (Daryian Kelton)

The drummers of the British Army that served in North America directly prior to and
during the American War for Independence have often been overlooked. The present
knowledge base does not hold much information on the makeup of this portion of the
army, and any direct mention of drummers or fifers is noticeably absent from Freys
social history, The British Soldier in America and Brumwells Redcoats.
Establishment
Throughout the period from 1765 to 1783, the number of drummers and fifers allowed to
each regiment varied. The British establishment of 1764 to 1769 included two drummers
per company while the Irish Establishment of 1765 to 1769 included only a single
drummer per company. In 1767, the regiments in America appear to have been
authorized only the nine drummers allowed the regiments in Ireland. Orders issued by the
North American Headquarters on 20 April 1770 revised the American establishment to
eighteen drummers and two fifers per regiment of nine companies. The second drummer
per company was dropped on 26 March 1771, when the establishment was again
amended to include but ten drummers and two fifers per regiment of ten companies in all
marching regiments.2 In late 1775, after the American War began, one sergeant, one
drummer and 14 private men per company augmented the establishment of most of the
regiments in North America. Each regiment in America was similarly expanded from ten
to twelve companies. The two additional companies remained in Great Britain and
Ireland to recruit.3 The number of drummers per company remained at two throughout
the remainder of the war. Two fifers per regiment also remained a constant. With the
reductions at the end of the war, the establishment was reduced to a single drummer per
company and two fifers per regiment.4 A number of regiments appear to have maintained
additional fifers beyond the two allowed by the establishment after 1770. The 1st (Royal)
Regiment of Foot and the 58th Regiment of Foot had fifers at least as early as 1767. As
early as 1769, the 29th Regiment of Foot had a fife major. So, most likely, that regiment
had more than the two established fifers. In 1773, the 54th Regiment of Foot returned five
fifers.5 The 27th and 40th Foot were recorded as having six rank and file clothed as fifers
in 1768 and 1769 respectively.6
A few light infantry companies appear to have replaced their drummers with buglers for
signaling after their official establishment in 1771. The 1771 establishment for the light
companies included two drummers with no mention of buglers or hornists. The 4th
(Kings Own) Regiments light infantry company was recorded as having a German post
horn in 1774. The 43rd Light Company similarly had post horns. The newly constituted
light company of the Brigade of Guards in America also purchased horns for signaling.7
It is not clear if the bugler replaced the drum or supplemented it. It seems a reasonable
assumption that those assigned as buglers were probably also capable of serving as
drummers and probably were drawn from the ranks of the regiments drummers.
Townsends 1772 Rules and Orders for the Discipline of the Light Infantry Companies
included the passage:
these signals must be made by a loud whistle, a posting horn, or some
other instrument capable of conveying a sufficient sound to be heard at a
considerable Distance, and the stoutest of the Drummers is to be taught to
sound these instruments by directions from the Commanding Officer.8

The 55th Foot returned three musicians in its light company after the augmentation of
1775. The 55th seemed to have split its two fifers between the grenadier and light infantry
companies. This arrangement appears to be unique to the 55th Foot. It is unclear how long
that arrangement lasted.9
The role of a company drummer was a responsible and vital roll within a regiment. The
position of drummer drew the same pay as a corporal and was a position of significant
responsibility. None of the inspection returns reviewed showed a regiment wanting a
drummer. Even on active campaign, each company tended to have at least one drummer
present for duty.
On 4 September 1781, the 63rd Foot at Eutaw Springs, South Carolina, contained nine
drummers present and fit for duty, three sick in the general hospital, one sick in quarters,
one a prisoner with the rebels and three absent with leave for a total of 17 drummers and
fifers for the eight battalion companies present.10
Duties of the Drummer
Though the exact depth and breadth of duties of the eighteenth century infantry company
drummer are open for some debate, the following were clearly within their scope:
Beat the fifteen or so identified beats and calls and an additional number of
signals that regulated the movements of an eighteenth-century infantry regiment.11
Provide cadence on the march. Two orderly drummers were to attend the colonel
or commander of the regiment to beat the necessary signals to communicate the
colonels intentions to the company commanders. Whether or not marching
commands were to be given by drumbeat is unclear during the American War. By
the mid-1770s, the regiments trained with cadences from the drums and fifes, but
did not rely on those cadences in the field. By 1778, regulations clearly
promulgated Drums should be used as little as possible in maneuvering of
Regiments & Musik [sic] never.12
Flog soldiers ordered punished by regimental or general courts martial under the
supervision of the drum major.13
In action, save the two orderly drummers, drummers and fifers were to stay with
their respective companies, and to assist the wounded.14
Williamson suggested that the drummers and fifers were to practice at least once
a day, when the duty of the regiment will permit it. Simes suggested that they
practice together at least twice a week. In the detachment of the 18th and 65th Foot
in Boston in 1775, the order was Whenever the Weather will permit, the Serjeant
Major will see that the Drummers off duty go out to practice every day and that
they stay out a proper time practicing.15
Clean the guardroom or guardhouse when drummer of the guard. Simes also
states that the drummers were to sweep out the officers and mens necessary
houses each morning.16
Drummers on guard duty were also commonly responsible for serving as an orderly to the
officer(s) of the guard. At least one period text, articulates that if bottles or even
silverware were left on the table by the officers, the drummer should feel free to help
himself. Drummers on guard were also apparently responsible for keeping the fireplace
stoked with coals or wood. In general, it appears as if the housekeeping chores of the
guard detail were to be carried out by the drummer of the guard.17

A variety of period sources articulate that drummers and fifers were to be thoroughly
schooled in the manual of arms and be able to serve in the ranks when necessary. In
Boston, a 9 March 1776 order makes it apparent that some drummers were under arms as
privates. On 13 March 1776, General Howe further ordered all drummers unable to carry
arms to be put aboard ship. It is unclear if he armed the drummers and fifers at that
point.18 Some of the drummers of the 17th Foot appear to have served as privates in the
ranks during the 1776 campaign but were returned to functioning as drummers in winter
quarters.19
Recruiting
Generally, drummers were included in all recruiting parties, as it is difficult to beat up
recruits without a drummer. Of the men serving as a drummer in the 18th (Royal Irish)
Regiment of Foot, ten of the 25 drummers served on a recruiting party at least once
between 1772 and 1777 as noted on muster rolls. There doesnt appear to have been any
recruiting parties on command without a drummer. On November 1775, the 32nd
Regiment of Foot was inspected at Guilford Downs. The 32nd Foot had seven officers and
16 men on recruiting parties on November 23, 1775 including four of the regiments 22
drummers and fifers. The 32nd Foot wanted 88 men to complete its establishment to 560
private men. Since all four of the grenadier companys drummers and fifers were present,
neither fifer appears to have been on recruiting duty.20
In 1787, when the 41st Regiment was reconfigured to be a marching regiment instead of
the invalid regiment, all of the drummers were retained to assist in recruiting. Most of the
other men were discharged as being unfit for service in a marching regiment. It is not
clear how long the drummers were retained with the regiment.21

Age and Length of Service

With regard to recruiting drummers under the age of regular private men, there is no such
mention in Simess A Military Course for the Government and Conduct of a Battalion.
Simes articulates that recruits should be between seventeen and twenty-five. Soldiers
previously discharged on good terms could be reenlisted up to thirty-two years of age.
Similarly, Simes stated that recruits be at least 55 tall with shoes. Again, Simes
articulates no exception for drummers or fifers.22 Secondary sources, such as Barty-King,
state that the normal age of enlistment of drummers was between ten and twelve.23
Cuthbertson writing in 1776 suggests that potential drummers be enlisted at age 14, as
younger boys will not be able to serve the regiment on active service and older men will
take too long to learn the fundamentals of drumming. Cuthbertson allows for fifers at any
age as long as they are strong enough to fill the fife with air. Cuthbertson also supports
enlisting the sons of soldiers and orphans who will not desert, as they know no other
home than the regiment. 24
It may be stated, that it is a commonly held belief that drummers in the period were
often young boys or early adolescents. This belief may even be supported by reference to
Paul Sandbys A Prostitute Drumd out of the Camp in Hyde Park 1780, in which a
prostitute is being led from camp by a two officers and one grown drummer along with
six adolescent or younger drummers. The youngest appears barely larger than his drum.

A similar supportive image appears in Lord George Lennox and the 25th Regiment in
Minorca in 1771 showing a diminutive fifer marching with an adult drummer. However,
the limited documentary evidence does not necessarily support the youth of infantry
drummers and fifers.
In the opening years of the American War, the ideal recruit was between 16 and 30 years
old. The Press Acts of 1778 & 1779 officially extended those limits from 16 to 50 years
of age as recruiting became more difficult as the war progressed. General Thomas Gage
wrote in 1775 that the practice of enlisting boys was a fraud on the public.25 Camus in
his seminal work on the martial music of the American Revolution, clearly states that the
boys being trained as drummers and fifers under the tutelage of the drum and fifer majors
were carried on the rolls as private men and in no way replaced the adult drummers in
each company.26 The 55th Regiment of Foot, which served in Ireland before being sent to
America in late 1775, had an average age of 26.72 in 1775 with soldiers having 8.14
years of service. This would have provided an average first enlistment age of 18.58 years.
It appears that 18 was considered the basic standard age by the War Office as the roster
forms for men on the annual inspections are based upon no soldiers (including drummers,
fifers and non-commissioned officers) being under 18 years of age. One area of concern
with any eighteen-century age study of the British Army is they tend to be based upon the
annual inspection returns that generally return men in categories of multiple year
increments for both age and years of service. Only a small sample of mens actual
enlistment ages are generally available in discharge documents and occasionally others
found serendipitously. Additionally, ages below 18 cannot be determined from inspection
returns as all soldiers under 20 years of age were listed in the category of 18 and 19 years
old.
Frey concluded that the average soldier during the American War enlisted at age 20 or so.
She provides data from four regiments of dragoons and four regiments of foot to support
that conclusion. In the case of the 29th Foot in 1782, the average solider was 27.6 years
old and had served 9.7 years. This gave the men of the 29th Foot an average enlistment
age of 17.9 years of age. The 44th Regiment of Foot had an average enlistment age of
18.6 years of age. The average soldier in the 44th Foot was 26.8 years old in 1782. The 8th
(Kings) Regiment of Foot in 1782 had been in Canada and the Great Lakes frontier since
1768 and had received drafts from several regiments during the war. The average solider
in the 8th Foot was 36.9 years old in 1782. The average age of soldiers in the 42nd Foot in
1775 was 26.4 years of age. In 1784, at Halifax, the soldiers of the 42nd Foot averaged 30
years of age.27 The average soldiers age at first enlistment being 22.2 years old.28
Recruiting instructions issued to recruiting officers do vary slightly from regiment to
regiment. In 1757, the 45th Regiment of Foot recruiting during the prior war in colonial
New York articulated recruits should be between 16 and 35 years of age and over 56
unless growing lads between 16 and 20 who had to be at least 55. Lord Loudon had
issued orders in 1755 that American recruits should be between 18 and 35 years of age.
Brumwell states that the average soldier enlisted at 22.7 years in the regular army in the
1750s.29 Cuthbertson suggests that recruits be taken between 17 and 25 years of age,
excepting his comments upon drummers noted earlier.30 Orders issued at New York by
the North American Commander in Chief articulated no man to be enlisted over 35 or

under 18. Recruits to be free from ruptures, convolutions and infirmities & in every way
fit for service.31
The youngest drummer identified during the American War was Ludwig Rosie of the 23rd
(Royal Welch Fusiliers) Regiment of Foot. Rosie enlisted at age 11 in ca. 1780. It is
assumed, but not certain, he enlisted directly as a drummer. He was serving in the Lt.
Colonel Balfours company as a drummer in April 1786. He was listed as being a native
of Hanover. The average age of the eight drummers identified by age in the 23rd Foot was
nearly 27 years old in 1786. Assuming for a moment, that all of those men who were
listed as having served in America (6 of 8) were present in 1781, their average age would
have been 23 years old at that time. As a side note, none of the men were listed as Welch.
Five were English, one was a Scot and Rosie was German. A similar role for the ten
bandsmen of the regimental music, all of whom were enlisted as private soldiers, shows
ages of enlistment for nine of them. The youngest enlisted at 15 while the oldest was 26
years old when enlisting. The average age of enlistment for the 23rd Foots bandsmen was
19.2 years old. In 1786, the bandsmens average age was 31.5 years of age. All, except
the youngest, had served in America.32
The 22nd Regiment of Foot is one of the more well researched regiments that served in
North America. Thirty-three men of the 22nd Foot served as drummers or fifers between
1775 and 1783. Of those, the age is documented for 11 of those men. The average age of
a drummer in the 22nd Foot in 1778 was 34 years old. The youngest enlistment age for
these men was John Hardman who enlisted at age 12 during the French & Indian War and
was wounded at Louisburg. He was discharged at age 44 as being worn out. During his
32 year career, Hardman rose to the rank of sergeant before becoming a drummer again at
age 40. 33 The eldest upon enlistment was John Peake( also Peck) who enlisted at age 29
in April 1769 and was promoted to drummer within a month. He served as the company
drummer of Gen. Thomas Gages company from 1769 until sometime prior to 1773 when
he was transferred to the grenadier company of the 22nd Foot where he remained until
1784 when he was discharged from the 22nd Foot. Peake continued to serve and was
enrolled in the Independent Invalid Company at Sheerness about a month after his
discharge from the 22nd Foot. He remained with the invalid company until discharged on
22 June 1799 for lameness.34
Among the 36 men that served as drummers in the 33rd Regiment of Foot, 18 began the
period from 1776 through 1783 as drummers. It is unclear as to whether they were
originally enlisted as drummers or had been promoted into the rank prior to arriving in
North America. The two fifers identified as such both began the period as fifers, but were
reduced to the ranks prior to 1782. Only 13 of the 36 served only as drummers while in
North America. The other 23 served as private soldiers for at least part of their time in
America. Four of the drummers were promoted to drummer and reduced to the ranks
multiple times while serving in America. Of the three drummers who enlisted directly as
drummers during the period, only one was reduced to the ranks. All three remained in the
regiment through 1790.

Of the 37 soldiers who served as drummers or fifers in the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of
Foot between its being drafted in America in December 1775 and its participation at
Warley Camp in the summer of 1779, only 12 were enlisted directly as drummers. None
were enlisted directly as fifers. In fact, the three men who served as grenadier fifers
during that nearly four year period, were all veterans of North American service. One,
John Allen [Allen] was probably the son of a sergeant in the regiment. The other two
were soldiers of at least a dozen years service by 1779.35
The 47th Regiment of Foot served in North America from 1773 until it returned to Ireland
in 1784. During that period, muster rolls identify 55 drummers or fifers. Of those, 21
started the period as drummers and their previous service records are unknown. Thirteen
of the men started as privates and were promoted to drummer during the period. A large
number, 20, appear to have been directly enlisted as drummers. However, they do not all
appear to have served with the regiment in the field. Fourteen of the twenty only appear
on rolls after 1781 and many only appear in a single muster without a clearly defined
disposition as to the end of their service. 36 It is possible that those drummers were
actually hired short term to serve with the regiments additional companies although that
is entirely conjectural. Seven of those 14 were listed as being on recruiting service.
The ages are only known for two of the drummers of the 47th Foot. Drummer William
Lee had joined the army at age 13. However, in 1773 he was 44 years old while serving
as a drummer. He listed his occupation as that of a weaver, but how he could have
learned a trade prior to age 13 is unclear. He may have been discharged after the French
& Indian War and reenlisted prior to 1773. The second drummer, Nivs Lightwood, was
58 years old when he was discharged in 1782 after 32 years of service. A wound in his
right arm was the reason for him receiving his out pension from Chelsea. He had been 26
years old when he first enlisted.
No comprehensive demographic studies have been completed for the British infantry
regiments during the American War. However, Brumwells data present in Redcoats: The
British Soldier and the War for America, 1755-1763, allow for an average age of slightly
over 30 years of age in 1757. At the same time, 60% of the soldiers had been in the
service for two years or less.37
In comparison, a study of Congressional field musicians during the American War
compiled data on the average age drummers and fifers. In the Congressional army, the
average age of drummers upon enlistment was 19 years old. If the average Congressional
drummer served three years, their average age while serving would have been 20.5 years.
Fifers averaged 18 years of age when first enlisting. The American army also had many
more fifers, with most colonial establishments allowing one per company for ten per
regiment as compared with the two in a British regiment of foot.38
Physical Stature
Drummers tended to be shorter than the average soldier. Cuthbertson recommended that
drummers or fifers above 57 be turned into the ranks if they were strong enough. He
believed taller drummers were a disadvantage to the overall look of a battalion.39

Although drummers do appear in the records above 57 in height, it does appear that
drummers and fifers tended to be among the shorter men in a regiment.
In the case of the First Battalion of the Brigade of Guards in America in the America
War, the drummers were significantly shorter than the other men of the battalion. None of
the men in the ranks were under 57 and most were taller than 58. However, of the ten
drummers and fifers, seven were shorter than any of the rank and file.40 A similar trend
appears in inspection returns when the grenadier companies can be identified. In many
cases, the grenadier company rosters list only a few shorter men on their rosters in direct
proportion to the number of fifers and drummers serving in the company. For instance, in
November 1775, the 32nd Foot returns only four men under 59 in the grenadier
company. The company had two fifers and two drummers. The 36th Foot inspected at the
same time, returns four short men as well corresponding to the number of drummers and
fifers in the grenadier company.41
Two regiments on the Irish establishment in 1775, the 42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment
and the 55th Regiment of Foot, both showed a similar correlation in their grenadier
companies between the number of shorter men and the number of drummers and fifers
present.42 However, this was not always the case. The 8th (Kings) Regiment of Foot did
not show a similar pattern in 1768, and its single grenadier drummer was standing eye to
eye with the other grenadiers at a height of 59or taller.43
In comparison, the average height of infantry soldiers in the 1770s varied, but Freys
sample from 1782 provides an average height of approximately 57 for an
infantryman. The average height of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot in 1767 was
about 57 tall. After returning to England, in 1777 the average height of the 18th Foot
was 56 tall.44
Black Drummers
The Xavier della Gatta painting of the Battles of Paoli and Germantown shows a mulatto
bugler with the 45th Light Infantry Company. Gilbert represents that, in general, the della
Gatta painting is extremely accurate. However, the drummers listed for the 45th Light
Company are Angus Stuart and Alexander Bell. Neither name would betray African
origin. Stuart was with the company as a drummer from at least 1775 until the regiment
left America in 1778. Bell was promoted to drummer from a battalion company on 23
June 1776 and remained with the company through 1778 as well.45
In Everards history of the 29th Regiment of Foot, he stated that the 29th received eight or
ten black boys in 1759 after the surrender of Gudaloupe as a present to the regiments
colonel from his brother, Admiral Edward Boscawen. Ten black drummers were recorded
with the regiment in April 1774. Three of the original blacks were still present in the
regiment in 1775.46 Ellis identifies eleven black drummers as serving in the 29th during
the American War.47
Slightly prior to the American War, the 38th Foot returned from the West Indies in 1765
with three black drummers in its ranks. It is not clear how many, if any, blacks were in
the 38ths ranks after nearly sixty years of service in the West Indies. Blacks are identified
as serving in a number of mounted regiments throughout the eighteenth century as early
as 1704.48
At least 29 black drummers, fifers or trumpeters were identified as having served with
American Loyalist troops during the war. The majority of those who served joined after

the war moved into Georgia and the Carolinas.49 Blacks also served as drummers in
German regiments serving in America. Jones identified 83 black drummers and three
black fifers serving in Hessian regiments.50 It does not appear that black drummers were
common in marching regiments serving in America. In fact, outside of those listed with
the 29th Regiment of Foot, in 1775, no black drummers come to light in the regular army.
A number of blacks were recruited into the 14th Regiment of Foot while it served in
Virginia, but there is no evidence that any of them served as drummers. Black drummers
in infantry regiments were a generally a phenomenon of a later period.
Prior Trades
For the few drummers and fifers whose trades have been identified, only a single one lists
his trade as a drummer or a fifer. That man was Douglas Grant, a drummer in the
grenadier company of the Brigade of Guards in America upon its creation on 15 March
1776. By 1779, Grant had served 12 years in the Coldstream Guards. His birthplace was
listed as Zeeland, Holland and his profession as a fifer. At 55 tall, he was one of the
three shortest men in the Brigade of Guards in America.51 Other drummers whose
occupations are known compare to the trades of the rank and file soldiery. Laborers
predominate. Of the five identified black drummers of the 29th whose occupation is
known, four were laborers from the West Indies. The fifth was a laborer from Africa.52
Weavers are also common. Other drummers had been tailors, bricklayers and even a
malster prior to taking the shilling.53
Discipline and Desertion
For whatever reasons, the discipline and desertion rates among drummers appear to have
been extremely low. The punishment book of the 44th Regiment of Foot from 1778-1784
shows 21 instances where sergeants were tried by regimental court martial, 54 cases
involving corporals and 323 involving privates. No drummers or fifers appear to have
been tried by regimental court martial in the 44th during that period.54 While stationed in
Boston, Drummer Goff of the 65th Foot was subjected to a regimental court martial For
being drunk and insolent to Corpl. Horn, striking him & James Thurston of sd. Rt. & Co.
& denying to go Prisoner wn. Ordered, in November 1774. He received 300 lashes as
punishment.55 A black drummer of the 29th Foot may have been given 100 lashes for
participating in a Whig concert in 1769. Although reported in a Boston paper, the item
may have been simple propaganda.56 In any regard, the number of drummers brought
before courts martial were minimal. This may speak to the quality of drummers and their
position above the rank and file.

Descriptions of drummers or fifers during the period are rare. The following description
came from The New York Gazette or Weekly Post Boy, 10 September 1770:
Deserted from the 29th Regiment of Foot, William Simpson, Fifer, aged 19
Years, 5 Feet, 8 Inches high, born in the Regiment, straight and well
made, fair Complexion, thin Face, long Visage, large Nose, large Limbs,
short brown Hair, blue Eyes, speaks short, and pretty much of the Irish
Accent, a large Hole or Hollow on the top Part of his Scull, occasioned by
a Fracture received at Castle Island; no Hair growing on it; plays well on

the Flute and Fife, and plays a little on the Violin and French Horn. Had
on when he went away, a short yellow Coat, fac'd Red, red Fall-down
Collar, red Wings and Lining, the Coat lac'd with Drummers Lace, white
Linnen Waistcoat and Breeches, a black Cap, bound with white Tape, the
Number of the Regiment in the Front, and a Scarlet Worsted Feather
round the upper Part of the Front.
The paper noted that Simpsons brother was serving in the 64th Foot at Boston in 1770
and that was where he was headed. Simpson did return to the 29th, although it is not clear
if he returned voluntarily.57
Only one drummer, Daniel Webster, deserted from the 33rd Foot during the war. He
actually deserted near the very end of the war in November 1783. He may have decided
to stay in America. Only one of the men who served as a drummer in the 22nd Foot
deserted while the regiment served in America. William Miller deserted in May 1783.58
Only six drummers appear to have faced general court martials between 1765 & 1783
while serving in America. Four of the men were charged with desertion. Additionally,
Fisher of the 28th Foot was charged with bearing arms in rebel service. He was wounded
and captured by a Hessian jager patrol in New Jersey while serving in the ranks of an
American unit. He was sentenced to suffer death. Drummer William Belshar of the 17th
Foot was charged with robbery and desertion. Drummer William King of the 27th Foot
was charged with plundering and straggling. Drummer John Brayson of the 57th Foot was
charged with mutiny in April 1779.59
If Freys numbers are accurate, approximately 3701 soldiers were lost through desertion
from 1774 to 1783 in North America and the West Indies. This would account for a
desertion rate of approximately four percent.60 However, regimental studies show higher
levels of desertion. At the low end, the 47th Regiment of Foot lost slightly more than 4%
of its men to desertion during the American War. The regiment was stationed in Canada
during most of the conflict. The 22nd Regiment of Foot appears to have had a desertion
rate of approximately 7%. The 33rd Regiment of Foot appears to have had a desertion rate
of about 10% throughout the war.61 A review of the grenadier company of the 18th (Royal
Irish) Regiment of Foot found a desertion rate of 15.5% from 1767 to 1775.62
Moving through the Ranks
On several occasions, drummers and fifers were called upon to serve in the ranks as noted
above. In many cases, drummers were reduced to the ranks as well. Some like John
Dolling, Jr. of the 18th Foot moved in and out of the rank of drummer at least three times
during his service between 1767 and 1780. Dolling was also referred to as a bandsman in
a court martial record, so it is probable he served throughout this period as part of the
band of music and was rotated in and out of position of drummer. Other men in the 18th
Foot and 22nd Foot show similar patterns, but other regiments, as the 42nd Foot and the
53rd Foot, do not show a pattern of rotating men into and out of the position of drummer.
In the 18th Foot, when eight companies of the regiment were drafted in 1775, all of the
men who had ever been assigned as drummers were returned to England.63
Promotion to corporal from drummer was not uncommon. Of the 38 men who served as
drummers or fifers in the 33rd Foot, three were promoted to corporal during the war. Four
of the 33 men who served as drummers in the 22nd Foot also served as non-commissioned
officers. Two of the men, John Hardman and Richard Street, served as sergeants in the
regiment. Two of the drummers in the 47th Foot were also promoted to corporal during

the war. Becoming a drummer was not necessarily a dead end. Drummers were promoted
to corporal in at least the same percentage as regular private men.64
Drummers served an important role in regiments of foot during the American War. The
drummers appear to have been about the same age as the average private men in the
regiments. About half appear to have been directly enlisted as drummers while the others
were promoted from the ranks. Drummers did tend to be shorter than the average soldier.
A few were black, but black infantry drummers were still a rarity during the American
War. Discipline problems among drummers appear to have been very rare. The desertion
rate among drummers was lower than among privates and in some regiments lower than
the desertion rate of corporals. From the few drummers whose trades are evident, it does
not appear that drummers had any special musical training prior to enlistment.

{Francis Grose]. Advice to the Officers of the British Army: With the addition of some hints to the
drummer and private soldier (W. Richardson, 1783, Reprinted: United States Historical Research Service,
1992), p. 119
2
J. A. Houlding, Fit for Service: The Training of the British Army 1715-1795 (Oxford, 1981), p. 418;
Headquarters General Orders, New York. National Archives (formerly the Public Record Office) (NA).
3
WO 26/29 p. 108. November 28, 1775, Add. MS. 21683; WO 24/480 & WO 4/88 26 March 1771
4
The two fifers, or pipers in many highland regiments, were officially attached to the grenadier company of
the regiment. The 42nd (Royal Highland ) Regiment of Foot did include two fifers in its grenadier company
from 1776 to 1784. As the fifer notations are handwritten, the appellation of fifer cannot be explained as
pipers where the highlanders are simply using a more universal army form. One piper is noted in the 42 nd
muster rolls replacing a battalion company drummer. The 1/84 th (Royal Highland Emigrants) Regiment of
Foot also contained fifers in the grenadier company. The 76 th (Highland) and 78th (Highland) Regiment
each contained twp pipers instead of two fifers along with 20 drummers per regiment. NA, WO 12/5479
Returns of the 42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment of Foot, 1759 to 1776; WO 12/5479, Returns of the 42 nd
(Royal Highland) Regiment of Foot, 1777-1786; WO 12/8191, Returns of the 76th (Highland) Regiment of

Foot, 1778 to 1802; Barrington to Earl of Seaforth, 14 Jan 1778, WO 7/27, p. 95 similarly states that
regiment was to include 20 drummers and two pipers to the grenadier company; Raoul F. Camus, Military
Music of the American Revolution (University of North Carolina Press, 1976), p. 180-182
5
Camus, Military Music of the American Revolution, p. 182
6
Philip Haythornthwaite and Gerry Embleton, British Infantry Musicians in the 18 th Century, Military
Illustrated, 57, p. 30-34
7
John Elting, The Era of the American Revolution 1755 1795,(Presidio Press, 1974), p. 30; Camus,
Military Music of the American Revolution , p. 181
8
R. H. R. Smythies, Historical Records of the 40th (20th Somersetshire) Regiment, Now 1stBattalion The
Prince of Wales Volunteers (South Lancashire Regiment) From its Formation in 1717 to 1893 (Devonport,
1894), p. 549-52
9
Returns of the 55th Regiment of Foot, 1774 1785, NA, WO 12/6471
10
Morning Report, 63rd Regiment of Foot, 4 September 1781, Library of Congress (HC 2156)
11
Camus, Military Music of the American Revolution, p. 188. The primary beats and calls included, The
General, The March, The Reveille, The Troop, The Retreat, The Tattoo, To Arms, The Parley or Church
Call, Roast Beef, The Drummers Call, The Pioneers March, Three Cheers, The Grenadiers March, and The
Rogues March. No period manual identified by Camus, includes all of the above, but many include other
beats as well as drum signals to call corporals, sergeants, send for wood or water, etc.
12
J.A. Houlding, Fit for service, p. 260 & 277-9
13
John Williamson, Elements of Military Arrangements (London, 1781), p. 25
14
Thomas Simes, Military Guide for Young Officers (Philadelphia, 1776), p. 1:239.
15
Williamson, Elements of Military Arrangements , p. 25; Simes, Military Guide for Young Officers, p.
1:238; Regimental Order, 23 Feb 1775, 18 th Foot Orderly Book, National Army Museum (NAM) #7609-3
16
Thomas Simes, The Regulator (London, 1780), p. 56-7
17
[Grose], Advice to the Officers of the British Army: With the addition of some hints to the drummer and
private soldier, p. 120
18
General Sir William Howe's Orderly Book (Kennikat Press, 1970)
19
Regimental Order, 19 December 1776, Orderly Book: 17th Regiment of Foot, 11 October to 28
December 1776, New York Historical Society Library
20
Returns of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot, 1767 to 1780, NA, WO 12/3501; Inspection Return of
the 32nd Regiment of Foot, 25 November 1775, NA, WO 27/34
21
D.A.N. Lomax, A History of the services of the 41st (the Welch) Regiment of Foot from its formation in
1719, to 1895. (Hiorns Miller Army Printers, 1899), p. 30
22
Thomas Simes, A Military Course for the Government of a Battalion, (London, 1777), p. 157-8
23
Hugh Barty-King, The Drum: A Royal Tournament Tribute to the Military Drum (The Royal
Tournament, 1988), p. 72-3
24
[Bennett] Cuthbertson, System for the Complete Interior Management and Oeconomy of a Battalion of
Infantry (Rouths & Nelson, 1776) p. 12
25
Barrington to Gage, 4 January 1775, NA, WO 4/273
26
Camus, Military Music of the American Revolution, p. 8
27
Inspection Returns of the 42nd (Royal Highland) Regiment of Foot, 1775 & 1784, NA, WO 27/35 &
27/52
28
Sylvia Frey, The British Soldier in America: A social history of military life in the Revolutionary Period
(University of Texas Press, 1981), p. 23-6
29
Stephen Brumwell, Redcoats: The British Solider and War in the Americas, 1755 1763 (Cambridge
University, 2002), p. 58-9 &78; Pennsylvania Archives Series II, v. 2. 691-693.
30
Cuthbertson, System for the Complete Interior Management and Oeconomy of a Battalion of Infantry , p.
56
31
HQ Orders New York, 11 May 1771, NA, Add.MS. 21683
32
Roll of Drummers, 23 April 1786, Roll of Regimental Music, 23 April 1786, RWF Museum, transcribed
by Norman Holme, 1987.
33
Discharge papers of various drummers, NA, WO 97 & WO 121/1/135
34
Discharge papers of John Peake (Peck), NA, WO121/148/337; Returns of the 22nd Regiment of Foot,
NA, WO 12/3871
35
Returns of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot, 1767-80, NA, WO 12/3501

36

Returns of the 47th Regiment of Foot, 1759-83; NA, WO 12/5878; Returns of the 47 th Regiment, 178491, NA, WO12/5879
37
Brumwell, Redcoats: The British Solider and War in the Americas, 1755 1763, p. 316-17. His sample
size for age was 13999 individuals. His sample for length of service included 13178 individuals.
38
John U. Rees, "The music of the Army: An Abbreviated Study of the Ages of Musicians in the
Continental Army, Brigade Dispatch, 24 (4), 1993, p. 2-8
39
Cuthbertson, System for the Complete Interior Management and Oeconomy of a Battalion of Infantry , p.
13
40
Orders, Returns, Morning Reports and Accounts of British Troops 1776-1781. M922, Washington DC:
National Archives and Records Service
41
Inspection Returns of the 32nd & 36th Regiments of Foot, 1775, NA, WO 27/34. In the 32 nd Foot, 107 of
the regiments 524 men were listed at under 56 tall. The 36 th Foot included 186 men under 56 out of a
total of 565. Though short by grenadier standards in the 36 th, the drummers and fifers of the grenadier
company were still taller than at least 32% of the regiment.
42
Inspection Returns of the 42nd & 55th Regiments of Foot, NA, WO 27/35; Both regiments were inspected
in May 1775. The 42nd Grenadier Coy. included three men standing 58 tall. All others were above 59
tall. The 55th included two men under 56 tall. All others of the company wee over 59 tall. In both cases,
the number of shorter men corresponded to the number of drummers and fifers enumerated in the company.
43
Inspection Return of the 8th (Kings) Regiment of Foot, 1768, NA, WO 27/12; The 8 th Foot mustered 448
men in 1768, with all but 9 of the 400 men in the battalion companies shorter than all of the grenadiers.
44
Frey, The British Soldier in America: A social history of military life in the Revolutionary Period , p. 234; Inspections Returns of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot, 1767, NA, WO 27/11
45
Returns of the 45th Regiment of Foot , NA, WO 12/5718/2; Stephen Gilbert, An Analysis of the Xavier
della Gatta Paintings of the Battles of Paoli and Germantown, 1777, Military Collector & Historian, part I
46 (3); part II, 47 (4)
46
Peter Copeland and Donald W. Holst, 29th Regiment of Foot, 1770 in Elting, 28.
47
J.D. Ellis, Drummers for the Devil? The Black Soldiers of the 29 th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot,
1759-1843. JSAHR, 80 (2002), p.186-202
48
Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The history of the Black people in Britain, (Pluto Press, 1984) p. 80-8
49
Simcoe to Andre, [ca. May 1780], Sir Henry Clinton Papers, William L. Clements Library, University of
Michigan v. 95, item 56
50
George F. Jones, The Black Hessians: Negroes recruited by the Hessians in South Carolina and other
colonies, South Carolina Historical Magazine, 83 (4). Available at
http://www.schistory.org/schm/bhessians.html. 08 Nov 2005.
51
Orders, Returns, Morning Reports and Accounts of British Troops 1776-1781, M922, Washington DC:
National Archives and Records Service
52
Ellis, Drummers for the Devil, p.199-201. Later periods show a wider range of previous trades, but
laborer was still preeminent among the Black drummers of the 29th Foot.
53
Discharge Records, NA, WO 97
54
G.A. Steppler, British Military Law, Discipline, and the Conduct of Regimental Courts Martial in the
later Eighteenth Century, English Historical Review, 52 (1987), p. 859-86.
55
Regimental Court Martial Register in the Orderly Book of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot,
Transcribed from a copy in the National Army Museum by Don Haigst, 2004.
56
Oliver Dickerson, Boston Under Military Rule, 1768-1769, (Chapman & Grimes, 1936), p. 66
57
Deserter advertisement, The New York Gazette or Weekly Post Boy, 10 September 1770; Returns of the
29th Regiment of Foot, 1765 to 1783, NA, WO 12/4493
58
Returns of the 22nd Regiment of Foot, NA, WO12/3871& 12/3872
59
Court Martial of Drummer Bullock, 60th Foot, June 1766, NA, WO 71/75, p. 239-42 & 263; Court
Martial of Wm. King, August 1777, NA, WO 71/84 p. 202-4; Court Martial of John Fisher, 28th Foot, 21
June 1778, NA, WO 71/87 p. 202-8;Court Martial of John Brayson, April 1779, NA, WO 71/88 p. 428-30;
Court Martial of Robert Mason and Pvt. James Watson, August 1779, NA, WO 71/90 p. 127-31; Court
Martial of Wm. Belshar, Wm. McLaughlin & John Carnesay, April 1780, NA, WO 71/92 p. 35-44
60
Frey, The British Soldier in America: A social history of military life in the Revolutionary Period , p. 72
61
WO12/4803 Returns of the 33rd Regiment of Foot, 1775 - 1784. The 33rd had 100 deserters and
approximately 975 enlisted men between 1775 and 1783.

62

Steven M. Baule, A sink of men and treasure: casualties of the grenadier company of the 18 th (Royal
Irish) Regiment of Foot, 1767 to 1775, Military Collector & Historian, 57 (3), p. 143-6. The desertion rate
of the battalion companies was most likely higher.
63
Returns of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot, 1767 to 1780, NA, WO 12/3501; Returns of the 22nd
Regiment of Foot, NA, WO 12/3871 & 12/3872
64
Returns of the 18th (Royal Irish) Regiment of Foot, NA,WO 12/3501; Returns of the 22 nd Regiment of
Foot, NA, WO 12/3871 & 12/3872; Returns of the 47 th Regiment of Foot, NA,12/4803
Biographical Note:
Steven M. Baule is an educational administrator in suburban Chicago, Illinois and a former United States
infantry officer. He holds doctoral degrees from the Northern Illinois University and Loyal University of
Chicago. His historical research interests focus on the British Army in North America.
Don N. Hagist
Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research: , vol. 86 (2008), no. 346, 20.