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Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
c = a + jb
(1)
p
where j = ;1. a is the real part of c while b is the imaginary part of c.
On the complex plane, c is represented by a point c or sometimes an arrow
oc as shown.
Imaginary Axis
c
b
|c|
Real Axis
0
a
Sometimes it is more convenient to represent c in polar form, i.e.
(2)
tan = ab ) = tan;1 ab
(3)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
(1)
(2)
In the above, x^ y^ z^ are unit vectors pointing in the x y z directions respectively. Ax Ay and Az are the components of the vector A in the x y z
directions respectively. The same statement applies to Bx By , and Bz .
Addition
A + B = x^(Ax + Bx) + y^(Ay + By ) + z^(Az + Bz ):
(3)
Multiplication
(a) Dot Product (scalar product)
A B = AxBx + Ay By + Az Bz
A B = B A
commutative property
A (B + C) = A B + A C distributive property
A B = A B cos :
In (7), is the angle between vectors A and B.
jj
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
x^ y^ z^
A B = Ax Ay Az =^x(Ay Bz Az By ) + y^(Az Bx AxBz )
Bx By Bz
+ z^(AxBy Ay Bx)
(8)
A B = u^ A B sin
(9)
where u^ is a unit vector obtained from A and B via the right hand rule.
A (B + C) = A B + A C distributive property (10)
A (B C) 6= (A B) C non-associative property
(11)
A B = ;B A anti-commutative property
(12)
jj
Vector Derivatives
Del
Gradient
Divergent
Curl
@ + y^ @ + z^ @
= x^ @x
@y @z
(13)
@ + y^ @ + z^ @
= x^ @x
@y
@z
@
@
@
A = @x Ax + @y Ay + @z Az
x
^
y
^
z
^
(14)
r
r
A = @x@
@
@y
y
(15)
@
@z
z
Ax A A
@
@
@
@
= x^ @y Az @z Ay + y^ @z Ax @x Az
@
@
(16)
+ z^ @x Ay @y Az :
Divergence Theorem
I
r
AdV = A n^ dS:
(17)
Stokes Theorem
I
(r A) n^dS =
A dl:
(18)
(r) = 0
r (r A) = 0
r ( A) = A r + r A
r (A B) = B r A ; A r B
r r A = r(r A) ; r rA
@2 + @2 + @2 :
2
r = rr =
@x2 @y2 @z2
r
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
r H = @@tD
r E = ; @B
r B = 0
r D = 0
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
@t
(5)
r r E = ; @t@ 2 E:
(6)
r r E = r(r E) ; r2 E
we have
r2 E = @t@ 2 E
(7)
(8)
(9)
r2H = @t@ 2 H
(10)
r E = x^
2
with both
@2
@x2
and
@2
@y2
@2
@x2
@2
@y 2
@2
@2
E
(
z
t
)
=
x
^
Ex
x
@z 2
@z 2
(14)
(15)
(16)
Equations (15) and (16) are scalar, one dimensional wave equations of the
form
1 @ 2 y(z t) = 0
@2
y
(
z
t
)
;
(17)
@z 2
v 2 @t2
@2
f
@z 2
@ 2f
@t2
= f (z + at)
00
= a2f (z + at):
00
a2
f (z + at) = 0
v2
00
(19)
(20)
which is possible only if a = v. Hence, the general solution to the wave
equation is
y = f (z ; vt) + g (z + vt)
(21)
where f and g are arbitrary functions.
2
f(z-vt)
t>0
t=0
z=0
z=vt
g(z)
g(z+vt)
t=0
t>0
z
z=0
z=-vt
The solution g(z + vt) moves in the negative z-direction for increasing t.
The shapes of the functions f and g are undistorted as they move along.
We can observe wavelike behavior in a pond when we drop a pebble into it.
Solutions to (9) and (10) that correspond to a plane wave is of the form
E = x^f1 (z ; vt) H = y^f2(z ; vt):
(22)
The wave is propagating in the z-direction, but the electric and magnetic
elds are transverse to the direction of propagation. Such a wave is known
as the Transverse Electro Magnetic wave or TEM wave.
If one substitutes (22) into Equation (2), one has
@
@
Ex = ; H
(23)
r E = y^ @z
@t
or
@
@
f1 (z ; vt) = ; f2 (z ; vt)
(24)
@z
@t
or
f1 (z ; vt) = vf2 (z ; vt)
(25)
or
r
f2 (z ; vt) =
f1 (z ; vt):
(26)
Hence, for a plane TEM wave,
r
0
The quantity
Ex
Hy
=
is also known as the intrinsic impedance of free-space.
Z
(27)
(28)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
E = < E~ j!t]
e
~ j!t ] = <
< r H
e
(2)
@
@t
E~ j!t
e
(3)
~ = 2 E~
r r E~ = ; r H
(9)
Again, making use of the identity rr E~ = r(r E~ ) ;r2E~ , and r E~ = 0,
we have
r2E~ = ; 2 E~
(10)
Similarly,
~ = ; 2 H~
r2 H
(11)
These are the Helmholtz's wave equations.
j !
!
!
!
Phasor technique is particularly appropriate for solving Maxwell's equations in a lossy medium. In a lossy medium, Equation (3.1) becomes
rH= E +J
(12)
@t
J= E
(13)
~=
rH
=
E~ + E~
j !
j!
E~
(14)
~ = ; j !
(15)
~ = ~E~
rH
(16)
Notice that the only dierence between (16) and (5) is the complex permittivity versus the real permittivity. If one goes about deriving the Helmholtz
wave equations for a lossy medium, the results are
r2E~ = ; 2 ~E~
(17)
j !
!
~ = ; 2 ~H~
r2 H
(18)
Hence, a lossy medium is easily treated using phasor technique by replacing
a real permittivity with a complex permittivity.
If we restrict ourselves to one dimension, Equation (17), for instance,
becomes of the form
2
~ ( ) ; 2 ~x ( ) = 0
(19)
2 x
where
r
p
=
~=
;
= +
(20)
!
dz
j!
j!
E
j
:
(21)
Ex z t
(23)
If C1 = jC1 j ej1
C2
= jC2j ej2
= + j
, then
( ) = jC1 j cos(!t ;
z + 1 )e;z + j C2 j cos(!t +
z + 2 )ez : (24)
Ex z t
Note that one of the solutions in (24) is decaying with z while another solution
is growing with z. The function cos(!t
z + ) can be written as cos
(z
! t) + ]. Hence, it moves with a velocity
v
= !
:
(25)
Intrinsic Impedance
The intrinsic impedance can be easily derived also in the phasor world.
The phasor representation of Equation (3.23) is
d
~ = ;j !H~ y :
(26)
~ = ;j !E~x:
(27)
Ex
dz
Hy
If we now let E~x = E0e;z , H~ y = H0e;z , and using them in (26) yields
;z
E0 e
= ;j !H0e;z :
=H =
E0
j !
(28)
(29)
For a lossy medium, we replace by the complex permittivity and the intrinsic
impedance becomes
~=
j
!
j !
+ j ! :
(30)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
5. Transmission Lines
=
= GENERAL
STRIP LINE
COAXIAL
Another place where wave phenomenon is often encountered is on transmission lines. A transmission line consists of two parallel conductors of arbitrary cross-sections that can carry two opposite currents or two opposite
charges. A transmission line has capacitances between the two conductors,
and the conductors have inductances to them. We can characterize this capacitance by a line capacitance C which has the unit of farad m;1, and the
inductance by a line inductance L, which has the unit of henry m;1 . Hence
a transmission line can be approximated by a lumped element equivalent as
1
shown
LZ
LZ V+V LZ
I
CZ
I+I
CZ
V+2V
I+2I
CZ
I
Z
We can derive the voltage equation between nodes (1) and (2) to get
V
or
; (V + V ) = Lz @I
@t
(1)
V = ;Lz @I
:
@t
(2)
:
;I = C z @ (V +@tV ) ' C z @V
@t
(3)
In the limit when we let our discrete or lumped element model become very
small, or z ! 0, we have
@V
@I
=
;
L
(4)
@z
@t
and
@I
@z
= ;C @V
:
@t
(5)
The above are known as the telegrapher's equations. Wave equations can be
easily derived from the above
and
@ 2V
@z 2
; LC @@tV2 = 0
@ 2I
@z 2
; LC @@tI2 = 0:
(6)
(7)
Comparing with Equation (3.17), we deduce that the velocity of the current
and voltage waves on a transmission line is
1
v=p :
(8)
LC
(9)
;L @I
= f 0(z ; vt)
@t
or
I (z t) =
Hence,
V (z t)
I (z t)
(10)
1 f (z ; vt):
Lv
(11)
= Lv =
(12)
rL
C
rL
(13)
LZ
GZ
RZ
CZ
LZ
GZ
RZ
CZ
LZ
GZ
CZ
= ;j!LI~
(14)
dI~
= ;j!C V~ :
dz
(15)
Note that j!L is the series impedance per unit length of the lossless line
while j!C is the shunt admittance per unit length of the lossless line. In the
lossy line case, the series impedance per unit length becomes
Z = j!L + R
(16)
while the shunt admittance per unit length becomes
Y = j!C + G
(17)
where R and G are line resistance and line conductance respectively. The
telegraphers equations become
dV~
= ;Z I~
(18)
dz
dI~
= ;Y V~
dz
(19)
(20)
d2 I~
; ZY I~ = 0:
dz 2
(21)
j!L
j!C
) Z0 =
j!L + R
j!C + G
rZ
Y
d2 I~
;
2 I~ = 0
2
dz
(22)
(23)
(24)
The rst term corresponds to a decaying wave moving in the positive zdirection while the second term corresponds to a wave decaying and moving
in the negative z-direction. Hence, e;z corresponds to a positive going wave,
while e+z corresponds to a negative going wave.
If the transmission line is lossless, i.e., R = G = 0, then, the attenuation
constant = 0, and the propagation constant becomes = j . In this
case, there is no attenuation, and (26) becomes
V~ (z ) = V+ e;jz + V; e+jz
(28)
and (27) becomes
V (z t) = jV+ j cos(!t ; z + 1 ) + jV; j cos(!t + z + 2 ):
(29)
Z
rY
= Z1
(31)
= I+e;Z + I;eZ
(32)
V;
I;
(33)
where
V+ ;Z V; Z
e
;Z e
Z0
0
V+
I+
= Z0
= ;Z0 :
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
lossless
Z L LOAD
z=0
z = l
qL
where Z0 =
At z = 0,
and = !
LC
~ (z = 0)
V0 + V1
=
ZL =
Z0 :
~(z = 0)
V0 ; V1
I
We can solve for V1 in terms of V0 , i.e.
V
V1
; Z0 V :
= ZZL +
0
Z
(4)
; Z0
= ZZL +
Z
(5)
If we dene
v
(3)
(6)
In the above, v is the ratio of the negative going voltage amplitude to the
positive going voltage amplitude at z = 0, and it is known as the voltage
reection coecient.
1
I1
I0
V0
Z0
= ; VV1 = ;v :
(7)
;jz ;
V0
Z0
jz :
(8)
The voltage and current in (6) and (8) are not constants of position. We can
dene a generalized impedance at position z to be
;jz + v e+jz
~ (z)
V
e
(9)
Z (z ) =
=
Z0
;jz ; v e+jz :
~(z)
e
I
At z = ;l, this becomes
jl + v e;jl
e
Z (;l ) = Z0
(10)
jl ; e;jl :
e
v
With v dened by (5), we can substitute it into (10) to give after some
simplications,
ZL + j Z0 tan l
:
(11)
Z (;l ) = Z0
Z + j Z tan l
0
Shorted Terminations
If ZL is a short, or ZL = 0, then,
Z (;l ) = j Z0 tan l = j X:
(12)
x
inductive
2
3
2
5
2
capacitive
Open-Circuit Terminations
If ZL is an open circuit, ZL = 1, then
Z (;l ) = ;j Z0 cot l = j X:
2
(13)
inductive
3
2
5
2
capacitive
(14)
V+ z
+jz
(15)
(16)
(17)
Hence,
j ( )j = j 0 j j1 + ;( )j
V
(18)
dmin
+z
z=0
z
Re Axis
(z)
d1
1+
(z)
3
|V(z)|
Vmax
Vmin
d1
2
dmin
d1
z=0
where
Determining
= jv j ejv :
(27)
from j ( )j
V
(29)
However, we know that the rst minimum value of V (z) occurs when ;(z) is
purely negative, or the phase of ;(z) is ;. This occurs at z = ;dmin rst.
In other words,
;2dmin +
v = ;:
(30)
Since dmin can be obtained from the voltage standing wave pattern measurement, and that = 2=, we deduce that
4 d :
= ; +
(31)
v
min
Transmission Coecients
It is sometimes useful to dene a transmission coecient on a transmission line. The transmission coecient may be dened as the ratio of the
voltage on the load to the amplitude of the incident voltage. Since
V
(32)
(0) = V0(1 + v ):
(33)
(34)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
Given ;(z), we can solve for Zn(z) in (3), and given Zn(z), we can solve for
;(z) in (4). It turns out that the mapping of Zn(z) to ;(z) and the mapping
of ;(z) to Zn(z) are one-to-one. We shall next discuss a graphical method to
solve (3) and (4) rapidly using the Smith Chart.
Zn = Rn + jXn
Xn
Rn = .5 Rn = 1
Im
Xn = 1
Rn = 2
Rn = 0
Xn = 1
Rn = 1
Rn = .5
Rn = 2
Xn = 0
Rn = 0
0
0.5
Rn
Re
|| = 1
circle
Xn = 1
0.5
Xn = 1
plane
Zn plane
Zn
When Zn = 0 ; = ;1.
When Zn = 1, or Rn = 1 Xn = 0 ; = 0.
When Zn ! 1 in any direction, ; ! 1.
When Zn = jXn j;j = 1.
When Zn = j , or Rn = 0 Xn = 1 ; = j .
When Zn = ;j , or Rn = 0 Xn = ;1 ; = ;j .
If one works out the mapping from Zn-plane to ;-plane completely, one
nds that the Rn = 0 line on Zn-plane maps onto the unit-circle on the ;plane. Furthermore, the other Rn = constant lines map into circles as shown.
The Xn = constant lines map into arcs like the Xn 1 lines as shown. Hence,
if one puts grids on the ;-plane, one can read o the Rn and Xn associated
with the corresponding ; immediately, and, given the value of ;, one can
read o the values of Rn and Xn immediately.
The mappings (3) and (4) are known as bilinear transforms. A bilinear
transform always maps a circle onto a circle.
Zn ; 1
Zn + 1
1 ; Z1n 1 ; Yn
Yn ; 1
=
=
;
:
1 =
Yn + 1
1 + Zn 1 + Yn
(5)
(ii) The change of impedance along the line is obtained by adding or subtracting phase to ;(z) via the relationship
(iii)
;(z) = v e2jz :
(6)
(7)
since the Smith Chart is a graphical tool to solve Equation (7), and jv j
is real, corresponding to a number on the Xn = 0 line. Notice that
1 < VSWR < 1 always.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
20
Vs =
10 sin t
volts
Zs
B
ZL (30+j25)
z = l = 1 m
25 MHz
z=0
The voltage source sets up a forward going and a backward going wave
on the transmission lines. Hence,
V (z) = V0 e;jz + v V0 ejz :
(1)
The corresponding current is
(2)
I (z) = ZV0 e;jz ; v ZV0 ejz :
0
0
In impedance at position Z is
;jz + v ejz
1 + ;(z)
Z (z) = VI ((zz)) = Z0 ee;jz ;
=
Z
(3)
0
v ejz
1 ; ;(z)
where
;(z) = v e2jz v = ZZL +; ZZ0 :
(4)
l
We can use the Smith Chart to nd Z (;l). To use the Smith Chart, we have
to normalize all the impedances with respect to the characteristic impedance
of the line. Hence,
ZnL = ZZL = 30 +50j 25 = 0:6 + j 0:5:
(5)
0
We can locate ZnL on the Smith Chart which is the complex ; plane. ;(0)
or v can also be deduced from the Smith Chart. Since ;(z) is given by (4),
at z = ;l, we have
;(;l) = v e;2jl :
(6)
1
Zs
Vs = 10 sin t
Z(1) (107.5j15)
j2
j0.2
zL
o
120
0
0.2
0.5
(-l)
Z(-l)
j0.2
j0.5
j2
j1
(12)
(13)
Hence the amplitude of the real time voltage is proportional to jV (z)j which
is the voltage standing wave pattern.
|V(z)|
Vmax
Rnmax = 2.5
= VSWR
(z) for
voltage min.
z = dmin
Vmin
5/16
dmin
0
load
2.5
Re
toward
load
For example, we may be given that the VSWR = 2:5 on the line, Zo =
75, and dmin = 5=16, in order to nd ZL.
First, we note that jV (z)j / j1 + ;(z)j where ;(z) = v e2jz . Note that
Vmin occurs when ;(z) is purely negative. When z varies, ;(z) traces out a
constant circle on the Smith Chart, since j;(z)j = jv j is independent of z.
Since the j;(z)j circle must intersect the real ; axis at Rn = 2:5 since the
VSWR= 2:5, we can deduce that magnitude of j;(z)j = jv j. Since z = ;dmin
point corresponds to ;(z) as shown above, and the load is 5=16 from the
dmin point, we can gure out v 's location on the Smith Chart. We can read
o ZnL = 1:4 + j 1:1 on the Smith Chart. Hence ZL = (105 ; j 82:5).
3
j1
j0.5
j2
j0.2
Z=-dmin
0
0.2
0.5
R n=2.5=VSWR
5
16
j0.2
j0.5
j2
j1
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
Z T
1
hP (t)i = hV (t)I (t)i = Tlim
dtP (t)
!1 T 0
= jV~ jjI~j
hcos2 ( !t + V )i cos (I ; V )
; hcos ( !t + V ) sin ( !t + V )i sin (I ; V )]:
Since
we have
(6)
(7)
(8)
hP (t)i = 12 <e P~ ] :
(9)
The imaginary part of the complex power is proportional to the second term
in (5), and hence, the imaginary part of the complex power is proportional to
a part of the instantaneous power that averages to zero. Consequently, the
imaginary part of the complex power is called reactive power. For example,
a purely reactive device dissipates no power on the average, but instantaneous
power is being constantly absorbed and released by a reactive device. The
current and voltage through a reactive device is 90 out-of-phase, and the
complex power is purely imaginary or purely reactive.
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
which reduces to
2
or
wave is dumped into the load. Otherwise, part of the power is reected. The
power carried by the forward going wave is
2
hP+i = j2VZj
(16)
0
and the power carried by the backward going wave is
2
hP;i = j2VZj jv j2 :
(17)
0
Note that hP (z t)i is independent of z because of energy conservation.
hP i = hP+i ; hP;i
(18)
is everywhere the same on the lossless transmission line because the total
power leaving the source all arrive at the load end with no loss on the lossless
transmission line. The transmission line can only absorb reactive power.
Hence, the reactive power in (14) is not a constant of position.
VA
Z0
Zs
ZL
Vs
VA IA
Z(l)
Z(l)
z = l
z=0
The above is maximum when R(;l) = RS . Hence, maximum power is delivered to the load when
Z (;l) = ZS :
(22)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
ZT
Z in
ZL
/4
(2)
ZT2 = Z0 ZL ) ZT = Z0 Zl :
If Z0 and ZL are both real, then ZT is real, and we can use a lossless line
to perform the matching. If ZL is complex, it can be made real by adding a
section of line to it.
Z0
ZT
Zin
Z0
Z1
/4
1
ZL
Example
Given that ZL = (30 + j 40), Z0 = 50, nd the shortest l and ZT so that
the above circuit is matched. Assume that ZT is real and lossless.
We want Z1 to be real and Zin to be Z0 = 50 in order for ZT to be real
and the matching condition satised. We nd that ZnL = 0:6+ j 0:8. In order
to make Zn1 real, the shortest l from the Smith Chart is 8 . Then Zn1 = 3:0,
and Z1 = 150. Since Zin = 50, we need
j2
Z nL
l= 8
j0.2
0.2
0.5
Z n1
j0.2
j0.5
j2
j1
ZS
Y(d)
VSWR > 1 ZL
Zin
VS
Shorted
Stub
l, Z0
(3)
(4)
An open-circuited stub can also be used, and the impedance and admittance
are given by
Zop = ;jZ0 cot l
(5)
Yop = jY0 tan l:
(6)
j1
j0.5
j2
Y(-d)
j0.2
0.216
0.2
Z nL
0.5
Yshort
YnL
j0.2
0.99
j0.5
j2
j1
Example
3
Ystub
Let ZL = (100+ j 85), nd the minimum d and l that will reduce the VSWR
of the main line to 1. Assume that Z0 = 50.
We nd that the normalized load ZnL = 2 + 1:7j as shown on the Smith
Chart. Since this problem involves parallel connections, it is more convenient
to work with admittances. YnL = Z1nL is as shown. When we move toward
the generator, Yn(z) traces out a locus on the Smith Chart as shown. It
intersects the G = 1 circle as shown, after moving through 0:216. Therefore,
d = 0:216.
Now, Yn(;d) = 1 + j 1:4. Hence, Ynstub = ;j 1:4. From the Smith Chart,
we note that the admittance for a short is innity, and is at the right end of
the Smith Chart. To get a Ynstub = ;j 1:4, we move toward the generator for
0:099. Hence, l = 0:099.
Often time, it is not easy to change d, but quite easy to change l. We
note that both in the quarter wave transformer and the single stub tuner, we
have to change 2 parameters for tuning. We can provide these 2 degrees of
freedom by using two stubs, changing their length, but not their positions.
(c) Double Stub Tuning (optional reading)
Both single stub tuning and quarter wave transformer matching require
changing the location of the stub or the transformer. In practice, this is
dicult, and a double stub tuning removes the diculty.
3
Z0
Z0
A
Y1
B
Y2
1, Z 0
2, Z 0
Stub 1
Stub 2
ZL
Rotation by
C2
C1
Yn2
All possible values of Yn2 by
transforming from all possible
values of Yn1 by 3.
P
Yn1 = 1
Yn1 Ynstub1
C3
Q
(25:1)
VS
= 10 V
z=
z=0
. Find VSWR on the line, and if l is allowed to vary arbitrarily, nd the
maximum voltage on the line.
5
/2
Vs
Vmin
z=
dmin
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
L
C
. Also,
12
p
R
G
(3)
1 + j!L = j! LC 1 + j!L
q
p
From (3), we see that = R CL = ZR0 while = ! LC . Since is
1
is also frequency independent,
frequency independent, and the v = ! = pLC
the transmission line is a distortionless line because any pulse that propagates
on the line will not be distorted. This is because a pulse can be thought of
as a superposition of Fourier harmonics. Each Fourier harmonic is a time
harmonic signal. On a distortionless line, all the Fourier harmonics propagate
at the same velocity and su
er the same attenuation. Hence the pulse is not
distorted but only diminished in amplitude.
R
= j! LC 1 + j!L
12
where
;(z)
Z (z) = VI ((zz)) = Z0 11 +
; ;(z)
(4)
;(z) = v e2z :
(5)
x ZnL
V(z) , VSWR
V(z)
VSWR
which is equal to
2
P (z) = jVZ0?j e;2 z 1 ; j;(z)j2 + 2j =m;(z) :
0
(14)
(15)
We see that both the real part and the imaginary part of the complex power
are functions of position. This is because real power is dissipated as the wave
propagates. Hence, the real power at one point is not equal to the real power
at another point.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
(z t) = f (z ; vt):
(1)
(3)
(4)
Hence, in general, if
(z t) = V+(z t) + V;(z t)
I (z t) = Y0 V+ (z t) ; V; (z t)
(5)
(6)
where Y0 = Z10 , and the subscript + indicates a positive going wave, while
the subscript ; indicates a negative going wave.
z=0
z=L
(z = 0 t) = V0 U (t):
(7)
V(z, t)
V+
V0
z=0
z = vt
z=L
I(z, t)
V0 Y0
I+
v
z=0
z = vt
z=L
When the wave reaches the right end termination, the voltage and the
current wave fronts will be reected. However, the short at z = L requires
that V (z = L t) = 0 always. Hence the reected voltage wave, which is
negative going, has an amplitude of ;V0 . The corresponding current can be
derived from (4) and is as shown.
2
V+(z, t)
V+
t>L
v
V0
z=0
z=L
z
t>L
v
V(z, t)
V0
V
V(z, t) = V+ + V
L
t> v
V0
z=L
I+(z, t)
I+
Y0 V0
z=L
z=0
I
I(z, t)
Y0 V0
z=L
I(z, t)
2Y0 V0
Y0 V0
z=0
z=L
When the signal reaches the source end, it is being reected again. A
voltage source looks like a short circuit because the reected voltage must
cancel the incident voltage in order for the voltage across the voltage source
remains unchanged. Hence the negative going voltage and current are again
reected like a short. Hence, if one is to measure the voltage at z = 0, it will
always be V0 . However, the current at z = 0 will increase indenitely with
time as shown.
I(z = 0, t)
7 Y0 V0
5 Y0 V 0
3 Y 0 V0
3 Y 0 V0
Y0 V0
0
t = 2L/v
t = 4L/v
t = 6L/v
The current will eventually become innitely large because the transmission line will become like a short circuit to the D.C. voltage source. Therefore,
the current becomes innite.
(b) Open-Circuited Termination
If we have an open-circuited termination at z = L, then the current has
to be zero always. In this case, the reected current is negative that of the
incident current such that I (z = L t) = 0 always. For example, if the source
waveform looks like as shown below, the reected waveform will behave as
shown.
VS(t)
V0
t1
0
V(z, t)
t < L/v
V+
V0
z
z=0
I(z, t)
V0 Y0
z=0
z = v(tt1)
z = vt
z=L
I+
z = v(tt1)
t < L/v
z = vt
z=L
I(z, t)
I+
t > L/v
Y0 V0
z
z=L
0
I
V(z, t)
t > L/v
2 V0
V0
V+
I
z
; Z0 = RL ; Z0 :
= ZZL +
Z
R + Z
L
(8)
Hence, the reection coecient is frequency independent. All frequency components in a transient signal will experience the same reection. Hence, v is
also the reection coecient for a voltage pulse.
R
Z0 , v
+
V0
Z in
z=0
z=L
Consider, for example, a transmission line being driven via a source resistance R and a load termination R. If R = 12 Z0, let us see what happens
when we turn on the switch.
For t < VL , the transmission line appears to be innitely long to the
source. Hence, Zin looks like Z0 to the source. Hence, VA = Z0Z+0 R V0 = 23 V0
for R = 21 Z0. Hence, we have a wavefront of 23 V0 propagating to the right for
L
t <
V.
6
V(z, t)
V+
2 V0/3
4 V0/9
z
z=L
V = 2 V0/9
8 Y0 V0/9
0
2 V0/9
I(z, t)
2 Y0 V0/3
I+
0
I = 2 V0 Y0/9
z=L
V(z, t)
V+
4 V0
9
2 V0 /3
0
2 V0 /9
z=L
V =
I(z, t)
2 Y0 V0 /3
2 V0
8 Y0 V0 /9
9
I+
I = 2 V0 Y0 /9 z = L
For t > 2 VL , a voltage source looks like a short to the transient signal. The
reection from the left is again ; 31 for the voltage and + 13 for the current.
7
14 V0
27
V(z, t)
2 V0 /3
2
V1+ = 3 V0
V2+ = 2 V0/27
z
V = 2 V0 /9
I(z, t)
4 V0
9
26 Y V0
27 0
z=L
8YV
9 0 0
I 1+ = 2 Y0 V0 /3
z
z
=
L
I = 2 Y0 V0 /9
0
I 2+ = 2 Y0 V0 /27
When t ! 1, the voltage and current on the line will settle down to a
steady state. In that case, we have only DC signal on the line, and we need
only to use DC circuit analysis to nd the steady state solution. At DC, the
transmission line becomes rst two pieces of wires, VA = VB = 2RR V0 = 12 V0 .
The current through the circuit is ZV00 . If one is to measure VA as a function
of time, it will look like
VA(t)
2 V0/3
2 V0
3
14 V0/27
V0/2
t
2L/v
4L/v
6L/v
IA(t)
V0 Y0
2 V Y
3 0 0
26 V0 Y0/27
t
0
2L/v
4L/v
6L/v
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
E = Es H = Hs
(1)
where we have used the subscript s to denote elds transverse to the direction
of propagation. We can also dene a del operation such that
r = rs + ^
z
@
@z
(2)
rs Hs = 0
(^ Hs) = Es
(5)
(6)
@z
@t
rs Es = 0
(^ Es) = ; Hs
@z
@t
(7)
(8)
Equations (5) and (7) shows that the transverse curl of the elds are zero.
This implies that the elds in the transverse directions of a transmission
line resembles that of the electrostatic elds. Furthermore, Equations (6)
and (8) couple the Es and Hs elds together. These two equations are the
electromagnetic eld analogues of the telegrapher's equations.
1
H
Contour
C
I
a
b
or
Hs = J =
dl
ds
2
(9)
I
= I:
(10)
dH
Hence,
( ):
(11)
2
If we assume that the inner conductor in theH coaxial line is charged up with
the line charge Q in coulomb=m, then from E n^ ds = Q, we have
( z t) =
I z t
2E = Q
or
=
(12)
2 :
R
Since the potential between a and b is ab E d, we have
E
Hence,
Q
V
d =
2 ln
Q
b
(z t) = Q(z t) :
b
2
ln( )
a
is the capacitance per unit length, and it is
E
The ratio
( z t) =
= 2b :
ln( a )
2
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
= ; @@Et
= ;
:
@H
@t
(17)
(18)
(19)
b
ln( ) @ I
a
(
z t) = ;
(20)
@z
2 @ t :
This is just the telegrapher's equations derived from Maxwell's equations.
C is given by (16) while the inductance per unit length L is obtained by
comparing (20) with the telegrapher's equations
@
ln( b )
= 2a :
Note that the velocity of the wave on a transmission line is
1 = 1
v = p
L
LC
(21)
(22)
which is independent of the dimensions of the line. This is because all TEM
waves have velocity given by p1 .
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
(1)
r H = j!E + E = j!E
(2)
= ;j
!
(3)
r E = ;j!H
(4)
r2 E = ;!2E
(5)
2
2
(6)
r H = ;! H:
Refer to x 4 for details]. If we assume that E = x^Ex(z), then, we can show
that
where
d2
Ex(z ) ; 2 Ex(z ) = 0
2
dz
(7)
= j! = + j
:
(7a)
(8)
Ex(z ) = c1 e;z :
(9)
We can convert the above into a real time quantity using phasor techniques,
or
Ex(z t) = jc1 j <ee;z;jz+j1+j!t ]
= jc1j e;z cos(!t ;
z + 1 )
1
(10)
where we have assumed that c1 = jc1 j ej1 . Hence, we see that Ex(z t) is
a wave that propagates to the right with velocity v = ! and attenuation
constant . We can nd from equation (7a), and
r
r
= + j
= j! ; j
=
j! 1 ; j
:
!
!
(11)
The rst term on the RHS of (1) is the displacement current term, while the
second term is the conduction current term. From (2), we see that the ratio
! is the ratio of the conduction current to the displacement current in a lossy
medium. ! is also known as the loss tangent of a lossy medium.
(i) When ! 1, the loss tangent is small, and the conduction current compared to the displacement current is small. The medium behaves more
like a dielectric medium. In this case, we can use binomial expansions to
approximate (11) to obtain
p
1
= j! 1 ; j
= 1
2 !
where
p
+
j!
1
= !p:
=
2
(12)
(13)
(ii) When ! 1, the loss tangent is large because there is more conduction current than displacement current in the medium. In this case, the
medium is conductive. According to equation (11), when ! 1, we
have
r
= j! ;j
!
r
p
= j! = (1 + j ) ! :
Hence
=
=
1:
=
2
!
(14)
(15)
If we substitute =
= 1 into (10), we have
Ex (z t) = jc1 j e
;z
cos
z
!t ;
+ 1 :
(16)
Ex(z,t), t=0.,0.5,1.0,1.5,2.0,2.5
1
0.8
0.6
1.5
0.4
2.
Ex(z,t)
0.2
2.5
1.
.5
t=0.
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
z
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
or
2 ;
2 = ;! 2
2
= !:
)
!
(18)
(19a)
(19b)
(20)
(21)
(22a)
1 (!p!22 + 2 + !2)
2
Notice that when = 0, = 0.
2 =
(22b)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
15. Group and Phase Velocities.
If we have two waves that are slightly dierent in frequency ! and phase
constant , a linear superposition of them is still a solution of the wave
equation
Ex = E0 cos(!1t ; 1 z) + E0 cos(!2t ; 2 z):
(1)
If !1 = ! ; !, 1 = ; , !2 = ! + !, 2 = + , then
Ex = E0 cos
!t ; z ; (!t ; z)] + E0 cos
!t ; z + (!t ; z)]: (2)
Using the fact that cos(A ; B ) + cos(A + B ) = 2 cos A cos B , we have
Ex = 2E0 cos(!t ; z) cos(!t ; z)
(3)
or
!
!
Ex(z t) = 2E0 cos t ; z cos t ; z :
(4)
At t = 0, we have Ex = 2E0 cos z cos z which is sketched below.
Ex(z,t), t=1., omega=0.5, beta=0.4, domega=0.01, dbeta=0.02
2
1.5
Ex(z,t)
0.5
0.5
1.5
2
0
50
100
150
z
200
250
300
The rst factor in (4) is rapidly varying while the second factor is slowly
varying. The slowly varying term amplitude-modulates the rapidly varying
term giving rise to the picture as shown.
We have learnt that a function of the form f (vt ; z) propagates in the
positive z-direction with velocity v. From (10.5), we see that the rapidly
1
varying term propagates with velocity ! . Since this represents the propagation of the phases in the rapidly oscillating part in the gure, this is also
known as phase velocity,
vp = ! :
(5)
The slowly varying part propagates with the velocity ! , which is d!
d in the
limit that ! and ! 0. This represents the velocity on the envelope in
the picture and hence, it is known as the group velocity,
;1 d :
vg = d!
or
v
g =
d
d!
(6)
If = !p, the phase velocity vp = ! = p1 , the group velocity from (6)
is also p1 . Hence, the group and the phase velocities are the same is is a
linear function of !.
If is not a linear function of !, then, the phase velocity and the group
velocities are functions of frequencies, and the medium is known to be dispersive. In a dispersive medium, a pulse propagates with subsequent distortions
because the dierent harmonics in the pulse propagate with dierent phase
velocity. pExample of a dispersive medium is a conductive medium where
= 1 = !
2 , is not a linear function of ! .
In a distortionless line, the phase velocity is made to be frequency independent so that a pulse propagates without distortions.
Furthermore, a phase velocity can be larger than the velocity of light
while the group velocity is always less than the speed of light. This is because
energy propagates with the group velocity so that special relativity is not
violated.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
r (E H) = ;H @@tB ; E @@tD ; E J
= ;H @ H ; E @ E ; E J:
@t
1 @ jHj2 = H @ H :
2 @t
@t
@t
(2)
(3)
1
@
1
2
2
r (E H) = ; @t 2 jHj + 2 jEj ; E J:
(4)
We can dene
S = E H Poynting vector (Power Flow Density watt m;2) (5)
(6)
UH = 21 jHj2 Magnetic Energy Density (joule m;3)
UE = 21 jEj2 Electric Energy Density(joule m;3)
(7)
E J = Energy Dissipation Density(watt m;3):
(8)
UH and UE represent the energy stored in the magnetic eld and electric eld
respectively. Alternatively, (4) becomes
r S = ; @t@ (UH + UE ) ; E J:
(9)
S
A
The equation says that the LHS will be positive only if there is a net
outow of the ux due to the vector eld S. If there is no current inside V so
that E J = 0, then this is only possible if the stored energy UH + UE inside
V decreases with time.
2
If J = E, then the last term
H is ; jEj dV is always negative. Hence,
the last term tends to make S S n^ dA negative, because energy dissipation
has to be compensated by power ux owing into V . The Poynting theorems
(9) and (10) are statements of energy conservation. For example, for a plane
wave,
r
(11)
E = x^f (z ; vt) H = y^ f (z ; vt)
then
Also,
Therefore,
r
S = E H = z^ f 2(z ; vt):
(12)
(13)
(14)
Hence, the velocity times the total energy density stored equals the power
density ow in a plane wave.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
S = E H:
(1)
r H = J + j!E
r E = ;j!H:
(2)
(3)
r (E H) = H r E ; E r H :
(4)
r (E H ) = ;j!H H + j!E E ; E J
= ;j! jHj2 ; jEj2 ] ; E J:
(5)
Comparing with (16.4), (5) involves the dierence of the stored energy terms
rather than the sum.
We have shown that for two quantities,
A(z t) = <eA(z)ej!t ]
B(z t) = <eB(z)ej!t ]:
The time average of A(z t)B (z t), denoted by hA B i is given by
Therefore,
(6)
(7)
hA B i = 21 <eA(z)B(z)]:
(8)
(9)
The imaginary part of S corresponds to instantaneous power that time averages to zero. It is also known as the reactive power. We can also convert (5)
into integral from using the divergence theorem,
I
jEj2 dV
(10)
where we have assumed that J = E. If , , and are all real, then
I
and
(11)
(12)
We see that the real part of the power corresponds to power dissipated in
V while the imaginary part of the power corresponds to dierence in the
magnetic energy stored and the electric energy stored. Hence, if a system
has equal amount of magnetic and electric energy stored, it does not consume
any reactive power.
I2
I1
Vg
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
18. Wave Polarization.
We learnt that
(1)
(2)
is also a solution to the wave equation. Solutions (1) and (2) are known as
linearly polarized waves, because the electric
eld or the magnetic
eld are
polarized in only one direction. However, a linear superposition of (1) and
(2) are still a solution to Maxwell's equation
E = x^Ex(z t) + y^Ey (z t):
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
When = 90,
If we continue further, we can sketch out the tip of the vector
eld E. It
traces out an ellipse as shown when E1 6= E2. Such a wave is known as an
elliptically polarized wave.
1
y
t=225
t=270
t=315
E2
E1
t=0
E1
t=180
t=135
E2 t=90
t=45
When E1 = E2, the ellipse becomes a circle, and the wave is known as
a circularly polarized wave. When is ;90 , the vector E rotates in the
counter-clockwise direction.
A wave is classi
ed as left hand elliptically (circularly) polarized when
the wave is approaching the viewer. A counterclockwise rotation is classi
ed
as right hand elliptically (circularly) polarized.
When 6= 90 , the tip of the vector E traces out a tilted ellipse. We
can show this by expanding Ey in (5).
(11)
where
(12)
1 b = 2 cos c = 1 :
a = E 2 sin
2
E1E2 sin2
E22 sin2
1
(13)
(14)
(x, y)
(x, y)
y
B
x + y0 2 = 1
A
B
(15)
x0 = x cos ; y sin
y0 = x sin + y cos
(16)
(17)
we have
2
2
2
2
sin
1
1
cos
2 cos
2 sin
x A2 + B 2 ; xy sin 2 A2 ; B 2 + y A2 + B 2 = 1:
(18)
Equating (14) and (18), we can deduce that
E1 E2
= 21 tan;1 2 cos
2
E2 ; E12
where
+
AR = 11 ;
12
(19)
(20)
1
2
2 2
2
2 sin
= 1 ; 4EE1 E
:
(21)
2
2
1 + E2
AR is the axial ratio which is the ratio of the two axes of the ellipse. It is
de
ned to be larger than one always.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
19. Representation of a Plane Wave.
0
z
(8)
r
a^ = 0:
(9)
;
j
r
To explore further how the function e
look like, we assume to be
pointing in a direction as shown in the gure. The value of r is constant
on a plane that is orthogonal to .
r
r
A
Constant phase
planes
That is
is
(11)
where x + z = . The corresponding magnetic eld can be derived using
Maxwell's equations.
r E = ;j!H:
(12)
Hence,
@
;1
@
H=
j! z^@x Ey ; x^ @z Ey
2
E0 e;jxx;jz z :
= (^z x ; x^z ) !
2
(13)
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
E = ^ x( ) = ^
H = ^ y( ) = ^
;j0 z
xE
xE0 e
yH
y H0 e
;j0 z
(1)
= y^ E 0 e;j0z
0
Region 1
1, 1
Region 0
0, 0
When the simple plane wave is normally incident on a
at material interface, we expect to have a re
ected wave in Region 0, and a transmitted wave
in Region 1.
In Region 0, we can write the total elds as
E0 = ^
H0 = ^
y
;j0z + E ;e+j0 z
E0 e
E0
0
;j0z ;
e
E0 = ^
E0
0
;j1 z
xE1 e
+j0 z
:
(3)
(4)
H0 = ^ 1 ;j z
(5)
1
p . There are two unknowns in the
1 and 1 =
1 1
;
+
+
x
(2)
E
where 1 = 1=
!
above expressions, E0 and H0 . E0 is known because it is the amplitude
1
if the incident eld. We can set up two equations to nd two unknowns by
matching boundary conditions at z = 0. The requisite boundary conditions
are that the tangential components of the E eld and H eld should be
continuous.
By imposing tangential E continuous, we arrive at
+
E0
+ E0; = E1+
(6)
E0
0
E0
0
E1
1
(7)
Solving these two equations expresses E0; and E1+ in terms of E0+:
;=
1
0
+ 0
21 E +:
;
E1 =
0
1 + 0
We dene the re
ection coecient to be
E0
1
E0
; 0
; = 1 +
1
(8)
(9)
(10)
= 2+1
1
(11)
Notice that 1 + ; = T .
When there is a mismatch at the interface, we expect most of the wave
to be re
ected. This occurs when 1 0 . In this case, ; ' ;1, and T ' 0.
It also occurs when 1 0 , for which case, ; ' +1, T ' 2.
The above derivation also holds true when Region 1 is a conductive lossy
region. In this case, we replace 1 with a comlex permittivity ~1 which is
given by
~1 = 1 ; j !1 :
(12)
p
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
Date:November 7, 1997
Er
medium 1
Hi
i
1 , 1
2 , 2
medium 2
z
t
Ht
Et
Similarly,
;j!1
!1
ix
iz
!1
?E0 e;j r
Hr = (^z rx + x^rz ) !
(14)
(15)
ix
q
i i
0 0
tx
n1 sin i = n2 sin t
(19b)
which is the well known Snell's Law. Consequently, equation (16) becomes
1 + ? = ?:
(20)
2
E0 + ?E0 = ; ?E0 :
;iz !
rz
tz
!
!
1
(21)
(22)
iz
; 1tz
? = 2iz +
1tz
2 iz
2
? = +2 iz :
2 iz
1 tz
(23)
(24)
2 cos
i +
1 cos t
2
2
? =
cos 2 +cos
icos :
2
(25)
(26)
2 cos i ;
1 1 ; 12 sin i
q
? =
:
(27)
2 cos i +
1 1 ; 12 sin2 i
If 12 sin i > 1, which is possible if 12 > 1, when i < 2 , then ? is of the
form
; jB
(28)
? = AA +
jB
which always has a magnitude of 1. In this case, all energy will be re
ected.
This isqknown as a total internal reection. This occurs when i > c
where 12 sin c = 1. or
= sin;1
r
2
1 2 < 1 :
(29)
When i = c, t = 90 from (19). The gure below denotes the phenomenon.
less than
critical angle
larger than
critical angle
at critical angle
x
t
less than critical angle
p
1
2
tz = ! 0 2 1 ; sin i :
1
2
(30)
tz = ;j tz
(31)
Et = y^?E0e;j x; z :
x
(32)
tz
tz
(33)
j2 jE0j2 e;2 z :
S = Et Ht = (^xx + z^j
tz ) j?!
(34)
tz
We note that S x is pure real implying the presence of net time average power
Hr
i
r
Er
medium 1
1 , 1
i
as
2 , 2
medium 2
Et
Ht
The magnetic eld is polarized in the y direction, and they can be written
Hi = y^ E
0 e;j r
i
Hr = ;y^k E
0 e;j r
r
Ht = y^k E
0 e;j r:
t
(35)
(36)
(37)
In this case, the electric eld has to be orthogonal to and y^, and they
can be derived using
Hi
Ei = ; i!
to be
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
iz
1 ; k =
k:
(42)
and
; 2 iz =
2 cos t ;
1 cos i
k = 1 tz +
1 tz
2 cos t +
1 cos i
2 iz
(43)
k = 2+2 iz
2 =
cos2
2 +cos
icos :
2 iz
1 tz 1
2
t
1
i
(44)
22 cos2 t =
12 cos2 i:
(45)
Using Snell's Law, or (19), cos2 t = 1 ; sin2 i, and (45) becomes
1 ; 11 sin2 i = 12 cos2 i:
(46)
2 2
2 1
1 1
2 2
1 ; 21 12
1 1
2 2
! 12
;
1 2
2 1
(47)
r
sin i = +2 :
2
1
6
(48)
(50)
implying that
(51)
ib + tb = 2 :
On the contrary,? can never be zero for = 0 or non-magnetic materials.
Hence, a plot of k as a function of i goes through a zero while the plot of
j?j is always larger than zero for non-magnetic materials.
, or
1 < 2
90
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
x
y
z
x=0
x=b
(1)
(2)
I. TM Case, H = y^Hy .
In this case,
@2 @2
2
@x2 + @z2 + ! Hy = 0:
1
(3)
If we assume that
Hy = A(x)e;jzz
(4)
substituting (4) into (3), we have
d2
2
2
(5)
dx2 + ! z A(x) = 0:
Letting x2 = !2 z2 , (5) becomes
d2
2
(6)
dx2 + x A(x) = 0
where the independent solutions are
cos x
(7)
A(x) = sin xx :
x
Hence, Hy is of the form
cos x
Hy = H0 sin xx e;jz z
(8)
x
where
x2 + z2 = !2 = 2
(9)
which are the dispersion relation for plane waves. We can also dene
x = cos , z = sin so that (9) is automatically satised.
;
cos x
z
Ex = ! H0 sin xx e;jz z
x
and
@H @H
j!Ez = @x
y
@y x
(where @y@ Hx = 0 in the above equation) or
sin x
x
Ez = j! H0 cos x x e;jz z :
x
;
(11)
(12)
(13)
m 2 21
2
z = !
b
;
(21)
which is the dispersion relation for the parallel plate waveguide. Equation
(18) can be written as
(22)
Hy = H20 ejxx + e;jxx]e;jz z = H20 ejxx;jzz + e;jxx;jzz ]:
The rst term in the above represents a plane wave propagating in the positive
z^-direction and the negative x^-direction, while the second term corresponds
to a wave propagating in the positive x and z directions. Hence, the eld in
between a parallel plate waveguide consists of a plane wave bouncing back
and forth between the two plates, as shown.
= ^x x+ ^z z
= x^ x + ^z z
Since we dene x = cos , z = sin , the wave propagates in a direction making an angle with the x^-direction. Since the guidance condition
requires that x = mb = cos , the plane wave can be guided only for
discrete values of .
From (21), we note p
that for dierent m's, z will assume dierent values.
When m = 0, z = ! , Ez = 0, and we have a TEM mode. When
m > 0, we have a TM mode of order m we call it a TMm mode. Hence,
there are innitely many solutions to Maxwell's equations between a parallel
plate waveguide with the eld given by (18), (19), (20), and the dispersion
relation given by (21) where m = 0 1 2 3 : : : .
When < mc, the corresponding TMm mode will be guided. You can think
of as some kind of the \size" of the wave, and that only when the \size" of
the wave is less than mc can a wave \enter" the waveguide. Notice that mc
is proportional to the physical size of the waveguide.
The eld for the TE case can be derived similarly to the TM case. The
electric eld is polarized in the y^-direction, and satises
@2 @2
2
(26)
@x2 + @z2 + ! Ey = 0:
The elds can be shown in a similar fashion to be
Ey = E0 sin(xx)e;jzz
(27)
z E sin( x)e;jzz
Hx = ; !
(28)
0
x
x E cos( x)e;jzz :
Hz = ; j!
(29)
0
x
The boundary conditions are
Ey (x = 0) = 0 Ey (x = b) = 0:
(30)
This gives
x = m
(31)
b
as before, where x2 + z2 = !2. Hence, the TEm modes have the same
dispersion relation and cut-o frequency as the TMm mode. However, when
m = 0, x = 0, and (27){(29) imply that we have zero eld. Therefore, TE0
mode does not exist. We say that TEm and TMm modes are degenerate
when they have the same cuto frequencies.
We can decompose (27) into plane waves, i.e.,
(32)
Ey = E2j0 ejxx;jzz ; e;jxx;jz z ]
and interpret the above as bouncing waves. Compared to (22), we see that
the two bouncing waves in (32) are of the opposite signs whereas that in (22)
are of the same sign. This is because the electric eld has to vanish on the
plates while the magnetic eld need not.
H-field
E-field
H-field
z
E-field
The sketch of the elds for TM1 and TE1 modes are as shown above.
For the TM mode, Hz = 0, and Ez 6= 0, while for the TE mode, Ez = 0,
and Hz 6= 0. Tangential electric eld is zero on the plates while tangential
magnetic eld is not zero on the plates. The above is the instantaneous eld
plots. E H is in the direction of propagation of the waves.
; m
2i 12
d ;1 !2 b
d!
vg = d = d!z =
!
z
which is always less than the speed of light.
;
1;
f 2 12
mc
=
z
2c
vg =
vp = / z
d
d z
z
0c
=C
(34)
i1
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
I. Rectangular Waveguides
Rectangular waveguides are a special case of cylindrical waveguides with
uniform rectangular cross section. Hence, we can divide the waves inside the
waveguide into TM and TE types.
y
b
0
2
TM Case, Hz = 0 Ez 6= 0
Inside the waveguide, we have a source free region, therefore
r2 + !2]E = 0
(12)
r2 + !2]Ez = 0:
Equation (13) admits solutions of the form
(13)
or
sin x sin y
Ez = E0 cos xx cos y y e;jz z
y
x
since
@ 2 sin x x = 2 sin xx
x cos x
@x2 cos x x
x
@ 2 sin y y = ; 2 sin y y @ 2 e;jz z = ; 2 ejz z :
y cos y
z
@y2 cos y y
@z2
y
Therefore
(r2 + !2)Ez = (;x2 ; y2 ; z2 + !2)Ez = 0:
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
Ez (y = 0) = 0:
(19)
(20)
Ez (x = a) = 0
Ez (y = b) = 0:
(21)
xa = m m = 0 1 2 : : :
y b = n n = 0 1 2 3 : : : :
(22)
(23)
which are the guidance conditions. To get the transverse E and H elds,
we use (10) and (11)
@ @ E = ;jxz E cos( x) sin( y)e;jzz
Ex = !21; 2 @z
x
y
@x z x2 + y2 0
z
(24)
1
@
@
;
j
Ey = !2 ; 2 @z @y Ez = 2 +xz2 E0 sin(xx) cos(y y)e;jzz
z
x
y
(25)
@ E = j!y E sin( x) cos( y)e;jzz
Hx = !2j!; 2 @y
(26)
z
x
y
2 + 2 0
z
(27)
We note that the electric elds satisfy their boundary conditions. From the
dispersion relation (18), we have
r
2 n 2
z = !2 ; m
a ; b :
(28)
m 2 n 2 12 2 n 2 12
1
!mnc = p a + b
= v m
:
a + b
(31)
mnc = 2 a + b
:
(31a)
Only when the wavelength
is smaller than this \size" can the wave \enter"
the waveguide and be guided as the TMmn mode.
4
To nd the power owing in the waveguide, we use the Poynting theorem.
Sz = ExHy ; Ey Hx
(33)
2
!y2 z
!
z
2
x
2
2
= ( 2 + 2 )2 jE0j cos (xx) sin (y y) + ( 2 + 2 )2 jE0j2 sin2 (xx) cos2(y y)
x
y
x
y
z
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
= ( 2!
j
E
(34)
0 j x cos (x x) sin (y y ) + y sin (x x) cos (y y )]:
2
2
x + y )
The total power
Zb Za
2
!z ab jE0j2 :
z ab jE0 j 2
2
(
+
)
=
(35)
Pz = dy dxSz = !
4(x2 + y2 )2 x y
4(x2 + y2 )
0
0
When f < fmnc, z is purely imaginary and the power becomes purely reactive. No real power or time average power ows down a waveguide when all
the modes are cuto.
TE Case, Ez = 0 Hz 6= 0.
In this case,
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
where x2 + y2 + z2 = 2 = !2. Matching boundary conditions for the
tangential electric eld requires that
n n = 0 1 2 3 : : : :
x = m
m
=
0
1
2
3
:
:
:
(41)
y=
a
b
Unlike the TM case, the TE case can have either m or n equal to zero.
Hence, TEm0 or TE0n modes exist. However, when both m and n are zero,
Hz = H0e;jz z , Hx = Hy = 0, and r H 6= 0, therefore, TE00 mode cannot
exist.
For the TEmn modes, the subscript m is associated with the longer side
of the rectangular waveguide, while n is associated with the shorter side. In
5
2 n 2
z = !2 ; m
(42)
a ; b :
Hence, the TEmn mode and the TMmn mode have the same cuto frequency
and they are degenerate.
2 2 12
1
n
:
!mnc = p m
+
a
b
(43)
Usually, a is assumed to be larger than b so that TE10 mode has the lowest
cuto frequency, which is given by
f10c = 2va or
10c = 2a
(44)
where v = p1 , and f10c = !210c . The next higher cuto frequency is either
f20c or f01c depending on the ratio of a to b.
f20c = va f01c = 2vb :
(45)
If a > 2b, f20c < f01c, and if a < 2b, f20c > f01c. f20c = f01c if a = 2b. When
a = 2b, and we want a waveguide to carry only the TE10 mode between 10
GHz and 20 GHz. Therefore, we want f10c = 10 GHz, and f20c = f01c =
20GHz. If the waveguide is lled with air, then v = 3 108 ms , and we deduce
that
a = 2fv = 1:5cm b = 2fv = 0:75:
(46)
10c
01c
In such a rectangular waveguide, only the TE10 will propagate above 10 GHz
and below 20 GHz. The other modes are all cuto. Note that no mode could
propagate below 10 GHz.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
23. Cavity Resonator.
y
b
d
that p can be zero while Ez 6= 0. Hence, the TMmn0 cavity mode can exist.
In order for (4), (5), and (6) to be solutions to the wave equation, we require
that
m 2 n 2 p 2
2
2
2
2
! = x + y + z = a + b + d :
(8)
For a given choice of m, n, and p, only a single frequency can satisfy (8).
This frequency is the resonant frequency of the cavity. It is only at this
frequency that the cavity can sustain a free oscillation. At other frequencies,
the elds interfere destructively and the free oscillation is not sustained. From
(8), we gather that the resonant frequency for the TMmnp mode is
1
2 n 2 p 2 2
!mnp = p1 m
:
a + b + d
For the TE case, similar derivation shows that
Hz = H0 cos(xx) cos(y y) sin(z z)
y
H cos(xx) sin(y y) sin(z z)
Ex = j!
2 + 2 0
x
(9)
(10)
(11)
x
H sin(xx) cos(y y) sin(z z):
Ey = ; j!
2 + 2 0
x
y
Similarly, the boundary conditions require that
n = p :
x = m
y=
a
b z d
(12)
(13)
1
2 2 2
!110 = p1 a + b
(14)
and Ez 6= 0, Hx 6= 0, Hy 6= 0, Ex = Ey = 0. A sketch of the eld is as shown.
y
b
H-field
E-field
TM110
mode
z
We can decompose the wave into plane waves bouncing o the four walls
of the cavity.
2
y
b
(15)
p
(16)
f110 = 43 1010 5Hz = 1:68 1010 Hz = 16:8GHz:
Cavity resonators are useful as lters and tuners in microwave circuits, as LC
resonators are in RF circuits. Cavity resonators can also be used to measure
the frequency of an electromagnetic signal.
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
d/2
1, 1
2, 2
d/2
region 0
z
region 1
region 2
Since total internal reection occurs for both TE and TM waves, guidance
is possible for both types of waves
I. TE Case E = y^Ey
Ey is a solution to the wave equation in each region. In region 0, we
assume a solution of the form
E0y = E0e;j0xx;jz z
(1)
where
02x + z2 = !200 = 02 :
(1a)
In region 1, we assume a solution of the form
E1y =
A1e;j1xx + B1ej1xx]e;jz z
(2)
where
12x + z2 = !211 = 12 :
(2a)
In region 2, the solution is of the form
E2y = E2ej2xx;jzz
(3)
where
22x + z2 = !222 = 22 :
(3a)
1
We assume that all the solutions in the three regions to have the same zvariation of e;jz z by the phase matching condition.
In region 1, we have an up-going wave as well as a down-going wave. The
two waves have to be related by the reection coecient ? for the electric
eld at the boundaries. ? is derived earlier in the course. Therefore at
x = d2 , we have
(4)
B1ej1x d2 = 10?A1e;j1x d2
where 10? is the reection coecient at the regions 1 and 0 interface. At
x = ; d2 , we have
(5)
A1 ej1x d2 = 12?B1e;j1x d2
where 12? is the reection coecient at the regions 1 and 2 interface. Multiplying equations (4) and (5) together, we have,
A1B1ej1xd = 12?10?A1B1e;j1xd:
(6)
A1 and B1 are non-zero only if
1 = 12?10?e;2j1xd :
(7)
The above is known as the guidance condition of a dielectric slab waveguide. If medium 3 is equal to medium 1, then 12? = 10?, and the guidance
condition becomes
1 = 210?e;2j1xd:
(8)
From before, for a wave incident at an angle ,
cos ; 1 cos 00 :
10? = 0 cos
(9)
+ 1 cos 00
0
Since 1x = 1 cos , 0x = 0 cos 00 , (9) could be written as
0
1
; 10x :
1 1x ; 0 0x
10? = 0 + 1 = 0 1x +
(10)
10x
0 1x
1 1x 0 0x
Taking the square root of (8), we have
10?e;j1xd = 1:
When we choose the plus sign, B1 = A1 from (4), and from (2)
E1y = 2A1 cos(1xx)e;jz z ) even in x:
When we choose the minus sign in (11) we have B1 = ;A1, and
E1y = ;2jA1 sin(1xx)e;jz z ) odd in x:
2
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
TE0
/2
ev
y2
odd
y1
od
d
y3
y2
en
y1 even
(1 1 0 0) d/2
TE1
0
1
3
2
1x
d
2
q
z = !21 1 ; 12x !p1 1
! ! 1:
(28)
Hence the group and phase velocities approach that of the dielectric slab.
This is because when ! ! 1,
0x ! 1, and all the elds are trapped in the
slab and propagating within it.
Because of this, the dispersion diagram of the dierent modes appear as
below.
4
1 1
0 0
TE0
1c
2c
TE3
3c
s
0 d tan d = !2( ; ) d2 ; d 2
1x
1x
1 1
0 0
1 1x 2
2
4
2
s
2
2
d
d
d
0
; 1x 2 cot 1x 2 = !2(11 ; 00 ) 4 ; 1x d2
even solution
(30)
odd solution:
(31)
Note that for equations (7) and (29), when we have two parallel metallic
plates, k = 1, and ? = 1, and the guidance condition becomes
1 = e;2j1xd ) 1x = m
(32)
d m = 0 1 2 : : :
which is what we have observed before.
1
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
r E = ;j!H
r H = j!E + J
r H = 0
r E = :
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The above could be simplied for the following observation. Equations (5)
and (7) give the same E and H elds under the transformation
A = A + r
(11)
= ; j!:
(12)
The above are known as the Gauge Transformation. With the new A
and , we can substitute into (5) and (7) and they give the same E and H
elds, i.e.
r A = r A + r r = r A = H
(13)
;j!A ; r = ;j!A ; j!r ; r + j!r = E:
(14)
0
It implies that A and are not unique. The vector eld A is not unique
unless we specify both its curl and its divergence. Hence, in order to make
A unique, we have to specify its divergence. If we specify the divergence of
A such that
r A = ;j!
(15)
then (9) and (10) become
r2 A + !2 = ;J
(16)
r2 + !2 = ; :
(17)
The condition in (15) is also known as the Lorentz gauge. Equations (16)
and (17) represent a set of four inhomogeneous wave equations driven by the
sources of Maxwell's equations. Hence given the sources and J, we may
nd A and . E and H may in turn be found using (5) and (7). However,
as a consequence of the Lorentz gauge, we need only to nd A follows
directly from equation (15).
Outside the origin, the RHS of (20) is zero, and after using (23) and (24) in
(20), we have
d2 C (r) + 2 C (r) = 0:
(25)
dr2
This gives
C (r) = e jr :
(26)
Since we are looking for a solution that radiates energy to innity, we choose
an outgoing solution in (26). Hence,
jr
(27)
Az (r) = 4Il
r e
for a source directed at a z^-direction. From (16), we note that A and J
always point in the same direction. Therefore, for a point source directed at
l and located at r instead of the origin, the vector potential A is
l e j r r :
A(r) = 4 jI
(28)
r;rj
j ;
|r r|
j ;
j ;
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
(2)
for a Hertzian dipole. We already know that the corresponding vector potential is given by
;jr
A(r) = z^4Il
(3)
r e :
The magnetic eld is obtained, using cylindrical coordinates, as
@ A ; ^ @ A
H = 1 r A = 1 ^1 @
z
@ z
p
(4)
@ = @.
@r @ = p
where @@ = 0 r = 2 + z2 . In the above, @@ = @
@r
r @r
2 +z 2 @r
Hence,
1
Il
1
^
H = ; r 4 ; r2 ; j
r e;jr :
(5)
r
y
Il (1 + j
r)e;jr sin :
H = ^ 4r
2
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
H = ^j
4Ilr e;jr sin :
p
= =
0 . E and H are orthogonal to each other
|E|
x, y
x, y
P=
2
0
Since
Z
0
d sin = ;
3
dr sin hSr i = 2
;1
1
then
2
0
3
d 2
Il
4 sin :
;1
dx(1 ; x2) = 34
Il
4
P = 3
0 4 :
The directive gain of an antenna, D( ), is dened as
D( ) = hSPr i
4 r2
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
D( ) =
; Il 2
2 4 r
1 4
4 r2 3 0
sin2
; Il 2 = 2 sin2 :
(17)
l
2
P
(18)
Rr = I 2 =
0 6 where
0 = 377:
For example, for a Hertzian dipole with l = 0:1, Rr 8. For a small dipole
with no charge reservoir at the two ends, the currents have to vanish at the
tip of the dipole.
I(z)
a/2
a/2
The eective length of the dipole is half of its actual length due to the
manner the currents are distributed. For example, for a half-wave dipole,
a = 2 , and if we use le = 4 in (18), we have
Rr 50:
(19)
However, a half-wave dipole is not much smaller than a wavelength and does
not qualify to be a Hertzian dipole. Furthermore, the current distribution
on the half-wave dipole is not triangular in shape as above. A more precise
calculation shows that Rr = 73 for a half-wave dipole.
4
W.C.Chew
ECE 350 Lecture Notes
jr;r j
|r r|
r
r
y
0
r r
x
r0
r0
Similarly,
1 r H ;j!^A + ^A ]:
E = j!
=
(5)
(6)
0
y
r
r r
r r
d0 r d1
d2
d3
d4
d N3
dN2 d N1
Therefore,
n=0
r0 ^
(8)
:
(7)
1 cos
(9)
A(r) = z^ 4Il
r e
jr
sin Nxj
jsin xj
sin 3x
sin x
n = 0
1
2
3 :
d cos + = 2n
(12)
d cos + = 2Nn
n =
1
2
3 n 6= mN:
(13)
For example,
y
113.6
143.1
66.4
36.9
x broadside
array
143.1
113.6
36.9
66.4
y
120
90
60
120
90
60
e j
A = z^Il
(14)
4 jr ; r j
when the dipole is located at r and pointing in the z^-direction. Hence
for an array of dipoles of dierent phases and amplitudes, located at x =
x^d0 x^d1 x^d2 x^dN 1, the vector potential by linear superposition is
j x^d0
j x^d1
j x^dN 1
e
e
e
Il
A(r) = z^ 4 jr ; x^d j A0 + jr ; x^d j A1 + + jr ; x^d j AN 1 :
0
1
N 1
(15)
If we approximate jr ; x^dnj by r ; r^ x^dN = r ; dN cos , in the phase, and
by r in the denominator, then (15) becomes
jr
A(r) = z^4Il
e
A0 + A1e+jd1 cos + A2 ejd2 cos
r
+ + AN 1ejdN 1 cos (16)
which is the same as equation (7). The interference between the terms in
(16) can be used to generate dierent radiation patterns for dierent communication applications.
0
jr;r j
jr;
jr;
jr;
c + h = (a + f ) + j (b + g)
(4)
c ; h = (a ; f ) + j (b ; g)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Multiplication and division are more conveniently carried out in a polar form.
Let
c = jcj ej1 h = jhj ej2
(8)
then
ch = jcj jhj ej(1 +2)
(9)
c = jcj ej( ; ):
h jhj
1
(10)
1
1
2
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
U~
(18)
V~
Exercise
1) Show that,
(a) c + c is always real,
(b) c ; c is always imaginary,
(c) c=c has magnitude equal to 1.
2) Consider z2 = 1 + 2j . It is a second order polynomial with two roots.
Find the two roots.
3) Obtain the phasor representation of the following
(a) V (t) = 10 cos(!t + 3 ),
(b) I (t) = ;8 sin(!t + 3 ),
(c) A(t) = 3 sin !t ; 2 cos !t,
(d) C (t) = 3 cos(!t + 4 ) + 4 sin(!t + 3 ):
4) Obtain C (t) in terms of ! from the following phasors:
(a) c = 1 + j ,
3
(b) c = 4 exp(
j 0:8),
j
(c) c = 3e 2 + 4ej0:8,
(d) c = j sin 3z.
5) (a) Using binomial theorem, show that
1 + ja ' 1 + j a2
if jaj 1:
1
if jaj 1: