Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Edited by P. R. Halmos
Problems in Analysis
by Bernard Gelbaum
1982. vii, 228 pages. 9 iIlus.
A Problem Seminar
by Donald J. Newman
1982. viii, 113 pages.
Exercises in Integration
by Claude George
1984. x. 550 pages. 6 illus.
Problems in Geometry
by Marcel Berger et al.
1984. viii. 266 pages. 244 iIlus.
D.P. Parent
A Pseudonym for
[SI
Series Editor
Paul R. Halmos
Department of Mathematics
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN 47405
U.S .A.
Title of the original French edition: Exercices de tMorie des nombres, BORDAS,
Paris, 1978.
1984 by Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. in 1984
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form
without written permission from Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
987654321
ISBN 978-1-4419-3071-2
ISBN 978-1-4757-5194-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-5194-9
Preface
More 'and
It is the collab-
They
have drawn these exercises from their own work, from the work of
their associated research groups as well as from published work.
Without running through all the areas in number theory, which
vi
PREFACE
would have been excessive, the exercises given here deal with
those directions that now appear most important.
are rarely easy, but this book always
them.
give~
The solutions
a method to solve
To all those who have made the effort to delve into the problems proposed here, it will solidify their attachment to the
theory of numbers.
Ch. Pisot
Introduction
This book is the work of a group of mathematicians, including a large number of participants from the Seminaire DelangePisot-Poitou.
Then a
Conversely,
recall the definitions and principal theorems that one will need.
vii
viii
INTRODUCTION
J.L. Nicolas
Contents
INTRODUCTION
vii
18
46
127
129
132
144
148
153
170
182
198
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
241
246
261
308
311
324
359
363
373
408
411
414
426
429
439
466
470
486
BIBLIOGRAPHY
533
INDEX OF TERMINOLOGY
536
540
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PRIME NUMBERS
With x a real number and x
OF PRIME NUMBERS NOT EXCEEDING x
-&(x)=
0, we denote by
~(x)
the NUMBER
and we set
logp.
p~x
'V
+00
-1-'
ogx
'V
(1 - IIpJ
IT
p~x
(1 - 1.)p
e-Y
logx
(x -+ +"'),
'V--
1.2
p~x
l mentioned above.
p
LEMMA: Let E be a set of real numbers sueh that for every real
En (-"', tJ
t~
is empty or finite.
usE
E~
and let
g(u)
u~t
usE
F(u)g(u)
a<u~b
where
Y(x)
for x < 0,
for x ;::. 0,
t
a
g(u)y(t - u)F'(t)dt,
and adding.
In fact, this is the formula for integrating by parts the
integral JbF(t)dG(t) , which is equal to the sum
a
F(u)g(u) (cf., [Wid]). It is the best way to remember it.
Stieltjes
usE
a<ulO;b
We have
b
E.=~*,
Jx1 1t
1 <nlO;x
g(u)
d[t] = ~ - 1 + JX !!l dt
x
1 t2
logx - x - [x]
whence
1
I -n = logx
We have:
+ 1 -
(00 t
n~x
-I:
- [t] dt,
t2
logx + y + n(x),
where
1.3
x-
on~*
is called an ARITH-
METIC FUNCTION.
fen)
is determined
d(n)
NUMBER OF DIVISORS of n;
cr(n)
q>(n)
m ~ n and (m,n)
n(n)
= NUMBER
OF PRIME DIVISORS
of n;
=0
and, if n
= q~lq~2 qak,
={
prime number,
A(n)
J logp
1
0
if n
= Pk
. h p a prlme
.
numb er an d k
w~t
~,
1.4
whenever Cm,n) = 1.
(1)
are additive.
and
fCmn)
fCm)fCn)
(The condition
fCI)
whenever Cm.n)
(2)
= 1.
fCn 1
n2
n
k)
fCn1
)fCn2
) fCn
k) .
It is obvious
prime numbers and Q1,Q2, ... ,Qk are integers greater than zero,
then:
if f is additive,
Q1 . Q2
Qk
f(n) = f(q1 )f(q2 )ooof(qk)
if f is multiplicative,
f(n)
f(n) =
or
II
f(pr').
pr'IIn
exists exactly one additive function and one multiplicative fUnction taking given values on the
po~e~s of the p~ime numbe~s.
A function f is a COMPLETELY ADDITIVE FUNCTION if:
We see, moreover, that
the~e
=I
and
f(mn)
= f(m)f(n),
f(p ) = ~f(p)
respectively.
1.S
over
usual way, and by taking as the product of two elements the CONVOLUTION defined as follows:
din
[or hen)
f(d)g(J]
dd'=n
f(d)g(d')].
=1
and
e(n)
=0
for n
> 1.
+ o.
tion z.
The relation
~*z
as:
din
~(d)
for n
1,
for n
> 1.
Z-'!',
translates
= log.
of G.
1.6 THE FIRST
M~BIUS
INVERSION FORMULA
In particular, by taking a
the equivalence:
g(n)
din
z*f = f*z),
f(d)
<=>
f(n)
L lJ(d)g(~)
din
~6BIUS
INVERSION FORMULA.
on [1,+00) by:
a,-F
== G(x)
nL a(n)F(~)
e,-F
= F;
(a.)
(a
b),-F
Fe X: {
a-r{b,-F)
= a,-F + b,-F,
and
(a*b ),-F;
(13)
1.8
(a) we have:
G = a,-F
<=>
a-*rG.
G=
z,-F <=>
= ~rG;
in other words:
G(x)
L F(~)
for all x
n~
for all x
This is usually called the SECOND
1.9
~6BIUS
1.
INVERSION FORMULA
The SUMMATION FUNCTION Of an arithmetic function is the function A defined on the interval [l,+m) by:
10
= 1 for all
x ~ 1.
a~
correspond-
lowing result:
PROPOSITION: Let a,b e A and a = ai,b.
funations of a,b,a.
We have:
= aTi1 = bp4..
(2)
EXAMPLE 1: Let a
= [x]
B(x)
= ~,
= z.
and
C(x)= 1.
Then a
1:
Therefore,
1 for all x .... 1.
The same result would be obtained by applying the Second MBbius
Inversion Formula with F(x)
=1
for all x
= log,
1.
By taking a
EULER PRODUCTS
The following result about multiplicative functions is fundamental.
11
If:
(3)
runs
over~*,
g(n)
n=l
r=l
n=l
12
~ 0c
<1:.
But if
< 0c.
+00
If
0c;
function a.
is, by definition the genepating
function of the function z: for Res> 1 we have:
Thus the RIEMANN
~-FUNCTION
~(s)
PROPOSITION:
~ (s)
Il(n) =
n=l
has
1,
~(s)
+0
as genepating function.
It is also seen that von Mangoldt's function A has
genepating function: for Res> 1 we have:
l/~
n=l
A(n)
--=
s
n
-~'/~
as
~' (s)
- ""Z<ST
13
<
p,r
in the
where~
runs
overE*~
;:00
tJ!!:l
n=l
sum~
oo~
I f(:)
f~
n=l n
If~
a~
IT
p
(1 + I
r=l
~ a~
f(~:)) ~
(5)
fact~
(5)
n=l n S
As an example, by taking f
= Z,
14
finite limit as s
Res> l.
Then when x
a
n~x
'V
+00
we have:
Ax.
w is made into
w(p)=Oifp+P.
Then let d be a divisor of II(P); we denote by Ad the set of elements of A that are in a class Q~p) for at least one p dividing d
and one i, 1
\cardA d -
w(p).
nW~d)\ ~
w(d).
(H)
S(A. P) :;;: n
( 1: w<;::) J-1
m:;;:z
+ z2
II
peP
15
[1 -
~J
l-2
I
m~z
w(m)
m
16
APPENDIX
This Appendix contains a Table of the usual arithmetic functions, giving their definition, their fundamental properties,
and the generating function whenever it is simple, and in this
case the abscissa of convergence of the associated Dirichlet series.
~-function.
thesis is that 8 =
~.
~ 1.
17
Abscissa of
Generating
Function
Fundamental
Definition
Properties
Convergence
of the
Dirichlet
Series
d(n) =
number of divisors
of n
d =
sum of divisors
multiplicative
~(n)
~(n)
v(n)
of n
,(s),(s -1)
a = i*z
multiplicative
cP = 1J.*i
[1 -!]
pin
IT
~(n)
number of prime
additive
total number of
in the
completely additive
divisors of n
= factors
~(n)
1
=
factorisation of n
(_l)v(n) if n has
no square factor
0
otherwise
= n
~ = 2 -,'
"fl*Z = e
completely
multiplicative
completely
multiplicative
multiplicative;
1 for n = 1
={ o
--1
for n
> 1
olOgp i f n =
otherwise
1)
multiplicative
multiplicative
ds -
completely
A(n)
A(n)
Zi,2
(m,n) = 1
n(n)
ern)
mul tiplicative
1
,(s)
,(2s)
0s)
,(s)
,(s - 1)
18
PROBLEMS
2n
2
+ 1. Show that Fn divides Fm - 2 if
n is less than rn, and from this deduce that F
and F
n
:n
ifrn
are relatively prime
f n.
EXERCISE 11: Set Fn
than
(ii): Pn
'V
'V
x;
\
L
-1
n= ;5
Pn (loglogPn)
-a
greater than 1.
converges
p ..x
19
fCp)
I: (1) :
p, de-
Ct
IT
Show that:
max(~P
- 1
~)
2p
1:(2):
2logx,
p ..x
and, for 1
(Note that
<
y .. x:
n ..x
I: (3):
logn
By now noticing
that:
[X]
J0 logtdt
>
J:lOgtdt - logx,
1:
C.
0 such that:
20
11:(1):
:>;.
2m
Let ~(x)
10gp.
p:>;.x
~(m) <
~(2m) -
>
1:
> 4x10g2.
~(x)
II: (2):
1:
10gp
< 10gx
Set
III:
+ 410g2.
10gp
p:>;.x
= <I>(x) = 10gx
>
1.
> (x )
f
I ! = <I10gx
+
p:>;.x p
>
2 we have:
<I>(t) 2 dt.
t(logt)
Deduce from this that there exists a real constant b such that,
when x ..... +00:
p:>;.x
10glogx + b + 0 [101gxJ .
[lOg
~]
1 1 1 - x
P
P
21
(2):
0, set:
and
P(x)
N(x)
n:fiix
real> 0 we have:
+ s) - g(l + s)
= s f0
+oo -st
pee )dt,
and
1
log -"";::""--s1 - e
(3):
f+oo -stN(t)dt.
s 0 e
~ +00:
= loglogx +
0(_1_)
logx
0 through
=y
- gel).
+00 we have:
IT
P:fiix
(Notice that:
( P1)
1--
e'V--.
logx
22
<
In.
(1):
Show that A
- UpL
CN,.,(YBp ).
(2):
[x] -
p~%;
1i'J.
x,neAL
(p - 1) -
x~p>~
Show that:
[:p]
(3):
L ! = loglogx
p~x P
+ b + O(101gx]
co.
p~x p
loglogx + b +
O(101gx) ,
1,
pin
show that as x
+co
we have:
rr(x)
O(l~gxJ
v(n)
= xloglogx
23
+ bx +
n~x
'\'l
4 set P(x)
_1
(2):
For x
(3):
(Set P(x)
p~x p
+00:
M
such that In(x)1 ~ -oga::
1 for x ~ 2.
Notice that for p < x
loglog
~p = loglogx
o~
u ~
+ 109(1 - 110gp)
ogx
>
!).
Starting from the fact that for each n e:N*:
v(n)2
1,
P1/ n
P2/ n
show that when x
'\'
(5):
v(n) 2
+00
\Ore
have:
= x(loglogx) 2
+00:
4:
24
(v(n) - 10glogx)
= x10g10gx + o(x).
n~x
(6):
10glogx
>
>
e (so that
x such that:
>
Let g be a
1
"2.
n A(x) ~
>
+00 when x
+00.
satisfying
x. such that:
<x
0 when x + +00.
Show:
= 1.2
\'
2~n~x
-l-'V
ogn
(b):
25
lim inf[ld n )
n-ogn
~1~
lim SUp[ld n )
n-ogn
the
(a):
lim SUp[ldn ]
n-ogn
The
Let S be the complement of Q inN; the elements of S are arranged into an increasing sequence:
card{n e Q,n
~ x}
6x
"2 +
11
r-
O(vx).
26
(1):
00
we have:
=T i
+ OCR).
q i+1 - q i
OCR).
qi
and
(2):
Let
n1 .n 2 nk
Show
N+ j
=0
(mod n,)
]
for 1
j ~
k.
Show that:
Show that:
'J
-[(q
1'+1 - q,1 )1og1ogq 1
11'm
1ogqi
(4):
>.
2 .
Show that:
1 im( s, 1 - s,)
--
5.
1+
EXERCISE 1 -12:
1 and lim(s, 1 -
Let
1+
4.
be a multiplicative function.
g(n) { :
s,)
if
fen)
if
fen)
is also multiplicative.
D.
D.
Verify that
27
\L
1'=0
f(pr )zr
f t h e ser1es:
.
and
1'=0
+00
1'=0
"A -;'.
1.3.5 (21' - 1)
2.4.6 21'
we have:
z?
din
fed)
IT
pin
(1 + f(p)),
28
and:
d/n
]J(d)f
IT
J p/n
Show that if
f(pr)
(f(p) - 1).
~ 0 when r
>
0 i f (n,k) > 1
and
fen)
+0
i f (n,k)
IT
p p
(h)
IT
p/h
p/h
f(p)=O
f(p )+0
v (h)
p p
prime factors.
II:
29
f(n)logn).
11:(2):
> 1
(*)
d/n).
Show that ,if fell
mUltiplicative.
(Notice that if g is the multiplicative function
determined by g Cpr) = ICpr), then A
A , and, by usinE;
of Question IICl) a6ove, deduce tha g =ff).
I:
ments.
Set P =
IT p, and
peE
k = 0 and P = 1.
1:(a):
>
30
E< X
TT (1 + ~J
~,,2xk + 2:....
II
IX peE
neE n "
n>x
and that:
peE
(1 + 1r- J
vp
>
0,
fn
n-1
I:(b):
dt ) .
2"
X*~.
ative).
Show that the series
determine its sum.
h(n) .
IS
L ---n
00
n=1
+ O?
value of hen)?
I:(c):
>
Owe
have:
of square-free n sJN'"
31
divisible by m and.; m.
-%- y(m)x
Q (x)
m
~ +00:
O( v'x),
11
f !
for
l'
for
l'
1,
>
1,
> 0
independent of
m such that:
iQm(X) - - ; Y(m)xi <
x > O.
11
When m
EXERCISE 1'19:
(1) :
. h
' q square- f ree.
n = m2q WIt
m,qsN",
(2) :
L
2
d /n
Verify:
.Cd) "
if n is square-free,
0 otherwise.
32
S]N'"
Given k
S]N'"
and
SZl,
= 0).
+00
we have:
with
form
respect to k and t.
Show that:
1 6 [ (1 - 1)-1
--IT
k 2 Ik
2
1t
p-ti
(Write:
Q(x:k,)
ns;;x
n=(modk)
( 2L
d In
]..I
(d)J '
Slt-P',
33
AND
Show that
11.
q> = ].l,',i
(where
i(n)
q>
is multiplicative, and
that:
n",-x
x -+ 00:
+ O(xlogx).
11
(3):
dim
din
"2 x
].l",i,
q>
].l(d)
equal to?
(4):
Given x,Y
>
m '" x, n '" y
and
(m,n)
1.
Show that:
(x,y)
ddnf(x,y)
].l(d)
[J] [~],
-+
00:
34
<I>(x,y)
xy
2" +
1t
O[lOg inf(X,y)}
infCx,y)
.
(5):
e:N 1,
and t
> 0,
of irreducible fractions with denominator n belonging to the interval (0, t], in other words the number of the m e:N 1: such that
(m,n) =
1 and m
(a):
~ tn.
Show that if n
N(n,t) - t<p(n) = -
1, for all t
>
!.
0:
L ].l(d)B[~) .
din
(b):
there exists K
>
<
< 1,
We set:
-&(x) =
logp
(CHEBYCHEFF'S FUNCTION).
p~x
(1):
With
<p
35
<p(n)
n
and
<p(Nk )
----- for n
>
Nk
< Nk :
(2):
m < N
=>
--N--
Nk ,
1.
Let a(n) =
r-[
a(n) )
1m nloglogn
I
EXERCISE 122:
].J(n)
o(x)
n~x
(1):
Let
A(x)
I
n~x
a(n).
36
on~*,
infinity:
n:i;x
(2):
a(n)1og(n)
A(x)1og(x) + O(x).
where g(x) =
~(x)
1:
- [x].
L ]J (n)
n:i;x
Show that the Prime Number Theorem implies that we have:
(4) :
Set M(x) =
M(x) = o(x)
(x -+ +00).
~(x) 'V x) .
]J (n)
~
n:;;;x
/(n)
n=l <p(n)n s
where ]J is the
M~bius
function and
<p
Deter-
~(!(!)l)
37
-~.
L peplogp
- 1)
(3):
= L !lS!:l.
s
G(s)
(4):
Show that:
= ~L.
with L(x)
n1
n~x
By using L(x)
and In(x)1 ~
~
L.
n~x
1..
x
.. (n)
Cj)\n,
= logx
~
logp
logx + y + L. pep _ 1) +
( )
~(2S)
IT
n=1
<
38
(2):
> ~
and Izl
(3):
of the n
> ~
= d qx +
+00:
(x),
~TI
q=O
1 -
1 -
11
ph]
>
!:..
Izl
<
2:
0 and that
1.
q=O q
(By a theorem from the theory of functions of several complex
<
1:2 and
Res
>
~ we can write:
+00
IT
q=O
where the A
> ~.
t If F is a function of two complex variables sand z, holomorphic in sand z for s belonging to a domain D of ~ and Izl < R,
39
ls
r/(n)-v(n)=q n
(1) :
For m
1 set:
mL
{nl~(n) =
~(n) ~
Set a
(2) :
cardEm, and:
A(x)
a
m~x
card{nl~(n) ~ x}.
~~C
~~n}
L 1:.
din d
n
Show that
~(n)
= O(logn), that x
O(x1ogx)
(3):
L -- -
00
n=l (~(ns
co
and
L.2::.S
m=l m
are absolutely convergent for Res> 1, and that for Res> 1 the
equalities:
00
m=l mS
1;(S)[(S)
40
hold, where
f(s)
~(s)
= IT
P
~-function,
and:
{1 + 1l)s
(p _
(4) :
the inequality:
I(P_1 l)S
- pis
I <>
(p
lsi
l)Res+l
j ho1o-
~(6)
A(x)
'V
ax.
FA(x)
where
= L PA(n)x
n=O
PA(O) = 1.
IT
neA
(1 -
x)
-1
By P(A) we
T~ere
(2):
Let a,b
>
41
ab can be written as n = xa + yb with integers x,y ~ O. Show that if A contains two relatively prime elements, then Property P(A) holds.
Show that every n
(3):
For A C
:N'~
PROPERTY: PI (A)
<=>
PROPERTY: P 2 (A )
<=>
P2 (A).
Show that for all A C :N*. P(A) => PI (A).
Show that for every fini te subset A C :N"'. P(A)
(5):
<=>
<=> PI (A).
P 2 (A ).
<=>
PI(A).
Let N
42
integer~
less than
msA(N,Q) m
IT
psQ
(1 __
p1)-1
Let z
(b) :
bers less than or equal to z, PI a subset of P, and P2 the complement of PI in Pj Pi (i = 1,2) will denote the product of the ele~
ments of
w(p)
ifp > z.
EXERCISE 1-28:
~ C(1ogz)
x,
p and Ip +
ml
prime numbers} ~
E _x_
IT
log 2x p/,m
EXERCISE 129:
43
(1 + ~JP
>
(b):
-2
diN d
that:
N.:;x
(c):
(N) .:;
F'x (logx)
-4
r(N)
2
-2
F"x (logx)
for all x
>
4.
N~x
(d):
to x which are the sum of two primes; prove that there exists
44
M(x)
(e):
Cx
for all x
4.
NUMBERS
We return to the notations of Exercise 1 9.
0
By a and A we
lim sup(logxl.card{ilp. 1
x-+<
x J
1. +
x,d.
1.
Alogx}
A-i.
2 we have:
M(x)
(c):
--T
L
IT (1 +~) .
log x alogx<m~Alogx p!m
that:
. sup (M(X)lOgX)
11.m
x-+<
(d):
s(x)
F , (A -
a )
Write:
d.1.
d.1. +
alogx<d .~Alogx
1.
d.1.
d .>Alogx
1.
d.1.
x-+oo
2lA - F'(A -
(e):
By choosing a
M -
<
a )2
1 and A so that
45
46
SOLUTIONS
u =2
2n
We have:
Fn+k - 2
2k
u +
- 1
1
2k_l
- u
2k_2
+ - 1,
The mapping of :N'" into the set of prime numbers which assigns
n(N) ~ 10gN
and
n(SN) ~
<
SN
logN + logS
>
SN
10gN
~--
= L
47
logp ~ 10gx.
-&(x) ~
= 1I(x)1ogx;
o
x <p~x
(1)
10gp
01l(x)10gx - x 10gx.
(2)
and
~ 1
1 im inf
-& (x)
~ 0
~ x.
x,
using (1)
we find:
lim inf 1I(x)1ogx ;,. 1,
x
whence x
= o(1I(x.
lim sup
11 (x)1ogx
'8
For each n
1 we have 1I(p ) = n.
n
-+
co:
48
Pn
n " 'logp
---
n
This implies:
logn '" logpn
and
2:
~(x)log~(x),
This implies:
logx '"
log~(x)
SOLUTION 14:
and
we have p n '" nlogn. As the given series has positive terms, the
general term can be replaced by an equivalent one, which comes
down to studying the series with general term u = (nlogn(1oglogn)<l) -1;
n
by comparing with the integral:
>
1.
49
IT
the product
a
n,.x
rL [nL
,]
[r~'
,] pr,.x
pr/n
pr/n
n is therefore
n~x
+00
~ ~
L
r
2"=1 P
2"~1
pr,.x
= p___x-___1 and
[:]
.
p
at least to
We have:
x
2p ,
also
for, if u
[u) ~ ~u.
1:(2):
for each n
x, logn ,. logx.
shown, we have:
logn
log
n~x
P,.x
IT
n,.x
n =
2p logp
Hence we have:
~x
p~
~,. xlogx,
P
p~x
a logp
p
= ~x ~
p:t;;x
~
p
50
whence:
2logx.
If 1
logn ~
~ logp
y<p~x
~xlogy
I .!. ~
y<p~x
xlogx,
whence:
1:(3):
For each n
fnn-l logtdt ~
1 we have:
logn.
Consequently:
logn
f0[X] logtdt
f:lOgtdt - logx
fXolOgtdt -
n~x
fX
[x]
(x - l)logx - x.
p~x
a logp
p
L ~.
p~x p -
Hence:
(x - 1 ) logx - x
~
L P
_ 1 '
\'
P'x
logtdt
51
whence:
p~x
1
p(p - 1) ,
Since.!... = _1_
P - 1
\ .!.BE. = \
P
p~x
p~x
P _ 1
_ \
10gp
p~x
p(p - 1)
~ 10gx - 1 - 10gx _
L p(p10gp
- 1)
10gx - C,
where:
C
(as
=1
10gx
!e
+ \
10gp
L p(p -
1)
11:(1):
= e).
10gp
But:
and so:
10g(2m)
m
<
2m10g2.
Hence we have:
.s(2m) - .s(m)
<
2m10g2.
= .s(2m)
- .s(m).
2m divides
Consequently:
52
1, it follows that:
<
ZjlogZ
l,
j=l
(8(Zj) - 8(Zj-l))
Zk+l logZ .
<
j=l
Given x> 1, there exists h ~ 0 such that Zh ~ x ~ Zh+l , and we have
8(x)
8(Z
h+l
h+Z
Z
logZ
<
4x log Z .
II: (Z):
p.~
x we have:
;:,!E.- l ,
P
p '"
we obtain:
n::;;x
'i
logn =
ex logp ~
p
p~x
l,
logp= x
p~x
'i
p<:x
~ - 8(x).
p
Therefore:
logn + 8(x)
xlogx + 4xlogZ,
whence:
logx + 4logZ.
III:
'i
p~
1:. = 1:. +
P
Z<p~x
~
P
<I>(x) + IX
logx
<I>(t) Z dt
Z t(logt)
1 + n(x) + IX ~ + IX
net)
dt=
logx
Z tlogt
Z t(logt)Z
(Contd)
53
fX2
nCr)
+ - - + loglogx - loglog2 +
logx
n(t)
2 dt.
t(logt)
n(t) 2 dt
f+2OO t Oogt)
1
L -P = loglogx
1 -
loglog2 + f:OO
_ roo
2
~ logx
an
1, the
p~x
In(x)1
logx
>
n(t)
tOogt)
n(t)
tOogt)
dt + n(x)
logx
2 dt.
1, we see that:
>
+OO
n(t)dt I ~ M
tOogt)2
x
1 -
loglog2 +
[lOg 1
-:x]
1
1
n(t) 2 dt.
t(logt)
The series:
(1) :
EXERCISE 16:
f+OO
2
2,
because when p
+oo:
111
log --....,..... - 1 _ 1
pX
For all
for x
~ xO.
Xo
> ~,
pX
'" - 2p2x
In fact, log 1
=u
- u is a positive, increasing
54
function of u for 0
for x
u < 1.
~ xO:
1
x:;:
log ---:-11
xo
(2):
Z;(1 + s)
IT
>
0 we have:
1 -
1+8
and consequently:
logZ;(l + s) =
L log
1
1 -
1
1+8
logZ;(l + s) - g(l + s)
11+ 8
Pee )
fo se
+OO
-8t
0:
1- =
'\L
-1+8
-p1 e -81ogp =
O<logp:;:T
TP
P( e T) e -8T
fT se -8tp( e t )dt
0
When T
T
>
-+
t
that is to
Pee )dt is convergent and equal to '\L _1_
1+8'
>
0 we have:
1 -ns
n
e
n=l
'\
log -----s
1 - e
L.
1
-
n~T n
55
-ns
L !
O<n~T n
so, by letting T
>
0:
= N(T)e- sT
e- ns
+ fTose-stN(t)dt,
-+ +00,
When t
we have:
-+ +00
P(e t ) = logt + b +
o(i]
logt + y + 0(1).
N(t)
and
Consequently:
P(e t ) - N(t) +
Given
-+
o.
E >
Moreover, for 0
o
y-
P(e )
P(e
to
and
N(t)
N(t o )'
0) +
N(t o) +
and consequently:
~ P(e
Then for all real s
>
Iy - bl = M.
0:
(Contd)
56
(Contd)
f+ e -st (P(e)t
8 0
when
-+
E.
E >
0, we see that:
- N(t) + y - b)dt
through real
-+ 0
positive values.
-s
)C;;(1 + 8
- gO +8) + y - b,
1, because (1 - e- s ) ~
8 -+
whence b = y - gel).
(4):
P(x) + log
when x
-+
IT
p:;;x
[1 - ~J
I
p:;;x
[lOg - - 1 1 -
and
0,
P(x) + log
IT
(1 -
p~X
~)
-+ -
57
g(l),
IT
p",X
(1 - ~)
=-
+ 0(1)
P(X) - g(1)
Iogx
ber p, p
>
In,
1 '"
<
n~A
which divides n.
Then we have:
hence neB.
p
Let us assume p
= ap = bq
<
q, and that x e B () B.
with 1
We must have:
q - 1;
<
<
p, which
q.
if x
<
p ,
2
ifx~p.
We have:
58
[x] -
pprime
[x] -
(3) :
equal to x.
Let
p~rx
R(X)
QB (X),
(p - 1) -
[~]
IX<p~x p
We know that
R(X)
~ ----Ix .
ogx
[p~]
=
=
~+
IX<p~x p
x[ loglogx
O( R (x ) )
+ b - loglogIX - b +
o(lOlgx) ]
+ O(l:gX)
= xlog2 + O(l:gX)
Finally, we have:
and:
pin
1.
Consequently, for x
(1)
1:
v(n)
n~x
59
= I
n~x
= I
P~X P
[~]
differs from
~ by
at most one.
o(l:gx)
lI(X)
we obtain:
n,x
(2):
v(n)
= xloglogx +
bx
The condition Pi P 2
+ O(l:gx)
'x
implies:
(2)
On the other
60
(3)
(3):
because. for p
<
x:
- logp)
log (lOgX (1 -
~~g])
This gives:
(loglogx +
b)
.!. +
p~rx p
.!.(lOg 1 -
p~rx p
\'
L
-1
p~/x p
I !
p~rx p
= loglog(/;X)
+ b + O(I:gX)
logx
n (x]
p
~J
logx
log (1
(x)
L
-np",rx
p
p
As we have:
P(/;X)
\'
~]
61
(loglogx + b)P(/:;)
= (loglogX)2
lui
T=k=l
+'"
logO - u)
Consequently, for 0
p~rx
k-1
LT.
k=l
u ~ ~:
+'"
1 = Ku.
- 1k
k=l k2 -
I \'
1 it is known that:
+'"
Ilog(l-u)1
<
1
P
log [ 1 - ~)I
logx
2,
K
we see that:
\'
Lr- ~
plogx
P,.YX
_K_
'" logx
\'
LrP"Yx
~ K
p " ,
2M
,.--~--
og
logx
Therefore:
L 2:.n[~)1
Ip~rx
p
p
~p(loX)
~ logx
o[lOg;OgX)
Finally, we have:
p,.IX P
p[x)P
Moreover, we have:
(4)
62
(10 g 10 gX + b - log2 +
(loglogx)
0(10~X))2
(5)
+ 2b1og1ogx + 0(1).
(4):
have:
Consequently, for x
1:
have:
i f P1P2 > x,
n.;;x
P1/ n
P2/ n
[p;P 2 ]
i f P1P2 < x.
Thus:
L [:.]
P~x
=x
L ~+
P~x P
O(1t(x))
= x1og1ogx + bx + O(l:gx) .
(6)
63
I [~] = xloglogx
p:!,x
O(x).
= x
O(x)
P1P;i1>.x
[p ~ ] = x(loglogx) 2 + 2bxloglogx +
o(x).
1 2
Pl 'f'P2
v(n) 2 = x(loglogx) 2 +
(2b
+ l)xloglogx + O(x).
n~x
(5):
(v(n) - loglogx)
Consequently:
we have:
2 2 2
= v(n) - 2v(n)loglogx + (loglogx) .
(7)
64
nli:x
(v(n) - loglogx)
v(n)2 - 2(
n~x
nli:x
(v(n) - loglogx)
= xloglogx
-+ +co
+ o(x).
(8)
n~x
It is clear, for x
(6) :
(v(n) - loglogx)
e, that:
~"n" (x )loglogx,
whence:
Ii:
(v(n) - loglogx) .
(7):(a):
loglogx - log2
<
loglogn
Ii:
<
Ii:
x, we have:
loglogx.
and:
g(n)/loglogn
g(/:X)/loglogx - log2
65
We have:
= IlOglOgX[g(/;C)Vl
For any A
>
log2 )
IloglogxJ
log2
loglogx
large enough.
<
for x
whence:
N(x)
-x-~
>
N(x)
0 when x
+00.
66
SOLUTION 1 9: (a):
We have:
P[x]+l - 3
10gx
[x + 1] 10g[x + 1]
logx
that is to say to.x.. when x .... "'; hence:
1 we have:
~ <
dn
-+
logn
t:; _1_ (p
10g2
[X~]+l
- 3)
_1_ (p
~logx
[x+1
- P
I
2~nt:;x
d
_n_'Vx.
logx
e (0,1), we have:
[x~+l]
(b):
67
d
lim inf _n_ = 1 + a > 1.
x-- 10gn
We would be able to find an integer nO such that for every n > nO'
d
10~ ~ 1 + la. Then we would have:
dn
--+
10gn
x--
x 2~n~x
d
10ngn
~ 1 +~,
n
' sup -1-l 1m
x--
ogn
1.
lrrn- 2 + pn- 1 - 1,
= -1
One then
(mod Pn ).
PnPn- 1 (it is
68
We have 10gITn =
(b) :
tion.
We know that
~(x) ~
~(p
), where
that for n large enough IT n - 2 > 2P n , whence tIT n _2 - Pn - > Pn ' and
the integers in the interval [tIT n _2 - P n - 1 + 1,tITn _2 + P n - 1 - 1]
are all composite. There exists A = A(n) such that:
logp,
1\
10gIT
= ~(pn ).
>
Hence:
[ d)
.
A(n)
h~~up 10gA(n)
2,
and a fortiori:
1~
1 im sup (1 d NN
N-+<x>
og ]
2 > 1.
-2 +
11
O(~).
6qi
11
gives:
69
o( Ii),
, whence o(~)
l
which
;- i + o(li).
qi
Next, we have:
2
11
(i + 1 _ i) + O(Ii+T) + o(li)
o( Ii)
.
".
smce
v
26 qi'
11
(2):
prime, the same holds for the number n~,n~, ... ,n~, and by the
"Chinese Remainder Theorem" the congruences:
2
]
N _ a. mod n.,
]
<
-j.
IT n.,
J=l
]
for any a j .
q.
l
>
k + 1.
>
N + k, and q.l+ 1 -
=+
00.
gruences:
=0
mod 4,
N _ -1 mod 9,
N _ -2 mod 25,
N _ -3 mod 49.
70
= -2
= 48
as solution.
1+81+8 + 1+90ok'
= 48
modulo
mod 1+9,
It remains to solve:
= -1
k'
or
= 5.
= 29,347,
q.
and
qi+1
= 29,353 = l49x197.
q.~+ 1
~+
= 246.
(3):
= -j
5 is q;
241 and
The congruence:
2
J
mod p.
for j
solut~on
qi+1 - qi ~ k + 1.
We now have:
logqi ~ logN ~ 2
i=l
logpi
10ge(Pk)
logk + loglogk
But we have:
logk,
N; then
71
and:
this proves:
lim (
q. 1 - qi)lOglOgqi]
1
l+
> _
logq.
/ 2
l
lim(s.l+ 1 - s.)
l
--
1.
s.l
= 4n;
l+
~
3.
~
4.
As the multiples of
4.
When s
is a multiple of 4 let
above, is 1 -:2
= 0.39, ...
11
f(m)f(n).
+ and
f(n)
+ 0,
1.
then f(mn)
=1
+ 0.
Ne have f(mn)
+ 0.
We have then
72
SOLUTION 1-13:
h(pr)
We know that:
f(d)g(zf)
d/pr
f(pr)g(pr- j ).
j=o
sows
h
Th IS
t h at t h e power series
of the power series:
+""
r=O
f(pr)zr
If f(l)
+0
\ h(pr)zr.IS t h e product
L
r=O
and
series:
+""
r=O
f(pr)zr
+""
and
f-"'(pr )zr
r=O
r
APPLICATION 1:
In order to determine it
+""
r=O
<
+""
I A(pr)Zr and
r=O
1, with 1
z and
and
73
as sums.
1
of --"-"""'2" , that is to say, 1 +
1 - z
+ z
+ + z
2k
Hence
we have:
if r is even,
i f r is odd.
It follows from this that A*Z is the function equal to one for
the squares and zero for the non-squares.
+00
A -,.,(pr )zr
r=O
expansion, in a neighbourhood of the origin, of 1/[1
1 + z. Hence we have:
for r
1,
for r
1.
is the
~ z)
Therefore:
A-'~(n)
1o
1 if n
APPLICATION 2:
is squarefree
otherwise,
r=l
1.3.5 (2l" - 1)
2 .4.6 . 2l"
[~r
= z.
r=O
, that is to say,
n, i.e., g
+00
+00
r=O
Therefore we have
As g is multiplicative, g(n)
Thus f*f
= z.
1 for all
74
SOLUTION 114:
Let
= f*g,
(fh)*(gh).
By the definition
of convolution, we have:
~(n)
If f(l)
= hen)
+ 0,
h(n)Hn) .
f(d)g(J)
din
If f = z, one has
for n
f-'~ = \.I.
>
1).
\.Ih
(as zh = h).
SOLUTION 115: (1):
We have
din
fed) = (z*f)(n).
However, z and
free we have:
(z*f)(n) =
IT
pin
(z*f)(p).
IT
(z'~f)(p).
pr//n
~ j
~ r, we
75
(f*z)(pr)
= 0,
If f(pr)
when
l'
> 1
l'
= L
j=O
f(pJ)z(pr- J )
We have
therefore:
(z*f)(n) =
(2) :
IT
pin
(1 + f(p
One has:
L ll(d)f[~.1 =
J
din
(ll*f)(n).
IT
(ll*f)(n)
(ll*f)(p)
= ll(l)f(p)
pin
(ll'~f)(p).
But:
SOLUTION 116:
kq
IT
pin
+ ll(p)f(l)
= f(p)
- 1.
We have:
v (h)
p P
= h.
f(q)f(n + k)
But f(q)
+0
= f(qn
+ qk)
= f(qn
+ h)
= f(qn) = f(q)f(n).
+ O.
Therefore
=1
= O. Consequently f(n) = O.
=1
Since
(mod k).
76
We have:
f(m)f(n)
= f(mn) = f(1).
o.
We have:
II:
By taking l
= flog.
above, we obtain:
hlog
+ Ag .
= Af
logn
+0
for n
fen)
>
77
for all n
> 1,
0:".
+ 0).
The kernel
1.
> 1
by
fen)
Thus:
f(n)logn
= L
din
g(d)f[J)
for every n
:JN",
Az
A.
11:(2):
Af(n)
= L
din
f(d)lOgd.r'''[J)
(Contd)
78
(Contd)
f(dld2)lOg(dld2)f-*(dlCt2]
dl/n l
d/n2
=
d l /n 2
(;t.) f-
d/n2
I"
(~l]
2
0,
since e(n l )
e(n 2 ) = O.
Let us now assume that f(l)
=1
=0
whenever
g(pr)
We see that Ag
l'
eN;'.
= Af .
=0
and Ag(n)
= O.
= flog
and Ag*g
= glog
l'
3 1:
.I
Af(pJ)f(pr-J)
79
= 1'f(pr)logp
0),
J=l
and similarly:
l'
1'g( P )1ogp,
j=l
that is to say:
r
1'f(p ) logp.
By induction on
Since
f~,g-'"
(f~.g-~')O)
= Ae,
we have A = 1.
Hence, f*g-*
= fO)g-~'(l) = 1,
= g. Since
g is multiplic-
ative, f is multiplicative.
SOLUTION 1-18: I:
= mq 2
= 1,
= m.
x, corresponding to
, hence at most to
of E ~ x is at most
The sum
~.
IX
~.
m/P rm
m/P 1m
80
~
Iii
1 + I;P'
As
is squarefree, we have:
L ~ = IT
m/P
1m
piP
[1 + J:J
;p)
IT
peE
[1 + J:J
;p)
The neE such that n > x are of the form m/, with m/P and q > ~ ,
and we have:
As:
this gives:
neE
~~
x m/P
1+~
IX m/P 1m
n>x
Zk.
Thus we obtain:
neE n
2kx + ~
IT [1 + ~)
IX peE
;p)
n>x
I:(b):
1,
81
h(pr)
We have:
j=O
which gives:
h(pr)
for r
-1
h(p)
>
2,
i f peE,
i f p4E,
h(p2)
and
i f peE,
-1
i f P 4 E.
We see that:
+00
r=1
ih({)i
pr
~2
i f peE,
i f P 4 E,
so that:
p,r
ih(Z{)i
< +00.
r~1
+00
n=1
h(n) .
n
--lS
we have:
n=1
h<;:) =
IT
p
[1 +
r=1
h()]
peE
[IT
peE
IT
[1 - !))[
(1 - 12])
p p4E
p
(1 + !r1]
p
"2
1l
IT
peE
1
(1 + p-1r
82
On the other hand, h(n) is non-zero if and only if the decomposition of n into prime factors does not contain numbers of E
with exponents greater than one, nor numbers not belonging to E
with exponents
+ 2,
+ 0,
Ih(n)1
= 1.
+ is
Furthera subset of
E.
As h
I:(c):
X"'lJ, we have X
all x > 0:
h(n) [~1
x(n)
n~x
Replacing
n~x
h(n)[~]
at most to
one is off
the number
by h(n)
.
the error has
peE
h( )
~ by
Next, replacing x
+00
h(n)
n>x
tox
to
n>x
2k
+ IX
IT
peE
(1 + ~)p
n~x
x(n) -
+00 h( )
n=l
n>x
IL
1, hence
neE n
I 2k+ 2& IT (1
)
1 + rv'J .
~ ~
peE
Ip
83
n=l
IT
[1 + !) -11
L
1n,x
x(n) - - ;
II:
11
peE
rn
As
0,
y(m)
we have:
Qrn (x) - - ; y (m )x
11
Then,
The num-
or, since m
If x
to:
But:
m one has
~~
84
2 v (m)
-1m- I- T
p/m Ii '
2
and this is at most equal to 212
I'r ' as rp
2
212
Therefore if x
IQm(x) - - ; y(m)xl
<
m:
216&.
1t
If x
<
= 0,
IQm(X) -
2"
62 Y(m)xl
1t
since y(m)
x
rm~iii
6 x
2" iii
< m
1t
But:
-.
IX 2- ~
y(m)x ~
1t
=r;;
and consequently:
IX.
<
IQm(X) - - ; y(m)xl
>
0:
216IX.
1t
If n
=1
solution m
q = 1.
If n
IT
J=l
cx.
Pj]' where Pl'P 2 " .. 'Pr are dis-
tinct prime numbers and cx 1 ,cx 2 , ... ,cx r ~ 1 are integers, then m and
q, divisors of n, must have the form:
m
IT
J=l
13.
p.]
]
and
y.
IT p.],
j=l ]
wi th 13., y. ~ O.
]
With m and q given by these formulae, then n = m2q, with q squarefree if and only if, for each j, 213. + y. = cx and y = 0 or 1.
]
]
Therefore, there is an unique solution, obtained by taking 13. and
]
y. equal respectively to the quotient and to the remainder when
]
85
a. is divided by 2.
]
(2):
IT
a.
o.
p.], d must be of the form ITp] , with
Indeed,
If
o. ~ O. But
J=l ]
J=l ]
]
the square of this number divides n if and only if 20. ~ a., that
n =
is to say
o.]
~(d)= L ~(d) f 1
=
dim
(3):
if m = 1,
ifm> 1.
Q(x:k,f)
n:::;:x
n=f(modk)
IX.
Q(x:k,f)
n=f(modk)
d 2 /n
m:::;:x/d 2
md 2 =f(modk)
1.
then:
= f(modk)
has no solution in m,
86
2
which (d ,k)/!.
>
0:
1
(d 2 ,k)
consecutive integers.
(d k,k) X + p (X) ,
m~X
Consequent-
with Ip(X)1 ~ 1,
md 2 :=:!(modk)
since, if:
the sum is
r and
(d ,k) X and
k
m('X
md2 :=:!(modk)
belong to the interval [r,r + 1], and so differ by at most one.
Hence:
Q(x:k,!)
=7<
2
~ ~ th e ser1es
.
L Il(d)(d ,k) is absolS1'nce ill(d)(d2,k)i
2
'" 2 '
(d2,k)/!
d2
d
d
utely convergent, and we can write:
with:
87
k t
=!
\'
].l(d)(d ,k)
(d2,k)/i
and:
~].l_(d_)_(d-=-2.....:;,_k-,-)
- k
d2
We have:
f+oo
~ k ( x + IX t 2 dt
and:
and consequently:
IRk t (x)
2;;
+ 1.
+00
A
=! L h(d) ].l(d)(d ,k)
k,t
k d=l
d2
wh,", hid)
Thus:
2
i f (d ,k)/i,
2
i f (d ,k Vi.
2
88
is mUltiplicative.
0 for r
and:
if (p2,k)lf.
g ( p)
> 1,
-'-'(p,-2-<,__
k.:..)
i f (p ,k)/f.
Consequently:
Ak 9- =
IT
(p
,k)/f
(p2,k)
2
(p ,k)
=
=
and (p
,k)~f,
If p2/k,
There-
fore:
II
(p
,k)/f
(IT
p
h - p JJ[IT
p/k
121
1 -
II
12r1J[
p
p/(k,f)
Hk
p A
[1 - ~J)
P
(Contd)
89
(Contd)
IT
(1_(p2 2k )
(p2,k)/t
= 1162 (pIA
(1 - p12
pIt
)(p/N,t)
p2/k
SOLUTION 1,20:(1):
the divisors of n.
=d
nand (m,n)
=d
is equal to
is equivalent to m
= dm'
~(n'),
for
= 1.
with (m',n')
m
n according
L ~ (~I
din
= ~*i.
Then,
is~.
n = p , we have:
~<:)
(2):
L
n~x
~~~~
As
~(n)
IT (1 - .!.I
pJ
pin
~*i,
for x
1 we have:
where I(X)
L
n~x
n.
(1)
90
But for X
~(X
1, I(X)
- l)X
I(X)
Therefore, for X
I(X)
1 we have:
~X2 + R(X),
+ 1).
x
= - 2
n~x
L -(n)
-+ L
2
].l (n)R
].l
n~x
+00
2
2
n~x
].l(~)
n=l
2
2
n>x
x
(- )
].l(~) +
n
].l(n)R
( )
n~x
Since:
IL
].l(~) I ~ L ~ =
n>x
n>x n
and:
~ ~
L ~ = O(x1ogx),
n~x
and since
+00
\'
n=l
].l
2
(n) = ~
6'
have:
dim
din
(4):
].l(d)
d/(m,n)
i f (m,n) = 1,
].l(d)
i f (m,n) > 1.
1:
91
].l(d)
d~inf(x,y)
m~x
n~y
dim
din
].l(d) [~]
d",inf(x,y)
But if X,Y
[~]
1, we have:
XY - X - Y
= (X - l)(Y -
1) ~
[X] [Y]
XY,
and consequently:
= XY - R1 (X,Y)
[X] [Y]
with 0
R1 (X,Y)
-- xy
\,].l (d)
L
d~u
\'
L
d~u
d>u
X + Y.
lone obtains:
].l(d)R 1 (~u.]
d ' d
].l(~)
= -;. xy - xy L
<
L ].l(d)R1(~'~]
d~u
whence:
.1:....
1xy
4>(x,y) - ......21
n
~
~
<
u.
d>u
~ +xly
~+(~+~)Y
d>u d
d>u d
L ~t
d~u
[~+~)
L
d~u
& L ~ = O[l:gu)
d>u d
d~u
The result of (2) can be deduced from this by noticing that
for x ~ 1:
~(x,x)
L
n~x
~(n) - 1.
92
x, n ~ x and
(m,n) = 1, we can take those for which m :>; n, then those for
which n :>; m. Thus we have counted the pair [1,1] twice, which is
the only one for which m = n).
(5): (a):
N(n,t) =
L (L
m:>;tn dim
din
)J(d)
din
>
0:
)J (d)
m:>;tn
dim
din
)J(d)
[t;] .
N(n,l) = ~(n)
din
)J(d)
and i f n
>
1:
since then
x,
this gives:
But the number of square-free divisors of n is equal to the number of subsets of the set of prime divisors of n, that is to say
2v (n). Hence, for all n > 1 and all t > 0 we have:
(5):(b):
>
1 and all t
>
0:
93
Icp(n)
1
N(n, t) - t
I~
2 v (n)-1
cp(n)
We see that g
Let g (n)
E
2p.r(1-E)
r
r-1
is multiplicative and:
-rE
~
1
- p
1 -
> 1:
-E
IT~
pin 1 - P
-E
But when p
~l
-+ +00,
-+
O.
1 - -
-E
~l
IT
peE
1 _ _
1.
> 1:
2p
>
-E
--1
1 - -
q2
j, which implies:
2.3 . . . . . p.
n.
... , p.
N.
]
q. for 1
1
Since, by hypothesis, n
<
qj'
Then, 2
q1' 3
q2'
94
k - 1.
As v(n)
= j,
that
rr (1 - ~)
j
q>(n) =
n
'1-=1
qi
Nk _1
-P1
1 -
q>(Nk )
q>(Nk )
--->
Nk
--w;;-
we obtain:
q> (n) >
n
(2):
q>(Nk )
--w;;-
There
Since N
<
The number m
tion:
m < N => q>(m) > q>(N)
(3):
95
We have:
'V
-y
_e__
logp k
That gives:
That is to say:
lim
k-+>
<p(Nk )loglogNk
----~~----
Nk
-y
and:
<p(n) loglogn
n
When n
+ +00,
two we obtain:
lim <p(n) loglogn ~ e- Y.
96
(4):
IT
pin
IT
o(n)
pin
cp(n)
p a+1 - 1
p - 1
IT
pin
nIT
pin
1 -
[1 - ~)
p
IT [1
o(n)cp(n)
pin
a+1 J .
- _1
We now have:
1
IT
1;;(2)
pin
= 2" '
11
1, we deduce:
6
o(n)cp(n)
2"~
2
~1.
11
>
<
nloglogn "
0:
1
~ eY +
n loglogn
97
~1 (1 - Pir1+1J
= k
.
~loglog(~) [IT (1 - ~J) 10glog(N~)
~=1
p)
,..r)
o ( lVk
(PITk (1 -
~)) loglog(~)
~(r
= e-Y(1
+ 1)
loglog~
lO;l-OYgNk
'V
109!)
loglogNk
Therefore we have:
o(~)
lim-----
dr
k~ ~loglog(~)
+ 1)
This shows:
~
o(n)
eY
1m -n=-lo'-'g:';"l":"'o-gn- ~ ~ (r + 1)
As this is valid for all r, and as
1, we have:
lim~(r)
~
o(n)
1m nloglogn
I
n~x
a(n)1ogn
e Y.
For all x
>
1 we have:
a(n)1og(n)
1<n~x
= A(x)logx
- fXA(t) dt.
1 t
98
If la(n)
IA(t)1 ~
M[t] ~ Mt,
I
IJXA(t)
t - dt
1-
JXtdt = M(x
- 1)
>
1 that:
= O(x).
= I
A(n)
din
ll(d)log ~
[I
= I
ll(d))lOgn -
din
din
din
ll(d)logn ll(d)logd
din
ll(d)logd
- I
din
ll(d)1ogd,
since
A
(3):
Since lllog
= -ll*A,
ll(n)1ogn
n~x
because
ll(n)
n~x
(4):
g(x)
Given
E >
[;J
1.
= o(x)
(x -+ +co).
0, there exists an X
>
1 such that:
1:
99
Ig (X) I
for x
EX
X.
>
Ig(x)
for I ~ x ~
~ K
X.
= sup(~(X),[X]).
>
X we can write:
EX
-+ K
x n
x
n~X
and
x-++oo
since
As
+1 I
ogx
n~x
)J(n)g(~)
~
n
~ ~ log,x when x
Jtn~x
because
0 such that:
>
Ig(~JI~~
EX
1
I n + Kx,
n~x
K for
X<
+00.
n~x
lim
+1 I
x-++oo x og,x
n~x
)J(n)g(~)
n
1 o.
In other words:
o(xlogx)
when x
+00.
n::;x
)J(n)logn
o(xlogx).
x.
100
]J(n)logn
= M(x)1ogx +
= M(x)1ogx +
O(x)
o(xlogx).
n~x
Hence we have:
M(x )1ogx
(xlogx),
whence:
M(x)
o(x).
SOLUTION 1 .23
: (1) :
]J (n) .
.
Th e f unct10n
~ 1S mul tiplicative.
In
]J
2( r)
p,r cp ( pr) p ro
for r ~ 2, this sum reduces to:
=0
As ]J2(pr)
L (p = 1)
00
0 the series
diverges.
duct:
F(s)
]J 2 (n)
n=1 cp(n)n s
IT
p
[1 +
(p
= 11
p
[1
11 )psJ
2
]J (p) + + J.l 2( Pr)
+ J
cp(pr)prs
ql(p)ps
(2) :
1; (s)
101
Since:
IT _1-'1~'
P
1 -
>
0 we have:
F(s)
+ -----,(p _ l) p 8+1
This
~ [(p - 1
8+1 - (p
l)p
converges normally on K.
1 28+1)
- l)p
ies:
0 >
-~
ties:
and:
/ (n _
Now, we
102
G( 0)
= IT
P
(1 + (p _1 1 )p - ( P -1 1 P
= 1.
= IT
[1 +
1
- ___
1--;:;---:-:;-)
(p _ l)p8+1
(p _ l)p28+1
-~,
G'(s) _
[...2.!E - l)p28+1
28+1
'"G("8') - L
+ p8
]
8
- 2 logp
+p - 1
P (p - l)p
= L~
2 -
P (p - l)p
In particular, for s
88 ) logp.
28+1
+p
- 1
= 0:
logp
G(O) loge
p p(p - 1)
- p p(p - 1)
G'(O)
(3) :
F(s)
~,
co
n=l
~ (n) ~
~ n8
and
z;;(s
1)
= n= 1
~(n)
-8-
nn
~L as.!:l
8'
n=l
withg=L*~.
rp
'l-
We have:
_
g(p) -
and:
p(p - 1 ) '
g(p)
p(p - 1) ,
by:
g(p )
For real s
3.
-! we have:
>
1Q:(n) I
8
n~x
for k
103
IT
~ IT
P
1
+
(p - 1)p8+1
(p _ 1\p28+1)
[1 +
p~x
[1 +
1
) < +00
1 8+1 +
'
(p _ 1)p28+1
(p - l)p
L~
n
The series
L Q:(~:)
, for s
L (-~)
and
Q:(n)
(4):
isexactly-!.
Since g
which yields:
Next we have:
n~x
g(n)(logx +
(logx + y)
n=l
y) -
g(n) -
n~x
n=l
g(n)log(n) +
g(n)
n
(Contd)
g(n)log(n) + Rl + R2 + R3 =
n~x
104
(Contd)
with:
Rl
=-
R2
= I
+ logx)
(y
n>x
n>x
g(n),
g(n)log(n),
I
n>x
-!
<
<
O.
Then:
Ig(n) I c
c ~ Ig(n) I
n 'x
L
c
n>x n
n>x n c
= I
Ig(n)1
Similarly:
IR21
~ I
n>x
Ig(n) Ilogn =
I Ig(~) I (logn)n
n>x
finally:
n
Ig(n)1 is convergent.
c
n
I ~ In
= logx
n~x
n
IjJ
+ y -
I P(~o~l)
Therefore we have:
+ 0(1).
l+c
105
f defined by:
1 integral we have:
f(pr)
If
r-l
Iz 1
[({)
, that is to say,
ro
p
p,r
r~l
r~l
is convergent for
+00
r=l
1 Ir - 1
n=l
> 1,
z ro
p
with sum
+00
Izlr-l
ro
p,r p
pO _ Iz
~ pO - Izl
< 1,
is convergent
is convergent.
r-l)
[1 + I - z 11
rs
p
r=l p
that is to say,
But we have:
+-~-
- z
+
p
1 -
- z
V[
1 + ps 1
J.
106
IT
[1 -+) ,
p
(pS ZZ+
1 -pS
respectively to
1- - l)J
IT
and
<
we have:
+00
lHn)-v(n)
n=l
~(s)
~ (2s)
IT
1 -
(E. +
1 -
(1)
-S
(2):
IT [1-1 (E._
~
the set determined by pairs (s ,z) such that Res > ~ and
R <
ZZ+s
l)J
contained in
IZ I
12.
<
and
z
S
(E. +
1 -
-S
1)
I(ps + l)(ps
- 1
(p
GO
Go
Go
_ l)(p 0 - R)
L ______R_ _ _ _
"'-
- z)
is convergent.
(p
- l)(p
- R)
If F(s,z) is the value of the infinite product, the function
Izl <
(3):
For Res>
F(s,z)
+00
= L
q=O
and Iz I
<
107
12 we can write:
A (s)zq
(2)
=1
For s
+00
= IT
<
2, for it is easily
seen that the infinite product converges uniformly on every compact set contained in the disc Izl < 2, and therefore represents
a function holomorphic in this disc.
Notice that the numbers A
(1)
tive.
IT
this gives:
A (l)zq
q
q=O
21
<
2:
2, that:
<
_+z
1 - p
1
1 - ~
exp{
q=l
a zq} ,
q
where:
L zq(J:.... 1
) is absolutely
p,q q pq
(p + l)q)
108
Each a
q=1
are polynomials, with positive coefficients, in a 1 ,a 2 ,
azq}
q
... ,a q , .
n=l
nS
r:l(n) - v(n)
> ~:
n-rr-
+"':
-+
N (x)'V
q
6
2"
A
11
If we set -2 A
11
(l)x.
>
=d
(1)
d x +
N (x)
Clearly d
'V
d x, or:
q
(x ) .
O.
Izl
<
2:
= 1 we obtain:
By setting z
109
~ IT [1
1l
(p
11 )]
1.
1 - -
SOLUTION 1-25:
Now let n
(1) :
IT pa
be an element of
It is
We have:
Therefore (p - 1) e D.
There are therefore only a fini te number
m
of possible prime factors for n. For each of these factors
a-I
one must have p
~ m, so:
Finally,
we have:
cardEm
10gm]d()
[1 + 10g2
m.
Hence we have:
and
(2):
n
qJ(n)
E
m
for odd m
>
3.
We have:
IT
pin
(1 - ~)p
IT
pin
1 +
l:.
p
1 _ 1
2"
(Contd)
110
(Contd)
11 pin
IT (1 + !) = r; (2) IT (1 +!) .
pin
IT
pprime 1 - 2
and:
IT
pin
(1 + !)p
~ ~ ~ ~.
~
din
din
ll(d)+o
Whence:
.:.
WiT"
with
din
1
(I.
1t
e = r;(2) = (r
Next:
e(l
+ logn).
that is to say:
n
WiT
= O(Iogn).
Now.
A(x)
= card{n:~(n)
x}.
= O(logn)
A(x)
yields:
= O(x).
logn - loglogn
= O(logx).
~~].
If ~(n).,;x
111
= O(1ogx).
logn
We have then:
n
= O(xlogx).
A(x)
(3) :
1 cp(n)8
There holds:
(C(l
= cp(n)Re8 ~
L ___1__ is absolutely
n=l cp(n)8
+n logn )lRe8
we have:
co
L :
m=l m
co
n=l cp(n)
L :
m
To decom-
1(p
We have:
1
-
1) 8
J:...I
8 = IfP
_s
P- 1 x 8+1
~ fP
1s1
p-1 x Re8 +1
dx
dx
_--,-I.....,sI,---=(p _ 1)Re8+1
112
>
O.
To
I [
(p _ 1)8
is normally convergent on K.
We have:
>
0).
We have:
~J
IT
1
--(1 +
p - 1
IT
p + 1
p(p - 1) (p + 1)
IT
]-'(1) =
ITE
P
-E+1
p(p - 1)
IT
2
p p(p
- 1
3
- 1) (p - 1)
Since:
1;(k)
p 1
IT
P P
pk
k _ 1
we have:
1;(3)1;(2)
1;(6)
1.94 .
(5):
tion
~(s)j(s)
pole of
~(s)
A(x)
m:rox
~ j(l)x
1-26: (1):
SOLUTION
113
= ~(3)~(2)
We then have:
~(6)'
Hence:
and:
P(A') => P(A).
(2):
such that:
= x'a + y'b.
<
O.
o " x' + Ab
<
Then:
n
= (x'
O.
n
= xa
+ yb,
= x'
+ Ab, y
y' - Aa. By the choice of A, we have
We also have y > 0, for if y were negative, we would have:
on setting x
x
= xa
+ yb
<
xa < ab,
= x'a
114
= xa + yb
with x
For n
O.
(3):
where
E~(x)
For
~.
and Ar
with:
A + (n + l)A
g(n)
+ + (n
r - 1)
(n +
(r - 1) I
1) A
r'
Now let
It is a root of unity,
a.
1)
if n divides a.
multiples of n.
115
q.
We have:
E (x)
1;
IY. s
_ x)s
(1;
The expansion of
E1;(x)
IY.s_1
( 1; - x)
8-1
...
1Y.1
(1; - x)
E1;(X)
with:
h (n)
1;
1[1Y.1 (n+1)a 2
(n+l)(n+2)
(n+s-l)
- -+
+ +
a
1;
n
n+1
(1)n+8-1
8
1;
1;
s -
As 11; I = 1,
holds.
Finally, we have:
g(n)
(4):
+ D(n
q-1
).
Not P 2 (A)
<=> pia
<=>
<=>
<=>
Not P1 (A).
P2 (A).
In order to prove peA) => PleA) let us show that:
<=>
116
o.
not satisfied.
It is now necessary to show that for a finite set A
P1(A) <=> P(A).
PA(n)
g(n) + O(n
q-l
{a "a }
1
r
).
r - 1, and:
r-l
The Property
p~a.
aO e A such that
of~*
satisfying P1(A).
It also
satisfies P2 (A).
117
P2 (A'). As A' is finite, peA') is true and peA) is true by Question (1) above.
Thus P1 (A) => peA) has been shown, and as it was already known
that peA) => P1 (A), we conclude that peA) <=> P1 (A).
When Q is the set of prime numbers less than
EN
IT
p~N
(1 _~)-1
P
By Mertens' Theorem (cf., the Introduction) and a classical asymptotic estimate, we have:
>
0,
O.
>
Relation (*):
meA(N,Q)
(*)
- :>
m
...
= QN'
meA(N,Q') m
meA(N,Q) m
meA(N,Q) m
qlm
= Q -{q}.
118
!.<
2.=!
q meA(N,Q) m
we deduce:
!~
meA(N,Q) m
meA(N,Q)
~.
!~B(l-!) IT
meA(N,Q') m
peQ
(1_!)-1 =B peQ'
IT (1 __p1)-1.
p
REMARK: This result gives a good lower bound, to the extent that
one has the trivial (or almost trivial) upper bound:
-~lim
meA(N,Q) m
(b):
N+oo
-=
meA(N,Q) m
IT
peQ
(1)-1
1--
If one writes m2
T
IT
t=l
whence:
We also have:
IT
t=l
Bt
t
(B t + 1)
We can write:
we have:
and
w(m)
IT
t=l
Bt
Let m
119
m::;,z
~
m
l::;,;IZ
lim
<l,P1)=1
: ;, I ;
m::;'z
I
m~z
lim
(1.'P 1 )=1
_w<_m_)
l::;,;IZ
<l,P1 )=1
T ~
TT
p~P 2
[11-1
1 - -)
IT
peP1
[1 - ~1
pJ pJJz
[1 __p11-1
BC1 C2 ).
120
SOLUTION 1- 28:
= [x],
=1
and R(P)
1
= n1/3 ,
= {p
::> z}.
{iii::: O[pJ};
{i Ii::: 0 [p J} ;
= {iii:::
-m[p]}.
In order to verify relation (H) of Section 1.13 of the Introduction, we will verify that:
x, p + m a prime number}
::>
::>
S(A,P) + z.
(*)
Apart from the prime numbers of the first set which satisfy p
(there are at most z) all the other pIS satisfy z
<
~ z
n; for
l O[p.]
l
and
p + m
l O[p.],
l
::>
x, p + m a prime number}
121
IT
IT
2<p~z
2<p~z
IT
2<p~z
IT
~)
IT
1
P 1 - 2"
p
SOLUTION 129:
C --2- ,
log x
122
setting:
I
pel
1
C
-~
--2-+
log x
IX
c2
2 t10g t
dt = 0(1).
c x(1og1ogx) 2
2
log x
If N is odd or i f N<
7 it is clear that
(b):
-+ II (1
logNplN
o<N..x
~J
pJ
< E _N_
L !
loiN diN d
Thus:
log4 x O<N..x
Nand m
123
( Y.
1)
O<N~x diN d
Lastly, we have:
We have:
r(N)
N~
L
Pl~
(d):
N~x
1I(~x) ~
x/2
2
11
(~x) ~ F" ~ i f x
log x
4.
With the help of the upper and lower bounds given in Questions
(b) and (c) above, we have:
M(x)
ex
if x
>
4.
124
(e):
numbers.
SOLUTION 1-31:
Let us set E
(a):
= {ilpi+1
d. ~
ieE
J.
d. 3 Alogx
J.
ieE
= AlogxcardE.
Therefore we have:
x
cardE ~ A10gx
By the definition of M(x):
(b):
M(x)
a10gx<m~Alogx
d.J.
m.
J.
J.
Exercise 1-28:
card {i
I~x
<
pi
x and d.
J.
= m} ~
IT
E _x_
10g2x plm
(1 +!)p ,
IT
plm
where
We have:
[1 + !)p
denotes the
I
L I~(d)
d
dTm
M~bius
function.
125
[1 + ~)
II
alogx<m~Alogx plm
alogx<m~Alogx dim
d~Alogx
alogx<m~Alogx
m=O(modd)
11-I~) I
(A - a)logx
o[ I
d~logx
(A -
~)
d~Alogx
1-1 (d) )
. \
a) [ L
d=l
d 2
(1 + o(l)logx.
From this latter estimate and from the result of Question (b)
above, the desired upper bound certainly follows: (One can take
=F
F'
d=l
(d):
i
n(x)
M411).
2
d
(i.e., p.
x)
> alogx
whenever
For
sex)
alogx<d .~Alogx
l
d.l
d.>Alogx
d.l
for
n(~x) <
~ n(x).
The number of terms in the first sum is M(x), the number in the
second is therefore:
n (x) - n (~x) - M(x).
Hence:
sex) ~ (n(x) - n(~xAlogx - M(x)(A - a)logx.
. f s(x)
1 lm
In
-;x;-+oo
126
M-
F' (A - a)2
; + ;t - F'4. t .
16~' = ; + ~t.
( )
'Z-:;:1I x
d.=p()
l
11
x +1
-2'Ux,
M-
'U
F'(A - a)2
There-
d. ::; alogx
l
_ _l _ ~
logp i
<
Pi
d.l . . . ; a 1 ogx
log~x
lodx'
which implies:
d.
15
16 ).
x.
CHAPTER 2
Additive Theory
INTRODUCTION
2.1
DEFINITIONS
DEFINITIONS:
oA
= inf
Ne:N'~
(A(N) .
N
If B = A we write 2A
= (h
= A + A, and by in-
- l)A + A.
We say that the sequence A is a BASIS if there exists an integer h such that hA
=~.
=:N.
128
2.2
CHAPTER 2
RESULTS
THEOREM:
(~nirelman-Mann):
o(A + B)
min(l,oA + oB).
~nirel
man density one is the set of integers, it follows from the preceding Theorem that every sequence with strictly positive Snirel-
2.3
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The basic work in this field, rich in results and references,
ADDITIVE THEORY
129
PROBLEMS
EXERCISE 2-1: (1): Show that if A is a basis there exist two pos-
E,
o(A(B
oA.oB.
EXERCISE 2-3:
fen)
as n
00
CHAPTER 2
130
A is
not a basis.
I there
>
val [n.,j. n . )) .
J
d.11. i
e:N} is a basis.
la e A}.
Begin by estab-
EXERCISE 26: Show that for every pair of positive rational num-
bers a and b, a + b
<
such that:
crA
= a,
crB
b,
cr(A + B)
a + b.
131
ADDITIVE THEORY
a.
lim{{aa })
n-+<x>
Show that
(H)
A is not a basis.
seque~ce
has
(H' )
2 set:
~
k }.
A = {a = aa
<
a1
=1
<
a2
<
0).
EXERCISE 2-9: Assume that every integer divisible by a prime number q congruent to 3 modulo 4, but not divisible by q2, is not
the sum of two squares of integers ([Har], Theorem 355).
Deduce from this that one can find arbitrarily long chains of
consecutive integers which are not the sums of two squares; show
that for no positive real number a is the sequence ([an 2 ]) a
basis of order two.
CHAPTER 2
132
SOLUTIONS
= a. +
000
~1
+ a.
~h
A is a basis of order h.
= {O,l, ... ,a n -
with
i1
i2
I}
may be written
000
n - 1.
= an
n+h-1)
(n + h)h
~ ( h
~
h!
Now we have:
a
h
'
n
[1 + ~t
hI
Since we have:
lim
n-+co
(1 + ~r 1 ,
hT
hI
ADDITIVE THEORY
the sequence
sequence.
(2):
133
~ [~)
A(x)
Bn Y (n
<
By setting x
1,2, ... ),
= Bn Y
we obtain:
l/y
,
so
-1. A(x)
1m
l/y
0,
>
<=>
N is equivalent to
Hence:
A(ll).
h.
]
A(N)
<=> j
B(A(N))
By the defin-
C(N)
a(A(B))
aA.aB.
Nand B(M)
a(A(B))
min(aA,aB).
M.
Since B is an in-
A(N),
134
CHAPTER 2
EXAMPLE 1 : A
B
A(B)
{1,4,S,6,7,8, ... },
oA = 3"
{1,2,4,S,6,7,8, ... },
oB
B
A(B)
{1,2,4,S,6,7,8, ... },
oB
2
3
o(A(B) )
2
9
supf(n).
~(m) =
n;:,m
The function
min(oA,oB) .
oA
{1,4,7,10,11,12,13, ... },
{1,4,10,11,12,13, ... },
of~*
2
3
o(A(B) )
EXAMPLE 2: A
mapping
oA,oB
is a decreasing
f.
By induction we define the sequence n i in the following way: nO = 0, n i (i ~ 1) is the smallest integer satisfying
ni
>
J.
2i
n < n. l}.
J.+
(i) is satisfied, as n 1
~(ni) <
1.
>
< n1,
A(N)
-N- = 1 ~ ~(N).
J.
A(N)
A(n i )
1 A(n i )
-n-.J.
ni -
(i -
in.
J.
1)n i _1
< ~n
ADDITIVE THEORY
135
N - in.~ +
A(N)
-N-=
1 +
A(in.~ -
1)
A(in. -
1)
in. -
1 -
in. -
1 -
in..
II
in. -
A(in. -
<
1)
---~------~N~--~-----
A(in. -
~ 1 - --~~--~~--~~~~---
1 -
1)
- 1),
-N--
1jJ(N).
(iii) Let h
2 be an integer.
ger N, at least one of the numbers N,N + 1, ... ,N + hd is an element of hB, where the maximum of the elements of V has been denoted by d.
a.
~1
+ d.
+ + a.
~1
~h
+ d.
~h
o and
= a.
+ + a. ; the element
~1
~h
{x.}
~
<
1, we have:
CHAPTER 2
136
[an]
<
[a(n + 1)].
N - [an]
~ 1
+ [a],
and:
an
where the a
(i)
are elements of A.
ADDITIVE THEORY
137
By hypothesis, 1 e B,
o~
~ ~
[aN] - h
h) such that:
= [aa(l)] + + [OO2(h-R,)] +
~R,
(where
a(i)
e A).
[aN] - h
aa
(1)
+ + aa
(h-R,)
h,
or again:
aa(l) + + aa(h-R,)
<
aN
aa
(1)
+ + aa
(h-R,)
+ 2h + 1,
11]
1]
elements of A.
138
CHAPTER 2
o~i~h
(h - i
[h + ! + 11) .
]
or.
h + 1 + [h :
and
= p~
to saying that uq + vp
<
and b
pq.
1] if a
to say that a + b
q
Set:
aA
aB
< 1).
< 1
reduces
and
Then:
A+ B
and
a(A
B)
=~
uq + vp
pq
+ ~
q
= aA
+ aBo
{a.
e AI{aa ~.}
>
and
AE
we shall set:
CA A'.
E
Notice that A'E is a finite set; let A'E be an upper bound for its
cardinality.
ADDITIVE THEORY
A(N)
139
= AE'(N)
~
+ A (N)
E
A' + A (N)
E
E
. sup --N-A(N)
11m
1
lim sup N
card{n
N->-
N->-
NI{an}
E}
E.
Now let h
1 be an integer.
= (h
+ l)(AUA')
E E
A).
have:
{am} ~
(h + l)E, hence we
(h + l)E.
CHAPTER 2
140
zero, and the same holds for the sequence (h + l)A, since this
is included in the union of two sequences with zero upper asymptotic density.
(b): Let Xl' ... ,xk be the limit points of the sequence A.
Set:
A' = {aeAI'o'je [l,k]'llaa
if 1
A(j)
x.11
]
>
k, and:
{aeAlllaa -
x.11
~ d,
]
( .)
has
equali~y:
+ + x.
1 (h 1)
taken modulo 1.
h+1
) of elements, and
exists a yeE such that Ilam - YII < (h + 1). From this one de-
(h + l)A
therefore that of (h + l)A) is less than 2k(h+1)(h + 1), the sequence (h + l)A therefore has zero density.
ADDITIVE THEORY
141
Since
fen)
that:
fen)
Mk =>
<
k .
Set Ak = {nelN!{an} :.: 2/k}; since the sequence (exn)nE!N is equidistributed modulo I (cf., [Rau] or Exercise 58), we can find
an integer
M~
such that:
The sequence
(N')'~l
l
l"",.
therefore
A(N)
N
k>
Nf(N).
CHAPTER 2
142
prime numbers congruent to 3 modulo 4. Let ql, ... ,qk be the first
k such prime numbers; the number 4(Ql oooQ k) - 1 is congruent to
3 modulo 4, hence at least one of its prime factors is congruent
to 3 modulo 4, and it is necessarily distinct from Ql, ... ,Qk'
(ii): Let us consider the system of congruences:
We are going
Part (ii).
Set X
=Y + ~
[a~
We then have:
aX
2
2
2
2
ani + an 2 - ({ani} + {an 2 } - {aX}),
2
2
ani + an 2 - 2
<
aX < ani + an 2 + 1,
143
ADDITIVE THEORY
2
2
n1
+ n2
X-
2
().
().
<
< n1
X<
2
n1
2
1
+ n 2 +().
2
+ n2 < X + ~
().
3
= y +-
CHAPTER 3
Rational Series
INTRODUCTION
3.0
INTRODUCTION
Let K be a field of characteristic zero.
R, K[X]
bra of K, and K[[X]] the algebra of formal power series with aoeffiaients in K.
If P and Q are polynomials with coefficients in K, we can exexpand the rational function P/Q as a power series if Q(D)
+ D.
3.1
FIRST CHARACTERISATION
= L u Xn
Let f(X)
P.(n)CJ.~,
l~i~r
1
h
were
, 1
CJ..
1.
1.
~.
v
1.
144
RATIONAL SERIES
145
1....
- Conversely: If f(X)
degree equal to
n~O
ai
R of K of
less 1.
no we have:
P.(n)a~,
un
].
].
f =
n~O
X,
then
P'eoof: By expanding
(x - ~r
I
P(n)anxn,
where
is a polynomial of
n~O
un
nO' we have:
P. (n)a~,
].
l~i~r].
it follows that:
f(X) =
n~O
When K =~,
u I
V
n~O
whence:
X=
we have:
~,
n~O
v'
146
CHAPTER 3
UV
UV
The fraction
UV.
VV
In the general case let K' be a Galois extension of K containing the coefficients of U and V.
The fraction:
a(V)
11
IT
aeG"{id}
aeG
a(V)
to V .
3.2
nO the un satisfy:
0,
where a. e
1
K.
then:
3.3
reX)
u Xn
r(X)Q(X)
and
Q(X)
K[X]
reX)
RATIONAL SERIES
147
u
n+s
u n + s +1
o.
determinant:
U
/',
D(t)
L u n Xn
o u1
u1 u 2
ut
u t +1
L u n Xn
be rational, it is necessary
the
/',t
= o.
BI BL IOGRAPHY
[Sal], [Ami], [Pis].
to
148
CHAPTER 3
PROBLEMS
n~O
U
n
and
no
such that
~ nO :
U
n
u n +l
(s)
u n +l
u n+2
u n +s +l
n+s
O.
n
U
(2) :
n+s
Let D
in K, and let:
n+s+l
[a . . J
l,] l::;:l::;:n
n+2s
l::;:j::;:n
a n- l ,n-2
Cd
149
RATIONAL SERIES
last column).
Dendte the cofactor of a. . in D by A. "
l.,]
l.,]
Prove
SYLVESTER'S
IDENTITY
Dd
= AlIA
, D,n
(3) :
- A
n,l 1,n'
D~S)
0 for n
nO'
Assume
two integers
thi~
nO we have
D~s)
U XU
n~O
0, then
Show
=0
to'
L
n~O
u Xn is rational, there
n
D~t)
~t
L
n~O
O.
Conversely,
u Xn is rational.
n
PRIMITIVE SERIES
Show
Let
n~O
.
1 f uuctl.OU.
.
p(X) Wl.t
. h P ,Q
ratl.ona
Q(XT
e
P and Q inz:::[X] with Q(O)
1.
z::;
150
CHAPTER 3
Assume R > 1.
(1) :
u zn reduces to a poly-
Show that
nomial.
Assume R
(2):
function in a disc
function.
Izl
mthe
Give
(3):
ber.
< 1
p > 1.
< p,
mwill
be denoted ID ,
'p
mp by np .
Iz 1 <
Show that if pp
< p
>
in the
function.
EXERCISE 34: HADAMARD'S PRODUCT
Let fez)
L u n zn
and g(z) =
with coefficients in K.
rational.
m.
way:
-1
If:
vn
+0
set a
n
u nv n ,
if:
vn
set a n
O.
a z
n
If the series
n~O
RATIONAL SERIES
151
n~O
Xn e K[[X]].
where [An]l N denotes the coefficient in the first row and the
last column of the matrix An .
Show that if there exists a matrix A associated with
the series L u Xn , then this series is rational.
n
n;;:O
(1):
(2):
o 1 o
o o 1
o
o
u N_ 2
u N- 1
...........
n;;:O
o = o.
152
CHAPTER
[:
~1
where A is the N x M ma,trix all the columns of which are zero except the first, which is equal to the last column of A.
n~O
A be a matrix, of order N
>
1, associated with f.
= O.
Let
Show that to
~ N:
(A )1 .
,J
+ 0 can
be
A,
RATIONAL SERIES
153
SOLUTIONS
(2) :
nO
by the
the determinant
no.
We have:
a n-l,l
a n,l
a n-l,2
a n,2
Ai , 1
Ai , 2
l,n-l
l,n
a n,n-l
A
a n-l,n
a n,n
n,l
n,2
x
A
a n-l,n-l
(Contd)
1
n,n-l
n,n
154
CHAPTER 3
al,n-l
0
0
D2d ,
(Contd)
o
o
a n,n-l
whence:
D2d
therefore:
If D
+ 0:
Dd
we have:
,D
"'l",n
1.;j..:n
We have:
D[Dd - Al ,n,n
1A
- An, 1A1]
,n
0,
. )Q(a.
l,]
.)
l,]
O.
RATIONAL SERIES
155
where P f 0, we have Q
= O.
Hence we have:
= Ai ,n,n
lA
Dd
- AlAi
n,
,n
in all cases.
Let us apply Sylve ter's relation to the Hankel deter-
(3):
minant.
We obtain:
as soon as D(s-l)
n
=0
= O.
of equations for n
- u n+s'
a sU n
~ no:
+ a u n+2s - 2
- u
n+2s-1'
KS
156
CHAPTER 3
Now,
s + 1 equations.
L u n Xn
is rational.
nO the un are
o.
From this one deduces for t
for
~t
to'
The Sylvester's
relation gives:
Di t ) = for
all t
~ to'
tion:
n~O
Let
n~O
a Xn and
n
n~O
b Xn be two primitive
n
157
RATIONAL SERIES
is not. There then exists a prime number p that divides all the
a.
This number does not divide all the a.
Let h be the smalln
n
est index such that p does not divide a h . Similarly, let k be
the smallest index such that p does not divide bk . We then have:
The terms in parentheses are divisible by p, but ahb k , and therefore a h+k , is not divisible by p, which contradicts the hypothesis.
(2):
in~[X].
f 0, such that:
a,
PA + QB
whence:
a
PA
Q=Q +
B;
~ e ~[[X]];
by expanding ~ in ~[[X]] we obtain:
where
ane~
n~O
158
CHAPTER 3
qQ'"
eC",
By Question (1)
~ = 1.
qe
If we write:
then eoqO
-=
P(X)
Q(X)
qe
l, which implies qo
'\
n~O
u Xn
n
n~O
qQ ;'
1.
un
Xn
'
P(X)
~ with Q*(O)
1.
In particular, K can
RATIONAL SERIES
159
-R1 = -nVTiD
lim Iu
n '
now if R > 1,
1 (now, u
the series
(2):
<
e:<z, whence u
n~O
Let 1
< p'
< p.
In the disc
121
< p'
We will
We have:
V 2
n
where:
whence for s
k:
un
D(s)
n
u n+l
u n+s
un
u n+l
u n+s
n+l
u n+k-l
n+2
n+k
n+s+l
u n+s+k-l
u n +2s
v n+k
v n+s
vn+s+l
n+k-l
u n+k
....
u n+k-l+s
n+k+l
u n+s
u n+s+l
......
vn+k+s
vn+2s
( a )s-k+l .
160
CHAPTER 3
(s
Set:
< A < R
sup Ig(x) I,
Ixl::::B
suplf(x)l,
Ixl::::A
and:
lu n I ...< - n
A
As B
...:..CM_(.:..;S,--,;+~l):....;),-S_+_l
> 1,
k s+l-k
whence:
limIDCS)1
n-+<
Ca 0 ) S - k+ 1)
A 2ks
o.
> 1,
RATIONAL SERIES
161
starting from a
A < R
0 < B
p
p
P'
vergence of the series f in
ised exactly as in Question
isfying 0
<
ID(s)1
n
(3) :
-nk
~ CA
p p
-n(s+l-k)
PB
P
We always have:
Set:
-k
C'
Since
-(s+l-k)
P
A PB
P P
~ (8)
C.C.
P
pp
>
ID ( s ) II D ( s ) I
n
~ c' ~ n ,
As the coefficients un
elZ,
where ~
8
such that:
M8) < 1.
such that:
elZ
is as well.
162
CHAPTER 3
Ixl
IT
p prime
we see that
Ixl p
Ixl Ixl p
1,
~ 1 if x is a non-zero integer.
L un zn
is rational.
SOLUTION 3-4:
fez)
is rational,
un
As g(z) is rational, there exist 1 numbers a 1 , ... ,a, and 1 polynomials Q1, ... ,Q, such that:
V
whence for n
u xv
n
~ sup(n 1 ,n 2 )
P.(n)a~x
l::;i::;k
Q.(n)s~
]
p. (n)Q . (n)( a . S . ) n
1
l::;j::;l
L an zn is meromorphn
ic on arbitrary large discs, in particular on discs containing
SOLUTION 3-5:
RATIONAL SERIES
163
where the Pi (2
1.
<
vn
+0
.In is
P. (n) [-2:.
Whence for n
a1
n 1 one has
and:
-1
u nv n
una -1 1-n[ 1
= una -1 1-n[ 1 +
Pi(n)
P.(n)
2~i~p
2~i.li:p
2~i~p].
[arr
a: 1
-2:.
]. (ar
a1 +
000
o.
ai n p
P. (n)(-) ] ]
].
al
lJ
a i n]p+1
]. a
P. (n)
w zn
with:
(a.)n
----"'-----
1 -
P.(n)..2:.
a1
2~i.li:p].
(Contd)
CHAPTER 3
164
(Contd)
n;m1
hl
n~nl
than one.
As a
e~
t zn
nm 1
n
function
REMARK: If the rational series
n~O
1 we have:
of the series
L u n Xn
RATIONAL SERIES
165
We have:
whence we obtain:
i
(A )l,N
Finally AN
= ui
for 1
N - 1.
(2): (b):
O.
t
L
O~k~n-l
Bn
The matrix A
n-1-k-
and:
[A
t
L
l~i~N
Next,
[A
n-1-k
n-l-k
] 1 ,1.. [A].1., 1
]1 .[A]. N
,1.
1.,
[A
n-k
] 1 , N"
CHAPTER 3
166
Finally we have:
\'
U
V
-w
o~~~n n-k k - n'
as
o = O.
(2): (c):
For n
=1
+ 1:
For j = 1:
n + 1.
We have:
O~ilii:n
l~k~N
-n-i
[A ]1 N[A
]1 k[A]k
"J
RATIONAL SERIES
(Contd)
For j
167
[An+l] 1 . +
\
[An]
[A-]
L
1 k
k
,]
l:r.k:r.N
'
,]
+ 1:
For j = 1:
s2 =
"'i:r.n
Finally we obtain:
= un
= L
n~O
tion:
g(x)
0, the relation
= f(x)
that is to say:
+ y(x)f(x),
168
CHAPTER 3
f(X)
f<X)
g(X)
1 - f(X) - 1.
1 -
(2): (d):
Let Po
= P(O) and qo
Q(O).
We have:
with:
Q (X)
1
= 2:....
qo
(q
- Q(X))
and
P1
Q1 will also be
1 -
ass~;iated
with
Q'
Associate with the polynomial Q1 the matrix A of order N
defined in Question (2)(a) above.
To the fraction 1
!Q
(P1)
~2)(b)
A.
will,
And
II ! QJ .
sentation
~ of ~ , with
= 1.
MN~)
1.
If
RATIONAL SERIES
169
=~,
CHAPTER 4
Algebraic Theory
INTRODUCTION
4.1
FIELD EXTENSIONS
4.1'1
= [M:LJ x
[L:X] .
Let Xl,X2 be two extensions of X contained in the same field
L.
The COMPOSITE OF Xl 'X 2 ' which is denoted by X1X2 ' is the sub-
(ai)l~i~k
field of
X.
be k elements of a field
that is an extension
170
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
braic.
of the field
4.12
171
of rational numbers.
0 is
of a over
[K(a) :K] .
Conversely, if P is an irreducible polynomial of K[X] there
exists an extension of
in which
of K such that:
(1): P splits in L[X] into a product of first degree
polynomials;
(2): If (a1, ... ,a k ) is the set of roots of P in L,
L : K(a1, ... ,a k ) .
A field
ial of
~[X]
is said to be ALGEBRAICALLY CLOSED if every polynomof degree greater than or equal to one has a root in
~.
Let K be a field.
that:
of K such
is algebraically closed.
is called an ALGE-
172
CHAPTER 4
4.1'4
CONJUGATE FIELDS
In an algebraic closure
X; we say that Land L' are CONJUGATE FIELDS over X if there ex-
n we
~(a)
a'.
n of X;
~ (x)
n.
= ax for all x e L.
To every element a e L we
The NORM (resp. TRACE, CHARACTERISTIC POLYNOMIAL) OF AN ELEMENT a IN THE EXTENSION LJX is the determinant (resp. trace, char-
~.
'~k
~l ....
in an algebraic closure
n of
L we have:
GALOIS THEORY
We assume the field X is either characteristic zero or a
finite field.
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
4.21
173
GALOIS EXTENSION
Let
Llx
be a finite extension.
We say that
Llx
is a GALOIS
roots in L.
Llx,
and
Let
Llx
= Gal(LIX).
LH.
F ~ H = Gal(LIF),
the inverse map being:
Gal(FIX) ~ G/Gal(LIF).
CYCLIC) EXTENSION if
We say that
Llx
is an ABELIAN (resp.
(resp. cyclic).
4.23
Let X
The extension
Llx
is
qn
174
CHAPTER 4
4. 2 . 4
IT
0(0.),
oeGal(LIK)
0(0.).
oeGal(LIK)
4.3
INTEGERS
An element
+a
n-l
n-l
+ + a x + a
1
= O.
If the
INTEGRAL OVER A.
Let C be a commutative ring, B a subring of C, and A a subring
of B. If C is integral over B and if B is integral over A, then
C is integral over A.
If a ring A is an integral domain and K is quotient field,
we say that A is INTEGRALLY CLOSED if A coincides with its integral closure in K.
4.3'2
of~.
[K:~]
The set of
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
175
over~.
~(Ici).
K.
If d
=I
K.
4.33
DISCRIMINANT
l ]
~l,J~n
If K is a field of characteristic 0 or a finite field, the discriminant of a basis of Lover K is not zero; if the n distinct
K-isomorphisms of L into an algebraic closure
of K are denoted
If
n-1
) = NL!K(P'(a.
~l~
B.
176
CHAPTER
~-modu1e,
4.4
and all
bases of
If A
=~,
= m, B is a
IDEALS
4.41
DEDEKIND DOMAINS
A DEDE-
Assume K is
The ring of
The product
L xiYi'
where x.1 eI, y.1 eJ; this is a fractional ideal denoted IJ.
Let
of A.
be a Dedekind domain,
structure.
A of
A can be writ-
where p
n.
.1
and n. e~.
1
177
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
4.43
= p.
= [BIP.:AIP]
l
and ca11:
l~i~q
e.f.
l
= n.
2.
L are finite in number; these are the prime divisors of the dis-
criminant ideal
4.44
~BIA.
0 EO
Llx
G one has oB
= Gal(LIX).
0; if P is a prime ideal of B, oP
THE
178
CHAPTER 4
(IT
PB
l:;;i:;;g
Pi)e,
where the ideals P. are all conjugate, have the same residual
1
ity:
efg
= n.
e G such that oP = P.
D is a subgroup of G of order
!2.
g
o defines an
The mapping
0 ~
is a
[L:L] I
4.4'5
e,
EXAMPLE:
f,
g.
P in B has one of
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
(3): pB
179
= P,2
[~)
is defined by:
(i)
P is decomposed in L if:
(ii)
P is inertial in L if:
or:
= 2 and
or:
= 2 and
(~)
= +1,
= 1 mod
(~)
8;
= -1,
= 5 mod
8;
=2
and d
=2
or 3 mod 4.
[~)(~) = (_l)~(p-l)(q-l).
4.5
a!'e
two
180
CHAPTER 4
4.5'1
0:.
n)
if
is complex comjugation in
0:, TO.
is also a m-isomorphism of
4.5'2
IDEAL CLASSES OF
Let
We have:
One can show that every class of ideals of B contains an integral ideal
A such that:
N(A) :;; M,
A is
N(A)
by definition the
cardinality of
THE UNITS OF K
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
contained in K.
U and of
1"
1"
181
182
CHAPTER 4
PROBLEMS
=F
= F
elements (p a
prime number);
n
We denote by
xq
is a generator of Gal(Klk).
I: (2) :
Let
-&
-&
T(u) (-&o(u)
k is surjective.
-& = x - o(x)
= O.
(-&
0(-&0 (u)
+ +
n-2
(-&
(-&0
0(-&)
n-l
(u,
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
183
+ 0).
= xl
- 0(x1 ) is of the
form xl = x + A, where A e k.
Let -& e K be an element of the form -&
II: (1) :
= 1.
o(x) (where
1S
of the form xl
11:(2):
III:
denote by
~n
We
III:(1):
Let A
= {aeK~':anek'~};
k is surjective.
= ata)
Denote by
A is a multiplicative sub~:A + ~
an isomorphism:
iji:A/k'~
+ ~n .
111:(2):
~(a)
in
~n.
= d.
k[X).
111:(3):
k* defined by w(a)
184
CHAPTER 4
+ 0,
(1):
Let a be a root
p.
Let P(X) =XP - X - a
(4):
b = ta + c P - c (where c e k, ten, t
(5):
+ 0).
1m (resp.
-3);
of a prime number p.
m (resp.
ber I - ~
2
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
185
PRELIMINARY QUESTION:
splitting field over
mof
the polynomial X3 - 2.
defined as a
Recall why the
m.
k.
In what follows]J denotes an element of k such that ]J2p is
not the cube of an element of k.
Let K be the subfield of ~ defined as the splitting
field on k of the polynomial X3 - ]J2p. The roots of this poly(2):
(b):
six.
0"
of K
such that:
/iii,
,( /iii)
- /iii,
(c):
1=3,
,( 1=3)
= Gal(Klk).
ja,
- 1=3,
o(a)
(0,,)
~enerated by
Is it commutative?
and,
is
of a over Ill?
186
CHAPTER 4
rm,
K/~
~-automorphism
- 1=3,
Ct
a(ct}
]..I
Calculate a .
Show that the group G =
(4):
of the subgroup
(a)
Ga1(K/~)
Let
(a) .
Verify that ~(rm) C N and that [N:~(rm)]
extension
N/~
3.
~.
Recall that if Ct i , (i =
1,2, ... ,n = [F:E] )are elements of Or whose conjugates relative to
. . -- 1 , 2 , .. . ,n, t h en ~(r/E) dOlVldes
E are d :note d Ct i(j) ' ~,J
(det(Ct ~ J)))2.
an extension F of E is denoted
~(r/E).
I: (1):
I: (2):
I: (3):
isfying:
[K:~]
of K relative
to~?
~-automorphism
a of K sat-
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
187
and am-automorphism
T
T(~
of K such that:
2
=-
2'
+ i.
From this
Assume that m1
11:(1):
= -1
and m2
=1
mod 4.
number) of Ok .
1
11:(2):
criminant of Klk 3 .
ramify in K?
Let j
+1
188
CHAPTER 4
1:(1):
= Nk/~(aO + jSO)'
1:(2):
2
2
3x 4+y
l 'lntegers satls
' fylng
'
.
ratl0na
p
that there exists one and only one pair (a,b) of rational integers
for which:
a > 0,
(1)
b - 1 mod 3,
(2)
27a 2 + b 2
4
p
II:
of
Let w
+1
(3)
~'
the extension
w'
11:(1):
Verify
that~'
by
B,
K is cyclic over
~,
and that D
by
D.
Verify that
= P2
II: (2): Let t be a generator of (:?z,/p:;z)'" and H be the subgroup (:?z,/p:;z),.,3 of (:?z,/ :;z) 1, Let us set:
i
ieH
ti
ieH
ieH
Verify that 11,11' ,11" are elements of K conjugate over 9) and that
K=
~(11)
= ~(11') = 9)(11").
189
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
11:(3):
II: (4) :
and
l'
i,jeH
there are k terms equal to One
equal to
kx1'
terms
P(x) = x
+x
1'X
l'
P
2 2
P a
with
a elN.
= 27a
2 + b2
4
an d
that:
P(x) = x
+x
p - 1
- --3- x
_ p(3 + b) - 1
27
111:(1):
+ a 2x
+ a1x + a o is:
190
CHAPTER 4
m'
is divisible
by three;
(iii): q(p-l)/3
=1
mod p;
+p
=x 3
mod p.
=0
mod q
=0
mod q has a
solution.
111:(3):
= 27x2
=1
=1
mod p.
III:(4):
Show that
3~
mthe
Cd = 2,3, or
3
polynomial f(x) = x
mod 9
I:
4 mod 9).
We write
* l
INTEGERS
(1):
(2) :
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
fied in X.
191
1:(3):
X.
= p3.
P
11:(1):
Show that if p
= -1
=x 3
mod p be impossible:
mod 3, p decomposes in X.
Pp P'p' where
= -1
Let q
=1
In
~.
is a prime
(~r2 n~ /iDT.
III: (1):
Show that:
192
CHAPTER 4
III: (3):
= 2,
Ok is a prin-
= 2
Let m
or 3 mod 7 be an integer.
N(a +
b~
c~
=m
= -1
Let p
N(a +
show that p
mod 7.
b~
c~
= p,3p,9p,
= 2
and 3 mod 7.
Let 7
+q
= 1
= 1
Pp by distinguishing
mod 7).
poses in K.
By using the method of the preceding Question show that the
prime factors of q are in the same ideal class and determine
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
193
= m(/65) and
= /65.
(2):
+ 1
W -
=x2
+b(W +2 1))
in integers).
(3):
(4):
equal to -1.
(S):
Let
fie1d~.
(6):
that k( 1)
k( /U)
or k( 1)
= k( vCU) .
and whose
and
CHAPTER 4
194
+ O.
a non-principal ideal
of~
in k and K then:
(11):
Show that
= 1).
= q = pro
(1)
Verify that the extensions Klk following satisfy the
conditions above:
(1)
(a)
=m
p
=m
(a),
p
a be-
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
195
k =m
5 (S), S being a root of the polynom5; K = m
ial X4 - 2.
(2)
(2) (a)
[R:k]
(2) (b)
Every element of
Xq
n.
n
X; K
(2) (c)
X.
defined by:
= wq for all we K.
ial Xq
Show that K is a splitting field over k of the polynom- X, and that there exists a root ~ of this polynomial
such that K
= k(~).
Galois.
Let a e G (K Ik) be a k-automorphism of K. Show that
the mapping 0, which to x e K associates o(x) = ax (for an ele(4) (a)
K.
(4) (b)
~(a)
= ais
(4) (c)
Ia*(x) - x q I
196
CHAPTER 4
Describe
(4) (d)
0*
(5) (a)
Let m ~ I be a rational integer and let ]J e I +
m
m
m
It OK' that is to say ]Jm = I + alt
(a e OK) .
Show that:
Show that the mapping w:OK ~ k, which to an element aeOK associates w(a) = TrKlk(a), is surjective. From this
m
deduce the following result: For any Am e I + It Ok there exists
(5) (b)
m+l
It
),
Nrn Klk]Jm
( ) = -Am ,
m+l
Show that:
(5) (c)
(Uk
(resp.
where Ale
I + Itm+l0 K
m+
UK)
= a2
(6)
- db 2
with a,be!!! .
p
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
197
mof
in~e
rational numbers.
(1)
is irreducible.
Let E be the extension of K generated by a root of
I (2)
this polynomial.
Show that E is not a purely transcendental extension of K.
Let i e
I (3)
0:
be a root of X2 + 1.
I (4)
is irreducible.
this polynomial.
II
Let L
i - X2 + 1
= o:(X)
m?
L.
Show that M is not a purely transcendental extension of
0:.
198
CHAPTER 4
SOLUTIONS
1).
If
+ 0.
m
In the general case let us set n
nOp , no being prime to p;
nO
m
let L be the fixed field of (J ; then [K:L] = p and [L:K] = no
([Lang 1] Chapter 8). We have just observed that the trace in
Let
CI.
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
199
Let:
-i
+ a.XP
+
P(X)
ism of
defined by
is absurd, because
T(X
(:a)
~ =
=
+ ap
000
We cannot have a 1 =
T
l, since p(q' - l)
< q'
P- 1.
we have:
I: (2) :
T('O)
=x
= T(x) - T(O'(x)) = 0.
Conversely, let
'0
1
= T(u)
('OO'(u) +
000
Set:
O'i('O))O'j(u)
000
o~i~j-1
+ (
0' ('0))0'
n-1
(u)).
O~i~n-2
We have:
O'(x)
= T(u)
(0'('0)0'
(u) +
000
i+1
j+1
0'
O' i +1 ('O))u).
('0))0'
(u)
O~i~j-1
+ (
O~i~n-2
Whence:
x - O'(x)
= _1_
T(u)
('O(
1~j~n-1
O'j(u))-
L
1~j~n-1
O'j('O))u)
000
200
CHAPTER 4
1
= T(u)
(.e(T(u) - u) -
If xl e K is such that xl - oX 1
xl - x
is such that ;\ =
0(;\),
=x
(T(.e - .e)u)
- ox,
.e.
and therefore ;\ e k.
o(x) ,
where x e K
is non-zero, then:
N(.e )
N(x)
N(o(x) )
1.
= .e 1 +q+"'+ q
n-1
We have:
n
.e(q -1)/(q-1)
= 1.
and therefore if x
If x
-m
e K* is such that:
Let us set i
= m(q
- 1).
Then
i
a .
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
then A
Xl
= -X
201
..
satIshes
a(A)
= A,
and therefore
Aek.
K with unit norm are the elements of the form atx) (where X e K*
and a is the generator of Gal(KI k (Hilbert's "Theorem 90", cf.,
[Bou] Chap ter V 11, or [Mac] Chapter 2 S).
II (2)
Let us denote by
cardK*
card kerN '
and therefore:
cardN(K*)
= cardk*.
= k*
1).
Question II(1
III (2)
l;
a
= a(a)
and then a is in A.
= aj(a)
Since a
202
If
CHAPTER 4
k[X] .
111:(3):
The mapping
Wis
= Anw(a) (where
By passage to the
The homomorphism
= an is in k*n if and
~n'
Conse-
KUmmer
Let t e 1; we have t P
= t.
Therefore:
e1
2.
e 1.
But then, if r
<
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
= p.
Hence r
203
(3)
P(X), one sees (Question (1)) that all the roots of P(X) belong
to k(a); k(a) is therefore a normal extension of k ([Lang 1] VII
As a is separable over k the extension k(a)/k is separable
3).
(4)
X2 - X-b.
o(~] = %+
t6 -
a
a =t
(X ;
0(6)
1, and therefore
where a e k.
0(% - a] = ~ - a.
Consequently
r _ a) - a.
(X ;
Whence:
(X - a)p - (X - a) - at
Irr( 6,X)
xP
- X - (at + a P - a),
and hence:
b
= at + a P
- a.
Let
TrKlk(-l) = O.
on
k.
We have
204
CHAPTER 4
=1
00. -
Whence:
(O~i~p-l).
and therefore:
SOLUTION 43:
PRELIMINARY QUESTION:
The
splitting
= ~(3/:2,~).
field over
(j}
of the
Let us denote by
~,~
and relations:
3
= ~ = e,
=~
-1
~,~
~).
and relations:
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
205
(1)
~-automorphism
If we had f(p)
= p,
then f(p')
NKI~(x)
= p'.
= xxepA,
Consequently f(p)
p', and
= p.
thus f(p')
(a)
2_.
~
1n
~.
The extension
k(a)jk is of degree three and not Galois since k does not contain cube roots of one.
ial
X3 -
six over k.
(b)
that o(a)
= ja
we have o(rm)
have 'T (G )=
(c)
such
= G.
-G.
Since o(~)
As T(r-3)
= -r-3
=~
and aU-3m)
and TU-3m)
= I-3m,
=I-3m
we
= TO
(for oT(a)
= ja
and To(a)
j2a ).
206
CHAPTER 4
(3)
a divisor of six.
+ iJ.
The polynomial
Irr(a,~)
~,
Irr(a,~)
[~(a):~]
= 6.
Irr(a,~).
~,
hence it is
[K:k] [k:~]
= 12.
We have K = ~(Irn,~,a).
X3 - ].I2iJ.
Irr(a,~(Irn
The degree of a
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
207
and:
= P and
~p e~, s(~)
Moreover, s2(a)
whence s(~2p)
sU-3m)
-I-3m.
= s(a~2) = ~
= a.
2_
~
(4):
s(p2~).
Therefore since
groups G = (O,T), of order six, and (s) which has order two. The
automorphism s is not one of the three elements of order two of
G, T,TO,T0 2 , because these leave l-3m invariant. Therefore s.G,
and so G = G U sG .
To show that G is the direct product of
to show that os
= so
and
TS
= ST,
(s)
and G it suffices
(s).
(s)
Furthermore, Gal(NI~)
VIII)
N of ~(fIn) that is Galois over ~, and such that Ga1(NI~) is isomorphic to the dihedral group of order six.
(Cf., J. Martinet and J.J. Payan: 'Sur 1es extensions cubiques
non-ga1oisiennes des ratione1s et leur cloture ga1oisienne', J.
reine angew. Math., 228, (1967), 15-37).
CHAPTER 4
208
SOLUTION 4-4
(1)
From K
= k2(~1)
can be written uniquely as A + I.l~ l' A, I.l e k2' and that the mapping
is a k 2 -automorphism of K (and therefore a
m-automorphism of K). Similarly one sees that T is the non-trivO:A +
I.l~l ~
A-
I.l~l
ial k1-automorphism of K.
of K invariant under OT
= TO;
This is
~k
+2
k2,k3 simultaneously.
The example m1 = 2, m2
same does not hold for 2.
I (6)
We have:
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
209
+i)
+i,
~K/k,
ified in Kim.
divides ~k,/m'
~
mram-
At
+ j, and
i + j.
~K/k,'
As a result p divides
~k./m
II (1)
1),
We have k3
The ideals of Ok
= m(!-m 2 )
and ~k3lm
= -4m 2 ,
~k
1m = -4.
sion Klk 3 .
As
~K/k
divides
No prime ideal of Ok
III
msplits
divid-
Klk 3 .
~K/k
1m = m2 ,
=4
As the group Ga1(Klm) is not cyclic p cannot be inert in the extension of Kim (that is to say, e
= g = 1)
210
CHAPTER 4
+2
+2
+ i)
one has e
Consequent-
= 1 or e = 2.
pOK
ppop TpOT
(e
1,[
= l,g
4),
pOK
pp'
(e
1,[
2,g
2),
p2p.2
(e
2,[
= l,g
2) ,
2,[
pOK
pO K = P
(e
2,g
1).
SOLUTION 4'5
I (1)
4,[
= l,g
1) .
=1
= 1.
5) we have:
p-.
Let us write pA
Z , since
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
211
(2)
Nk/'fJ(a + jS)
=p
(where
is a
3x + y .
y - x) + 2jx
fore p
4
is eqUlvalent to Nk/'fJ
2
= p.
Hence there are a finite number of pairs (x,y). Starting from
= 2a,
y - x
= S.
One looks for pairs (x,y) such that x=:O mod 3 and y =: 1
mod 3, and this reduces to looking for pairs (a,S) such that
2
+ So - aoS o =: 1 mod 3.
>
0,
II (1)
Chapters
2 and 6, or [Wei]
Chapt~r
7, or [Has]
27); as p =:
CHAPTER 4
212
m'lm,
and similarly in
K,
whence
ID I
3-1
(cf.,
2
P .
II (2)
Let us denote by i
s. the isomorphism of
1
.
w1
~/p~*
The group
= I
.
s.(w), .e is invariant under every element of
1
~/p~*
sieR'
The same holds for.e' and .e", therefore .e,.e' ,.e" e K.
H' .
= .e'
10wsthatmC.e)=m(.e') = m(.e")c K.
They
If this were the case we would have .e = .e' = .e", whence 3.e =
wi
-1 (for w is a root of
l~i~p-l
O~i~p-l
not be integral.
II (3)
-1.
On the
i,jeH
We have a sum of powers of w containing each term wh the same
number of times, in fact this sum can be written
I niw i , with
l~i~p-l
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
213
~~.
.. + ~..~ = __1_3
~.~
p - 1
i
w
L.:.J:.
i
w
L.:.J:.
3
We have:
II (4)
L
h,i,jeH
. 2.
wh +tJ.+t
]
p-l
(h e H)
i,jeH
pro~uct
- kr = r
(p; 1)3
Thus we have:
1
(r 3 - kr)
p - 1
kp - r
P(x)
~~ '~".
3
2
2
k
x+x-rx+ r - p
3
214
CHAPTER 4
of p , the discriminant of the field, with the square of an integer a; let us calculate it directly.
~
= r2
_ 18r r
We have:
2 2 2
- kp _ 4 r - kp + 4r 3 _ 27 r - kp
3 3 3
222
4
4
312
- 3k P + 6r + 6r + "3 kp - (3r + 2r +"3 r ).
o.
As kp is a rational number the discriminant of this equation is
the square of a number b' defined up to sign, which after expanding leads to the relation:
Replacing r by
16
"9 P
= b'
L..:.....!:.
3
2
then yields:
2 2
+ 12p a ,
or again:
l.6
(6r 2 + 6r + 4 + b')
"3
P - 2p +
9
~
3
+'9+
pJ:.. _ P + P + pb
9
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
215
Whence:
(p - 1)
P2 - P -
- 3p - pb + 1
9
pb
III (1)
=1
(p-1)/3 - 1
m'
7).
= P-.:..1..
f
The theory
mo d P.
= Pm mod
has q
mod p we have:
Conversely, let
ez/p~*.
be an integer whose
P. whence:
p-1
-3- m
P
1 mod p;
P - 1 then divides
take x = pm/3.
III (2)
n - 1
~m.
216
CHAPTER 4
There we have:
p(3
+ b) -
27
- (X - a)
mod q,
As the extension
K/~
p - 1
-3-
= q.
(q)
(q)
or
p, not
+p.
=0
2).
P(l)
Therefore P(X)
=b
mod 2.
b (and thus a)
31
simple root.
Let us set P (X) = 27P ~
The roots of PI
1
3
are 3-& + 1, 3-&' + 1, 3-&" + 1. It is immediate that:
III (4)
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
For q
+ 3,
217
+3
From
Let us set b
III (5)
1 + 3b'.
==
(b'
1)
mod e:
and:
Hence we have:
P(X)
==
==
==
mod 3 if b'
1 mod 3.
==
0,-1 mod 3,
Consequently P has
a root modulo 3. From this one deduces that 3 splits in-X, and
therefore that 3(p-l)/3 == 1 mod p. In addition we see that 3
does not divide a, andP has no root modulo 3.
Consequently for
REMARK 1: Question 111(1) can be solved using the Cubic Reciprocity Law (cf., [Mor] Chapter 15).
REMARK 2:
218
CHAPTER 4
(p-1)/3
=1
3
mod p to hold.
To see
Its discrimin-
m.
mis
If
q =t 3.
3
X - 3X - 2 mod q,
a congruence which has the simple root X
= 2,
hence q is split.
mit
is contained in
m'
(Kronecker-Weber Theo-
= 5).
3
I (1)
I (2)
3).
l,~,~
f(X +
1)
f(X -
1)
= X3
+ 3X2 + 3X + 1 - d,
and:
X3 - 3X2 + 3X -
(1 +
d).
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
219
I: (3):
-27d 2 .
= fg2, with
f,g relatively
~
is then a root of the polynomial,
g
Thus when d
= l mod 9
a2
l,a, -
and hence:
l\{l,a,
a2
g
-2
l\{l,a,a)
1S
an integral basis of K,
2
- 27(fg) .
= l
mod 9.
=1
mod 3.
a
f7
2
As the exponents
2
=-
27(fg)2
or
=-
3(fg)2.
Hence:
or
7).
CHAPTER 4
220
= -3(fg)2.
=1
therefore ~3
(~ -
1)
=1
mod 9.
Begin by chang-
We have
= d,
- 1)
=0
mod p ,
whence:
That implies ~ - 1
=0
* 0 mod
p4).
=0
mod p2
=0 mod p3,
- 1
3
- 2 l'l(1,~,~ )
27
is not an integer.
We are therefore in the second case.
~3 _ d
_ (
- 1) +
(~ _ 1)2
3~)
mod
The identity:
32
_ 1 mod p'p".
~2
a +
b~
~2
+ c -
=a
=0
that 3 (1 +
mod 3.
~2
GI
l,~,
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
- (1 + .e +
3
.e 2
221
) is an integral basis.
If the congruence x 3 - d
II (1)
=0
this root is simple (since 3x 2 $ 0 mod p), and thus lifts into
~ p as a simple root of x 3
d.
2, or [CaF]
Chapter 2).
modulo p.
in~
the congruence x
II (2)
Let p
= -1
mod 3.
The mapping x
t+
x 3 of (~/p~)'"
=d
p - 1
mod p.
tion II(l).
Since 3 does not divide p - 1, -3 is not a square in
if P f 2, -3
=A
mod p implies:
[ - 1 2 + AJ 3 =_ 1
; for
mod p,
~/p~)1';
-3 is not a square
~2' for -3
1 mod 8.
The discriminant D
_27d 2 is therefore not a square in ~2'
suIt.
If q
II (3)
three; let
=1
mod 3,
be this element.
(p - 1) ( p 2 + p +
1) = 0
~/q~)*
Then:
and
( 2 p+ 1) 2 = 4 ( P 2 +
P +
1) = - 3 .
3) in
in~/~[X]
~
[X].
CHAPTER 4
222
in
, so D is a square in ~ .
q
There are, therefore, two possible cases: either the polynomial
~
~q[X],
one.
Let f = a + b~ +
algebraic closure of K are:
III (1)
(i
1, j
a~.
The conjugates of f in an
+ 1).
We immediately have:
whence:
= 3(a 2
+ db
323
+ d a - 3daba
=p
Conversely, if:
= p,
and so
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
223
=a
b~
4 6
= "it
27
= 2, M <
For d
;
As
II I (3)
M
= p.
we have NK/m(K)
generated by
c~
3.
(~)3.
But (2)
~)
~)
= 3,
=3
N(l +
or d
~)
= 5;
(One
if d
= 6).
= 6).
IV (1)
For a e
~,a
= 2 or 3 mod 7. In particular,
= 3 we see (Question 111(2) above)
whenever m
sult to m
=0
1,
6.
Therefore
M < 11.
= P2P;.
- 1)
= P2P3
holds.
= -1,
By taking a
N(~
- 1)
=7
P;
P; and
P; is
CHAPTER 4
224
NK/~(f) = 3p
and
NK/~(f) = 9p
If p
(where f
=a
b~
c~2)
are imposs-
l mod 7.
If P
= 2
mod 7 we see
p 2
If P
= 3
"
r'
r"
2r
2r',
be the
2r""
= qq q and let h ,h ,h
have solutions.
3 2r q
= 2rq
Thus Ne have:
_ 1 mod 7 (analogous congruences in r' and r"),
whence:
4r _ q mod 7,
4r '
q mo d 7,
4r "
q mod 7.
In partic-
= l
mod 7.
The resul ts of these two questions can be expressed in the following
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
way: Let p (p
+3
225
and p
+7
Let a
be a represent-
ative modulo 7 of p ;
-a
= 0,
In order
of~.
L/~
must be abelian.
XI).
As a result, the extension
K/~
ian, the fact that a prime number p congruent to one modulo three
is inert or split in K cannot be decided with the aid of congruences modulo an integer f.
Furthermore, Class-Field Theory (cf., references above) enables
us, for all number fields, to construct a bijection between the
subgroups of the class group of K and the unrarnified abelian extensions of K (at every prime ideal and at infinity), the prime
ideals of the subgroups considered being precisely those which
are completely split in the corresponding unramified extension,
the relative Galois group being isomorphic to the subgroup.
The results of Part IV of this Exercise show that the principal prime ideals of
which the norm to
(other than
P7)
is congruent to l modulo 7.
As the group
K)
that split
226
CHAPTER 4
~,
of K and of L.
Let L be an abelian field and let it be of degree three
over~.
p of degree one.
K.L/~).
Exercise 45 shows
tension K.L/K.
K.L/K.
Let k = ~(~), N = K(~). The Galois group G of NL/k is
the product of two groups of order three. Let p be an ideal of
k over 7. Since the quotient of the inertia group GO of 7 by its
higher ramification subgroup G1 is cyclic, and as G1 = {l} because
7 is prime to 9 (cf., [Ser 2] Chapter IV), NL/k is not totally
ramified at p. Therefore there exists an unramified extension
L1 of degree three of k at p; as N.L = N.L 1 , NL/N is not ramified
at the ideals over p. From this one easily shows that K.L/K is
unramified at P7' which shows K.L
= C.
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
227
SOLUTION 47 (1)
k is~[a], where a
over ~ is X2 + X - 16.
has two roots in
in
~/2~,
0 and 1.
III, Appendix) that the ideal (2) splits into two prime ideals,
Hence we have:
now,
~(w
+ 1)2
16 +
~(w
+ 1)
therefore:
Moreover:
4
and therefore:
4 e (4 + ~(w + 1)),
whence:
~(w +
1) e (4 +
~(w +
1)).
Consequently:
P~C
(4
Hw
+ 1)),
So
228
CHAPTER 4
(4
(2):
+ 1).
~(w
If Pi
automorphism of
P2 = (2a +
(2a
Ga1(k/~)
b~ ( - w
we would have:
+ 1,
whence:
1 b)2 _ 645 b 2 ).
( (2a+"2
and thus:
.
Now, t h e equatlon
x 2 - 65 y 2
cause x 2
P
65y2
.
b e= 8 h
as nolntegra1 solutlons
Consequently
is not principal.
(3):
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
229
P2 There is no
kim. The
Cl(PI )
= 1.
PI P2 = (2), we have:
Furthermore, since
1.
(4):
u
=a +
b~ (w
Let us set:
(a, b e 7Z) ;
I)
.
S lnce
t h e equatlon
x 2 - 6sy2
-1 has x
8, Y
1 as a solution,
u = 8 + w.
If
(S):
-1, Nk/m ()
= fEn.
-1 and n is odd, n
Hence we have:
2k+1
Consequently, k(iE)
is real, k(iE)
~
v'+_u
and
=
2k + 1.
k
Y ,
.
k(~) necessarily.
in the extension
Since Nk/m(u)
k(~)lk
= k(~).
Since k(iE)
The discriminant of
ram-
Let a
230
CHAPTER 4
~ - 1.
nomial:
J?
2X - 7 -
= J?
2X - 6 - 2 ~
(w + l).
8).
Ia = I (~
- 1)
therefore has
for kp
:;c
(w - 1) is equal
P~ divides
3) Pl
e kp
+:;c
=0
mod P2'
ramified in k(~).
m2 ,
and thus if
Consequently P2 is not
ramified.
There is therefore a single ramified ideal in the extension
k(~); it is the ideal
(6) :
If
or K = k(/:3).
or
-E
Pl'
were squares in
we would have
K = k( 13)
have:
aa(a) = E2k
or
aa(a) =
2k+l
One cannot have aa(a) = E2k because k(a) would not be real.
If
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
231
= - 2k ,then a = k ,
we had aa(a)
and so a contradiction.
Let
Set
and ab = -b.
Then b t
ac - c.
= 2k
implies (a-k)2
(8)
(9)
of OK'
=P
and aq t q.
ant under a, and ideal q and its conjugate aq appear with the same
exponent in the decomposition of bOK'
Now P (resp. q.a(q)) is the extension of an inert (resp. split)
prime ideal of Ok'
A of Ok' bO K
A
K3
Let
Since
has
such that Al
= yA 2 Consequently A10K K
yb 20 K K'
1 2
1 2
yA 2 0 K K ' whence
1 2
232
CHAPTER 4
0lo2(Y)
u.
It is clear that the field K3 possesses the properties of Question (6) above (in fact, the extension KiK2/k is unramified for
every prime ideal of k).
(11)
is real.
~(IS,II3) .
n?Z = q~.
Consequently q is ramified
k.
k/~.
~(I5,If3)/k.
Thus
(One calls
SOLUTION 4-8
(1) (a)
The ex-
3).
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
(1 )
(b)
233
(a)
(2)
(b)
field F n
q
(2) (c)
Hensel's
X also factorises in
Let ~ be a
qn_l
root in K of the polynomial X - I that is primitive (that is
to say, of order qn - 1).
for these two extensions have the same residue field, and the
extension K/k is unramified.
n
of Xq
(4) (a)
<
Ix - yl
o:x
The mapping
ax is therefore well defined and is a k-automorphism of k.
(4) (b)
We have:
- ~I
<
Ia(x)
- xI
<
= ~,
If
1, and in particular
and hence a
= id K.
The
234
CHAPTER 4
homomorphism is therefore injective, and consequently surjective, because G(K/k) and G(X/k) have the same order.
(4) (c)
0*
(4) Cd)
is the generator
= xq (for all
x e X), that is to
01,(/d)
-/d,
Of the
that is to say:
Ii -
11
<
1,
Ca)
If
IT
oeG(Klk)
(5) (c)
Tr K/ k (a)
(1 + o(a)Tt )
=1
+ TrK/k(a)Tt
mod Tt
We have:
oeG(K/k)
o(a)
oeG(K/k)
o(a)
L-
oeG(K,k)
m+1
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
235
the mapping
is surjective.
m+i
1 + bnm mod n
and therefore:
m
MnKlk(~m) - Am mod n
(5) (c)
~m e 1
+ n OK'
and:
~1~2ooo~m
converges towards
m
mo~ n.
We have
MnK/k(~)
equality:
236
CHAPTER 4
= VK x
= Vk x
(1
(1
+ 1I0 K)
+ 1I0k )
(direct product),
(direct product)
([Has] II lS).
and Vk
(1)
R*
(S):(d):
a +
x e
mp (Id).
(6):
k*
11
liZ
x UK
(direct product),
liZ
x Uk
(direct product).
whence:
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
k": / Nm
237
This is a partic-
V,
SII, XIV).
V S):
=0
m([Bou]
mis
one.
m(Z).
P1 ,Ql,P2 ,Q2 e
X,~
~[Z]
e m(Z).
such that:
and
The relation
CHAPTER 4
238
Q2 divides P 2Ql) and that Q1 divides Q2 (since Ql,P1 are relatively prime and Q1 divides P1 Q2)' Hence there exists a polynomial Q e m[Z] such that:
+ b 2 + (/
=0
3 , (a,b,c) f (0,0,0),
with (a,b,c) e m
I (3)
y2 + 1
and
suggests using the identity:
i(l - Z2))2 + [
[
1 + Z2
2iz
1 + Z2
)2 + 1 O.
such that:
m(i,X,~))
2iZ
1
We easily obtain Z
=i
!X
+ Z2
I (4)
If the polynomial
y2
+ X2 + 1 were irreducible in
ALGEBRAIC THEORY
239
and this root would then be a polynomial P(X) e \Il[X] (cf., Question
Now the equality P(X)2 - X2 + 1
(1)).
=0
is impossible because
2Z
1 - Z2
]2 _
(1 + Z2]
2 + 1= 0,
Z2
1 _
II
II (1)
.
P e L such tat:
h
in L[Y] there would eXIst
Q
0,
~,
there would exist three polynomials u,v ,w e ~ [Xl, not all constant,
pairwise relatively prime, and such that u 3 + v 3 + w3 = 0, that
is to say, w3
=-
240
CHAPTER 4
that n is a minimum.
u + v,
=r3
t 3 , whence:
- w.
r.s.t
. 3
+ JS
.2 3
+ J t
The relation:
3.(2
Ij~t,
= r, vI = 3/.7s,
satisfying:
CHAPTER 5
Distribution Modulo 1
INTRODUCTION
5.1
Let (u n ) n<:&,
~~ be a sequence of elements in the interval [0,1],
and let [a,S] be an interval within [0,1]. For every integer
~ k < N, uk
e [a,S].
(D N )
de-
fined by:
DN =
sup
O~a~S~l
A sequence (u n )n ....
~~ of elements of the interval [0,1] is said to
,
be EQUIDISTRIBUTED in [0,1] if:
For all a,S such that [a,S] C [0,1]
sN(a,S)
1 im --'N:;--N->>
S - a.
A sequence (u n ) n<:&,
~~ of real numbers is said to be EQUIDISTRIBUTED
MODULO 1 if the sequence ({u }) ~~ of fractional parts is equidistributed in [0,1].
and {x}
=x
n n"""
(If x elR we write [x]
[x]).
241
= sup{k e~,
x}
CHAPTER 5:
242
Let S be a finite set, and let (un)neN be a sequence of elements of S. For all a e S and every integer N e:N~' let us denote
by sN(a) the number of integers k such that 0
<
N and Uk
= a.
sN(a)
For all a e S lim - N N
= -c-ar';;;d'"'(-=S"<"")
is said to be EQUIDISTRIB-
of~
~/q~
(where
x denotes
q).
5.2
O.r;n<N
f(u) ~
n
Ii
as N ~
co.
of elements
~~
n n ....,
of~
is equi-
where e (x)
p
e~"~
_1
l.\
N O:(.n<N
e (u )
p
.c
0 as
~ co,
= e2i~px.
a positive measure of
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
5.3
243
L f(u n) + (~,f)
O.;;n<N
as N
00.
g'(t)
00,
tg'(t)
If, as t
g(t)
00,
00,
00,
quence (u )
h
~~
n n=,
5.4
1 the sequence (u
n+
h - u)
is equidistributed.
n neN
~ >
(~
Koksma) .
If a sequence (u n ) nCo'~~
satisfies the property: There exists
"
H. Weyl).
neN
Therefore almost all numbers are normal.
NORMAL SET Bu
n
2 an in-
is equidistributed modulo 1.
More generally, the
=E
244
5.5
CHAPTER 5:
~~
n neL'
be a given sequence,
a mapping
of~ into~.
(u o ( n )) neL.
~~ from distribution properties of the sequence (u)
.
n ne1N
Let 0 be an increasing mapping, and let X be the associated
GENERALISED CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION of
0,
given by x(n) =
card{o-l(n)}.
pen) =
Aell.
aAe(An)
(II.
Ilfll
= lim
N-+oo
~ I
k<N
If(k) I
e~
.e.
I the
is pseudo-random3 and
yep)
lim - - 1
n-+oo n +
I
k=o
Iy(k) I
2
=
0).
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
5.6
245
(S,ll,~)
be a measure-
\'
k<N
f(~
x)
g(x)
as
"".
~,
and:
In particular, if
invariant under
a Radon measure of
~,
S we have:
lim
N~
supl~ L f(~nx)
xeS
and of total
k<N
~(f) I o.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[Rau], [Kui], [Cas], [Sal].
246
CHAPTER 5:
PROBLEMS
EXERCISE 5'0:
services leave with the same frequency: Route 41, which takes him
to his blonde girlfriend Bridget, and Route 63, which takes him
to his other girlfriend, Claudia, a brunette.
On Saturday morn-
ings Tony gets up at a time that varies with his mood or with
the time it takes to go round to one or the other of his girlfriends.
Let (u n ) nco.,
~~ be a sequence of elements in [0,1].
EXERCISE 5'2:
N e:N"'.
D'"
N
Set:
sup
0.,
a., 1
Let (u )
~~T
n nc.o.'
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
247
(1) :
(2) :
Show that i f
D--',
sup
o.. k<N
Uo ~
~I
suP(lU k -
2N + sup
O<k<N
IU k
u1
2k +
2N
...
IU k
< u N- 1 we have:
~I)
11
EXERCISE 5'3:
0,
<
m+l
2
(m e:N)
(1):
Show that if 2m
(2) :
nD;',
n
1+ ~[10gn)
2 log2
<
Un_.JIl + --IL
2m+
2m we have:
n ~ 2m+l, on setting N
we have
Let (u)
be a sequence of real numbers.
nnW
Show the following are equivalent:
EXERCISE 5,4:
(i): (u)
nna;)' is equidistributed modulo 1;
(ii): For every integer q
equidistributed modulo q;
nco..
248
CHAPTER 5:
n~,
if:
NeN +
1) ~ n <
eN + l)eN +
2)
we have:
un s I(N ,n - N(N 2+
Is the sequence (u n )
l)J .
equidistributed on [O,l]?
~~
n~,
- 1
N+1
n < 2
EXERCISE 5-6:
in ~
modulo I?
EXERCISE S-S: (1):
integers with q
"' n ~ q
and
<
~-
[n
~]
., a.
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
249
n~ Nand
o~
(2):
<
n~ - [n~]
(N
1).
(n~)
is irrational.
n e ..ThY, is equi-
EXERCISE 59:
Fo = 0, FI = 1, and for n
uted modulo 5.
EXERCISE 510:
0 Fn+2
= Fn+I
~T'
n n"""
where
+ Fn' is equidistrib-
on {O,l} defined by
~({O}) = ~({l}) =
!.
On the other hand, let ~k be the function from {O,l}~ into {-l,+l}
that to
(un)n~
-1 if uk = 1.
(1) :
associates
= +1
~k(u)
if uk
=0
and
~k(u) =
Set:
JlfN(U) 12 dA(U)
and show
(2):
ure A) f 2(u)
0 as N
00
(3):
250
CHAPTER 5:
(2) :
log(n + 1).
un - v n
= (log(n
+ 1))8
- V
with 8 > I?
~'T
n n .....
EXERCISE 5-13:
is equidistributed modulo 1.
b - a < b - a + 2E < 1.
< E,
<
[b,b + E], [b + E,a - E + 1], and which has the value zero on
[b + E,a - E + 1] and the value one on [a,b].
Show that if F(x)
= I
kS72:
+ 0 we
a (N)
q
O<n<N
e (u ),
q n
For
DISTRIBUTION MODULO I
251
o~ n
{u } e [a.,B].
n
< N,
Using the result of the preceding Exercise 5-13, show that for
1~q~Q
4N
10 q (N) 1 + - 1t
(u)
is a sequence of elements of [0,1] and f is a continuous
nnet'l
function from [0,1] into~, we have the inequality:
I
-N
f(u n ) - flofl
O~n<N
w(D*)
N '
sUJil
It-sl<r
EXERCISE 5-16:
Let u
in {O,l}.
1 f(
Let X
>
by:
t) - f( s )
1.
= (u n ) n.,.,
~~ be an element of X and let
be the
0(0)
A
mapping
1t(u)
1t
o(n + 1)
= o(n)
+ I + u .
= (v n )n.,.,
_,
n eN:
1,
n n.,.,
2 then
v a (n)+1
o.
252
CHAPTER 5:
(1):
a point w satisfying
~(w) =
w) that is w
= (1,0,1,1,0,1,0,1, ...
).
(2):
= (u)
n nE!IiJ
= (u n+ 1) n",,-,
~~.
).
EXERCISE 5-18:
lim
N+oo
jl
eitlog(n+l)I = IJleitlOgXdxl.
0
O~n<N
What can be concluded from this for the sequence (log(n + l))nEN
modulo I?
Denoting the n-th prime number by Pn , what can be
said about the equidistribution modulo 1 of the sequence (logp)
.
nneN
(The formula:
EXERCISE 5-19:
lim [ -P- -J
n->-oo n10gn
may be assumed.
EXERCISE 5-20:
neN
m(U 3 ) =
1).
is distributen in accordance
253
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
:: 1 mod 3
EXERCISE 5'21:
by establishing that
n-l
divides k).
CPCn
P is a
generalized polynomial:
+ + a x
s
EXERCISE 524:
Ys
Denote by t
n, 0
the card~
{ak}
{sk} .
'C-n-+-::-l"') -+
EXERCISE 5'25:
{z e~,
Iz 1 <
fCz)
2" as n
-+ co?
~,
where D
n=O
{n~ }zn
Izl
is irrational.
EXERCISE 5'26.:
254
CHAPTER 5:
(n1J
)neN satisfies
D~
D( 11m),
5 - 27:
Let
(jl
period one that is Riemann integrable. Let a,S be two real numbers such that S does not belong to the vector space generated
on III by 1 and a.
Show that as n
00
the quantity
<
n1
< ---
5-28:
5-29:
If (u)
n nelN
satisfies limn(u
n+
1 - u )
n
>
0, does it
follow from this that for almost all A the sequence (Au)
equidistributed modulo I?
EXERCISE
5-30:
nnelN
is
5-31:
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
g ? 2 an integer.
255
+ P(n
neN
is real).
EXERCISE 5'32:
Let g
is equidistributed modulo 1;
1 be an integer and A, 0
>
A ~ 1, a real
B ~
EXERCISE 5'33:
n.
Let (u n )n ....
~~ be a sequence of strictly positive
,
JR
such that:
For all n eN
AU
e I
256
CHAPTER 5:
Un +1
-u-- ;::. 1',
where
l' >
2,
eJN
eN
l'
> 3,
we have:
{Au } e [0,2/(1' - 1)]
n
satisfies lim
n+1
u
>
EXERCISE 5 36:
0
>
1.
Assume that there exists a sequence of integers (un)neN and a sequence of real numbers (En)neN such that:
limE
n-- n
o.
~
u
l n+2 u~+ll
u
<
2 .
From this deduce that the set of such pairs (A,0) is countable.
Now show that the set of pairs (A,0) such that the sequence
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
({A~n})
neN
257
(For a gen-
EXERCISE 5-37:
lim({n!a} - u )
n
n-+=
= a.
EXERCISE 5 - 38 :
such that:
Bu ))
n
O.
EXERCISE 5-39:
of integers (u)
such that Bu )) =JR - E, where E is the vecn neN
n
tor space over
generated by 1 and a (a irrational). You may
nneJN
of elements
> 0;
258
CHAPTER 5:
L
aeA a
-<00
(Example:
Show that for any integer l r 1 the function which associates e(lAg n ) with n is pseudo-random. From this deduce, in
base
g.
l'
gJ'~.
Prove that if (u )
~~T
n n=,
- u ) ~~T is equidisn+p
n n=,
tributed modulo 1, then the function which associates e(lu ) to
Corput's Criterion.
EXERCISE 545:
that Nk
00
as k
of real numbers.
00.
manner:
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
2n
259
),
2n
(VO"",V N
2n+1
2n+1
).
lim - - 1
n +
k=o
~
EXERCISE 546:
f(W k )
~1 k=o
I
sUP[lim
n
n ~
f(u k ),
~1 k=o
I
lim
n
n +
f(V k
) .
n+1
k=o
f(u k )
00.
Let a e F -
F defined by sending x
be the transformation on
x + a.
and let
on~
invariant under
is Haar mea-
neN
defined by x
+ gx,
where g
e~"'.
260
CHAPTER 5:
EXERCISE 5,49:
on~
~:S +
S defined by
) =
nneN
From this de~u)
(u n+ 1) n ......
~~ preserves the measure II and is ergodic.
duce that with respect to II almost all the sequences
m-distributed.
on~
are
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
261
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTION 5,0:
On aver(See also,
It is evident that if DN
then (un)
is equidis-
tributed on [0,1].
Conversely, let us assume (u ) is equidistributed on [0,1] and
let
>
O.
Let P be an integer.
as N
P,
'"
- ('2 - ~J I
P
< 2'
262
CHAPTER 5:
o~ h
P such that:
[Ph , pk]
::> [a,S]::>
[h- p
+ 1
k - 1]
-, -p-
~
in order to deduce the
I':
>
result,
Clearly
SOLUTION 5'2:(1):
D~ ~ DN ,
I':
>
we have:
Making
I':
-+
(2):
0.
associates
meN)
-_ ISN(oN,a) - NI1"S
Y ~
u
affine on every interval of the form
(U k 'U k +1 ).
<p(u k + 0),
u1
UN-I'
same
of the interval
IU k
(3) :
- k ;
[~
il .; ;
, k ; 1] , we have:
IU k
- k +
il
= IU k - 2k 2;
11
2~
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
263
equality is obtained.
By induction on m and by setting 2m
SOLUTION 5-3:
2k + 1
2N
the
N, we see
that:
and:
card{k:N
= card{k:N
we deduce the desired equality.
sN(O,~)
= 0 if
(2) :
-Iii
~ < 0).
ISn(O,a.)
- na. I
<
3m
1 + :2
264
CHAPTER 5:
<
O.
1 also.
Therefore it suffices to
Now,
and
\(
21 .
that q
t
1, 0
q r s
(n)
r
=
<
q, and let:
card{k:O
(~q , ~q
oJ
n,r
<
[qu k ]
<
s}.
Clearly,
t q.r.s (n) = s
n~ s n (~
q , ~
q -
0)
~~
q
as n
00.
From this it immediately follows that (i) => (ii) and that an
argument analogous to the one carried out in Exercise 5-1 enables
us to show that (iii) => (i).
SOLUTION 5-5: (1):
that:
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
N(N + 1)
2
"n<
265
(N + 1)(N + 2)
2
Evidently i f a e I(N,k), k
tN(a)
and
~ k
u n e [a,a].
+ 2 and k
~ (N
+ 1) "
k + 1, whence:
If now:
N(N + 1)
<
(N + 1)(N + 2)
and
M = N(N + 1)
2
then:
whence:
whence:
Isn (a,a) - nal " 2(n - M) + 2N" 4N + 2 " 41:2n + 2,
so:
D*
4& + 2
N "
n
-+
a as
n -+
00.
For
266
CHAPTER 5:
- 1 + 2
N-l
and let M = 2
- 1. Then:
SOLUTION 5'6:
P + a is equivalent to p
n ... (p +
a)
+ [2pa + a ],
so:
ItP -
2pa I
...
2.
Furthermore,
p-l
q=O
whence:
t ,
q
P ,
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
Isn (O,a)
- nal
267
7p + 2
<
7m + 2.
<
proof.
SOLUTION 57:
k+l
By evaluating
!,
SOLUTION 58:(1):
~ n <
{~q}
q,
card{h:O
e [O,a]},
h
h < q, - e [O,a]}
If:
TN =
card{n:O
< N,
{~}
then we have:
T
= 1
Setting r
T
rq
[qa].
+
=
[N/q], we deduce:
~ TN ~ T
rq + q,
Hence we have:
e [O,a]},
+ [aq].
268
CHAPTER 5:
ITN
(2):
No.1 " ~ +
Let
q.
0 be given.
E >
tine approximation we know that there exist two integers p,q such
that:
E
1"q~3N,
In addition, with
sufficiently small p
+0
~ n
{n~}
and
< N
e [0,0.]
or
{n~}
e [0,0.],
we clearly have:
SN(a)
!- N -
- a
q + ~ + q[NE/3]
whence:
< E.
00
so does q.
In particular, when-
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
269
period twenty.
ger) with period 4xSk. and in each period it takes each value
modulo Sk four times. hence is equidistributed modulo Sk
One
(S-adic
integers).
in~5
>
Clearly:
if k
= h.
otherwise.
1
The series:
N=l
Ifn (u)
2(u) 2 is
N
f 2(u) -+ 0
N
2 (u)
I"
n - N2
4;
4;
-+
co.
2
n < (N + 1) :
1 + 2m.
270
CHAPTER 5:
measure >..:
1
f (u)
n n
as n
00
is generated by
such that
~(O)
= 1,
~(l)
= -1.
L ~(u
N k<n
) ~ 0
exists 8
>
O.
There
0 such that:
>
Ix-yl
Ie p (u n )
- e (v )1
p n
whence, if N
I ~ n<NL
No:
<'2'
4N o/:
e (un) p
<
Let us assume p
equidistributed modulo 1.
~ n<N
L
e (v )
p
o.
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
271
N > I
or:
For all M,N, N > M ~ 0,
L
1Mtr.n<M
Ie p (x)
Let then
o> a
- e (y)
p
>
< Cl (x - y).
2C l
~ <
2'
let
be such that:
e
11M
40 e l I M _ 1 < -2 '
k+l
Then:
n<N
[e (u ) - e (v)] 1 <0
p n
p n
K~l
k=O
+
If n is such that Nk
IIOg(n
+ 1) -
~I
<0
<
<
Nk +l :
k'
~n<N
k'"
Nk<on< N
k+l
e (u ) - e (v ) 1
p n
p n
[e (u ) - e (v)] 1 .
P n
P n
272
CHAPTER 5:
whence:
[e (u ) - e (v)]
P n
P n
- e (v ) [e [75:.)
P n
p M
- 1]
whence:
so:
IN
~n<N
k"
k+l
[e (u ) - e (v )]
p n
p n
I~
2;
Nk +l
- Nk )
Similarly:
But:
K-l
I
k=o
Nk + l ~
K-l
I
k=o
(k+l)/M
e(K+1)/M
11M
- 1
N + 211M
11M
e
- 1
and finally:
In<NI
As N
00,
[e (u ) - e (v)]
p n
p n
(N + 2)IN
CIN
11M
~ 2 ~ + 48(N + 2) ~e~ __
e l/M _ 1
1, (K + l)IN
0, therefore as soon as N
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
273
is large enough:
2:. I
1N n<N
[e (u ) - e (v)] 1 <
p n
p n
e (u )
p
n<N
E,
Conversely,
(v ).
n
approximation of u
00
- v n sought).
1 it would therefore
(k/n 1/o
be necessary to take a sequence of the type Nk ~ e
, which
n
When 0
>
In
then taking v
when 0
>
1.
we
SOLUTION 5 12:
0
e~*
And consequently if k
K, and Nk
< n ~
Nk +1 ,
and
E >
there
274
CHAPTER 5:
So finally, if k
K, Nk < n , Nk+1 :
so again:
NK
L e p (u n ) I <-+-+
I~ O'h<n
2
n
K+1- 1 )
(N
-Nk
-- - 1 < -
NM<
4 '
and thus:
ok
f1+a
We have:
-
a-
1
4a 2 k 2
e(-kx)F(x)dx
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
275
The upper bound Ickl ~ 1 evidently results from the fact that:
For all x
elR
1.
Taking a = a, b = S,
SOLUTION 514:
F
>
0, we define a function
If S - a + 2 < 1 we then
have:
= L
sN(a,S)
n<N
F(u n )
qe~
C 0
q q
(N),
sN(a,S) ~ coN + 2
L
q~l
Ic q 110 q (N)I,
Co = S
- a
L Ie q 110 q (N) I .
q~l
If S - a + 2
1 we obviously have:
and thus:
L
q~l
Ic q 110 q (N)I
=a
+ , b
S -
276
CHAPTER 5:
sN(a,B) -
a) ? -
N(B -
L Ie q 110 q (N) I.
2N -
q?1
>
DN " 2
0, for all N ? 1,
+ 2
)1 (N)I
0
q?1
11
2 + 2
DN "
(N)I
~ +
1~q"Q
q>Q
2""2
11
(N)I
--7.
10
Taking:
= -11
10 q (N)/NI
q
q<Q
one finds:
0 (N) 1
1--..9..-
+_
11
q>Q
10 q (N)/NI
q
10 q (N)/NI
.. 1, and that:
whence:
DN 4t. 2
14tq.. Q
0qN(N)
I + 7T1Q
4
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
277
In particular, if a (N)/N
any Q we will have:
Therefore DN
0 as N
equidistributed.
1, for
1 0q(N)/N
00, therefore
DN ~ 0, which
SOLUTION 515:
(un)' say: Vo
vI
(k+I)/N
kiN
I
I
f =
N-I I(k+I)/N
k=o
sk e [kiN, (k
kiN
_!.
f - N f(sk)'
whence:
But:
by Exercise 5'2.
278
CHAPTER 5:
+V,
by:
d(u,v)
where v(u,v)
= 2- V(U,v),
= inf{n,un +v n }.
Y of sequences
d(1t(u),1t(v
As 1t restricted to
point.
~ ~d(u,v).
Furthermore, i f
= (1, ...
),
whence:
= (1.0 ...
),
whence:
= (1,0,1, ...
),
whence:
w = (1,0,1,1,0, ... ),
..................
whence:
=1
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
279
whence:
w = (1,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,
... ),
......,
......,......,
1
etc., ...
(2):
(Tnw)
neN
has a density.
el'l
given a finite
such that:
[~
i] , the square
3-15
.
2
be the root of the equatl0n
- 3x+ 1
=0
fined by:
[1 - a,l),
Xl
[0,1 - a),
{x + a}.
(fo""
= 0
E!IN
= 1
280
CHAPTER 5:
... ,
that is to say, furthermore, that:
na e (X f
- x) n(Xf
- x - a)
n(Xf
x - m) modulo 1
is again a rotation:
Sx
=x
- a(l - a) modulo (1 - a)
such that if
~(O)
we have
of
=1
~oT
~ (say, a
H1)
= So~.
0,
=~ )
= ;
(v(~
SOLUTION 5-17:
-1 n
cO', a k _ s
8 ~ 0
Now, a k
so:
eJR
s+l
= cO',
= C s means:
a k _s
= Cs
has a density.
281
MODULO 1
DISTRIBUTIO,'~
so, moreover:
n~-ke
[~
~)
10g10
10g10 '10g10
on setting A
= Co
+ +
'
10- 8 and B
The n's
therefore satisfy:
{n ~}
10g10
[~
~I
10g10' 10glC)
100"2}.1S equ1' d
" b ute d on [0 , 1) and t h e se t 0 f n I s
sequence {n ~
1str1
therefore has a density equal to:
10gB - 10gA
10g10
SOLUTION 5'18:
Let J = J:eXP(itlOgX)dx.
A classic result in
= lim ~ NIl
N--
k=o
exp[itlog[k ; 1))
)
~ n<N
L
itlog(n+1)
JeitlogN + 0(1).
In particular:
liml~ L
N--
n<N
e itlog (n+l)I
IJI.
282
CHAPTER 5:
e -u shows that:
1 +
SOLUTION 519:
it f O.
distribution modulo 1.
by:
Now let X be the periodic function with period one which is equal
to one on [O,!) and to zero on [!,1).
x(1ogp n ) =
Clearly:
x(1ogp),
n
n<Nk
and
t as
x(1ogp )
n
00.
implies, in particular:
Now, if
~(x)
'V - -
logx
Therefore, as k
as x
00
00.
we have:
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
283
which is a contradiction.
n<Mk
<
Now:
k - ;},
and:
k-; [
: _ ; 1 - k
= !1 e -21]
+ 0
k _~ ,
(k-; )
and so:
x(logp )
n
SOLUTION S-20:
1 - e
_l
2
>
O.
the sequence (Sk) is periodic modulo 3n , and that in the fundamental interval the number of times it has a residue which is invertible modulo 3n is independent of this residue (it is clear
that it is always invertible).
Clearly, i f Sk
Sh mod 3n
k - h is a multiple of T(n).
In par-
284
CHAPTER 5:
function t
t Y.
SOLUTION S-22:
Let
there exists a
~(k
satisfying:
> 0
+ 1) -
~(k
~) ~ a~(k
(~(nneN
~)
If
[~(n)]
S(~(k
~,
x and
+ 1
S(~(k
>
~,
whence:
S(~(k
+ 1
~(k + 1)
+ 1
th ere f ore S(~(k
~(k + 1)
an
S(~(k
~(k + ;)
d S(~(k + !
~(k
!)
cannot
h
ot converge to
if M =
supt~'(t)
ue
to be differentiable and
t~'(t)
1/(2M)
~'(t)dt ~
2'
bounded
(~'
0).
Then
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
285
or again:
( 1/(2M
cp ue
Ifu
~(k +
cp(u) .,..
3"1
!):
cp(e 1 /(2M)cp(k
+~""k+
2:
l2
+ 1,
whence:
e 1 /(2M)
_ 1.
SOLUTION 523:
= a P p kY1 (y 1
nil
- l)(y
y -k
- k + l)n 1
<
Yl - k.,.. 1, and Pi
are integers.
If Yl is not integral, or if a 1 is irrational, (V n ) is equidistributed modulo 1, hence un is also. If Y1 is integral and
Y
is equidistributed modulo 1.
286
CHAPTER 5:
We
SOLUTION 524:
independent the equidistribution of the sequence (an,Bn)neN inR 2 mod~2 implies that
~-linearly
the limit oft /(n + 1) exists and is equal to the measure of the
n
1, which is equal
a/q, B
= b/q
with (a,b,q)
o~
= na (mod
Pn
~ Pn <
1,
q,
q, then:
<
If
to~.
and
q)
nb (mod q).
We have:
P
n
q
{na}
n
q
{nB}
therefore:
{an}
{Bn}
<=> P
{an}
{Bn} or {an}
<
= {Bn}
t'
t ' + t"
we see that:
-,---::-,<""
n'
(n
+ 1)
-+
t"
t'
-q-' -,---::-,<""
(n + 1)
t"
-+ -
(t' + t")
q
t' ,t" respectively denoting the number of integers n such that
o~
< q
and
Pn < 3n
or
Pn
= 3n
But
P q- n
=q
- P n and 3 q _n
deduce:
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
287
= q,
t" + 2t'
so:
1
"2
t"
+ 2q
=d
!.
If a is rational and S is irrational, then {Sn} is equidistributed modulo 1 and {an} periodically takes the values {O,
q - 1
neN
l , ... ,
q
is equidistributed modulo 1
when r runs through the set of residues modulo q, and for each of
these sequences the frequency when ~~ {S(nq + r)} is therefore
h
q
Finally:
1 q
- - - - - -+
n + 1
q-l
1 _ h
q h=O
over~.
Arguing as in Exer-
tiona1.
SOLUTION 525:
Let a
=p
-+
q~,
f(re(a) )
If we show that:
n=O
Izl = 1,
!.
-+
-+
1.
Since
it suffices
Now,
288
CHAPTER 5:
-- t
n +
k~O
{ne}e{nOl.} -+ A
+ 0,
~ -+
1 we
would have:
(1 -
~)f(re(a)) -+
A.
__
n
t
n + 1 k~O
1
{ne}e(na) - _ _
- n + 1
-+
SOLUTION 526:
513.
n
t
k~O
{ne}e(nq~)
J1oXe(X)dX = ~
nq
Let us take Q
+ O.
We then have:
D ,,~
n
1t
In the case u
Ia q (n) I
= ne:
if
II x II = min Ix
ke:/!Z
- k I.
t
L
q>l q2l1q~11
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
289
II q.e II
.e,
>
q -4/3 for
.e.
< q
<
of integers
5/4 1S convergent,
q
1
-::---- is convergent.
q~l
q~lIqn.e1l
n~l
2q~3/4
>
(qn+1 -
qn)-4/~
so, furthermore:
c
Since 9h6
ists y
II qn.e II
>
>
>
V2 ,
>
o.
>
q~/3
>
yn
But
pothesis then implies that the sequence (na,nB) is equidistributed modulo 72: 2 in]R2, from which it follows that:
1
lim - - 1 I rp(ka)e(kB)
n-+oo n +
k=o
In particular, let us take rp to be the characteristic function of
and clearly:
= 0).
We have:
290
CHAPTER 5:
lim _1_
+ 1
n-+< n
.t(I)
nk~n
(k - ~ ,k)
<=>
[ka].
,1) .
S are
SOLUTION 529:
example.
SOLUTION 530:
that:
1
a'
The sequence u
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
291
( n+k _
(_.e_
g - 1 g
gn))
nE!N
is equidistributed
modulo 1.
p.e.
SOLUTION 531:
Van der Corput's Criterion, it is easily seen that (i) => (ii).
As opposed to this, by taking, for example, x
=1
and P as a
SOLUTION 532:
Let E be the set of functions f
of~ into ~
s,c
that are periodic with period one, which for every pair (s,c),
s+l
se:N, c = (co, ... ,cs)eG
have as restriction to [0,1) the
g :::
over~
f ::: h,
flofCs,c)
1
=
gs+l '
E >
292
CHAPTER 5:
The quantity
k=o
S,c
such that:
and
~ n-+:r
.~-
k
fs C(Ag )
k=o'
f1
fs c
0'
= g s+l'
Conversely, if (ii)
lim
n--
n-+:r nL
k=o
f(Ag)
f1
0
This is still true for every f of. the generated vector space,
therefore by a classical argument (see Section 5.2 of the Introduction) it is true for every Riemann integrable function f, which
show that (i) holds.
= [an ju n ,a n ju].
The hypothesis implies
n
n
J n+ 1 C J.
The decreasing closed sets (J n )n~.
~'T have a non-empty
n
intersection. Every Ae
J works.
SOLUTION 533:
Let J
ne:N
SOLUTION 534:
Po
z;--::-T
e z: and an
= an
+ z;--::-T .
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
293
-u:-
un+1
u n+1 ]
The interval [an un ,8 n
has length:
defined.
Un +1
(8 n - a ) - - > r( 8n - a )
n
u'"
n
n
n +1 ,8 ---. .
Un+1~ ,
therefore there eXIsts
an Integer p n+ 1 e [aU
---n
un u
n
and:
--_1-1-
~l)
r-
(1)
n
If r
_1-1 .
r>
(E)
Assume:
I n (E)
is defined.
q
un+l
un+1
)
e [p n (E) u
,Pn(E) -u- + 1
n
n
294
CHAPTER 5:
Take
n+
u n+1
() + u n+1 _2_]
[UUn+1 Pn (E) '-u--Pn
E
u 1'-1
n
n
n
2
.[p
for all n
pa
= l'
> 3.
N Un+ l/u n
~ p.
Then let b
p >
By the preceding Exercise 534 the set of A's such that {Av n }e
In addition there
ulo 1 i f ~l
l' -
<
.!.
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
295
As n
-+
in~.
We have:
00,
Hence:
_ U~+1J-+
U
o.
'
n+2
U:+ 1
1
< 2
(A,~)
(n,u,u
1) such that:
n n+
For all k
~ n
(~,S)
Now, as
such that:
296
CHAPTER 5:
if:
For all k
Vk2 +1 I
IVk +2 - -v;-
<
2 '
<
!,
and if:
U
b.
a,
n+
= vn+2 = c.
Ie - ba2
Proceeding by induc-
For all k ;: n
But then:
and:
is countable.
REMARK:
the sequence
U
(un)
defined by
o = a,
u1
n+l
n
(Un elN) ,
a, we show that
= b, and for n ;: o by
1
-2 ::; Un +2 - - - <
U
>
is such that
U
n+l
- - - + Ct.
U
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
297
IS
1 -
If we set u
= un -
As -&n
0, and, with
n
'
+ a ).
n
He then have:
For all n
la n 1 :;:
eN
If we set a
n=O
n7
1,
+ a
[A ] + u .
whence:
-
k=o
~: I ~
ak
o.
L
k=o
n!
a k IT = A
1
n(n!) ,
In!a
- {A }
o.
un + En' with En ~
SOLUTION S 37:
<
+ a
298
CHAPTER 5:
n!e - [n!e]
< -
SOLUTION 538:
By Exercise 5-6, for example, if u
By Exercise 5-8(2), if u
On the other hand, if u
n, B((u
= n,
B( (u
0,
B((u
n
n
n
= lR
- {a}.
= lR
- Zi':.
lim ___1___
n-+= n + 1 k=o
eq(AU k ) =
f10e (A QX)dx
e(AQ) - 1
Aq
This quantity vanishes for all q eZi':'" if and only if A eZi':"', therefore B( (u
n
= Zi':"'.
SOLUTION 5-39:
distributed modulo 1.
9 1 such that Aq
= aa
+ b.
have:
nk + 1
k+1n k +1
n=l
e(aan)q>(na)
I = [O,F,;], where
e(aF,;) - 1
If
and
21tia
if a
+0,
F,;
F,;
if a
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
299
Therefore we
vious.
n nco..
q-1
Since x(n)
1'=0
xr(n), where
of~ into~
Then
restriction of which to the interval (a/(a - l),a/a] is the characteristic function of the interval (a/(a - l),a/a],
almost periodic and x(n) =
(ii):
~(n/a),
is clearly
therefore X is as well.
...
~k(X)
1 _
a -1
kL
a k 1'=0
e(1'x)
a
...
xk(X)
IT
h=O
~h
(x);
h>k
J h has density l/a h , and therefore:
300
CHAPTER 5:
a~l
SOLUTION 542:
= l(gk
~(n + k)~
= e(pAgn)
with
(Exercise 530) if k
that i f h
= e(lAgn ),
+ 0:
1
lim - n-+oo n + 1
If a(n)
0,
is pseudo-random.
= sen)
~(n + k)cp(n)
k=o
+ 0.
(Aga(n))n~ is equidistrib-
Conversely, it is easy
1, t
g (g
0,
sP
+ 0.
1)
,
As
SOLUTION 543:
rogn = a
with a
= hb
1, b ~ 1, (a,b)
1.
divides g},
S(p)
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
301
= b8(p),
= B~)
II pY(p)
then y(p)
we then have g
= ~b,
=~
= ~a,
= B(~) = B( h)
Conversely, it can be shown that if the ratio logg/logh is irrational there exist g-normal numbers which are not h-normal.
The proofs known to date are quite delicate.
In the same way as above, if cp (n)
SOLUTION 544:
for p
we have:
1
therefore
q>
is pseudo-random for
e (fun)'
.e. eN*,
= 0,
.e. eN*,
SOLUTION 545:
A
>
and
k=o
f(u k ) ~ B(n + 1) + C
L f<V k ) ~
ho
B(n + 1) + C.
If we set Mo = 0, M1 = No' M2 = No +
then if Mk < n ~ Mk +1 we have:
N1 ,
... , Mk
No +'"
+ Nk - 1 ,
302
CHAPTER 5:
whence:
h<n
f(W h )
<
Bn + (k + l)C
00
implies that
k~ 1 ~ 0, whence:
SOLUTION 546:
Taking lim!
n h<n
lim ~
Then:
lim!
~ n h<n
h<n
~)
f:
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
for all
E >
303
Ih<nL f(u
h ) - Ani < En + C,
Ih<nL f(V h ) -
~nl
<
En + C.
We then have:
< M 2k
~(N 2
+ N + + N )1
4
2k
+ 2KC,
and:
<
M2k +1 +
(2k + l)C.
Nl +
N2
+ + Nk - 1
Nk
(for example Nk = k!), it follows from this that:
in particular, if A + ~,~
In this Exercise, if ~
h<n
a<n
304
CHAPTER 5:
Let us now
I f for all
sup
f(x) xeI(N,n-N)
in
. 1xSo + + NSN_1
11m
~N(N + 1)
-
1)
-.-
f(u) we deduce
n<~N(N+1)
1xS
~ l ~ 11m
+ + NS
~N(N + 1)
N-1
and so:
1XSO + + NSN_1
~N(N +
1)
l;
ff.
ff ~
Hence we have
l; consequently
ff ~ l;
f
by an anal-
is Riemann inte-
~,
then:
E >
0 there
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
305
= minlx
ke71
- kl).
n > 0 such that Ix - yl < n => If(x) - f(y)1 < e:. From this it
follows that for all n > 0 there exists n such that:
sup If(x - a) - f( ex) I
<
n.
xE!R
Since:
defined by
~(x)
of~
into
of [a,a] is made
= O, ... ,g
- 1, and
the measure of the union is the same as that of [a,a]. This is
also true for every finite union of intervals, therefore also,
by passing to the limit, for every Borel set.
On the other hand, we must show that the transformation e is
ergodic.
under~.
For any e:
>
such that m(A~B) < e: (denoting the Haar measure by m and the symmetric difference by ~). We then have for all integral N ~ 1:
306
CHAPTER 5:
therefore:
If N is chosen larger than the largest of the n's entering into the definition of the intervals that form B, we have:
m(Bri.&
-N
B)
Since:
we have:
and similarly:
(MiB)ll(AriA) =
An (AlIE)
CAllE,
hence:
Im(AnB) - m(A)1 <
So finally:
Im(A) - m(Bn.& -NB)
<
2.
therefore
2, or again:
Im(A) - meA)
< 4.
>
0 we have meA)
2
meA) ,
so
meA)
DISTRIBUTION MODULO 1
SOLUTION 549:
307
x x An
X'l['
x'II' x
'
=1
'II'
into
~(A)
to uniform convergence (or even such that the vector space they generate is dense) in the set of continuous functions. To each function f
we associate a set A , and if A = (lA
n
we have
(u n ) n.,..,
~~ e A, then for any continuous f and any
I(m,f} - (m,f p ) I
<
~ (A)
>
= 1.
0 there exists
and:
liml---l--+ 1 k=o
n-+< n
f(u k )
(m,f) I <
>
But i f
0:
2,
therefore that:
CHAPTER 6
Transcendental Numbers
INTRODUCTION
NOTATIONS
~
bers, and il} the algebraic numbers (il} is the algebraic closure of
min
~).
number~.
Hermite
is.
308
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
309
m.
be a non-zero complex
Then the number exp(ex.) is trans0:
cendental.
Another, classical, statement, that had already been mentioned
by Euler in 1748, and again by Hilbert in 1900 (Hilbert's Seventh
Problem) was proved in 1934:
THEOREM (2): (Gel' fond-Schneider): Let R.
+ 0 and b. mbe
two com-
= e R...
b..
= e bR...
is transcendental over
m.
R.
iii of m in
0:.
[Lang 2].
Many of the problems in transcendence theory are as yet unsolved.
A very general conjecture about the transcendence of the values of the exponential function has been given by S. Schanel
([Lang 2]).
CONJECTURE (S): Let xl....... xn be m-linearly independent complex
numbers.
is at least n.
Xl
, . ,e
xn
mof the
field
310
CHAPTER 6:
pigeonholes~
pigeonholes~
having at least m +
F =
l",j",m
under
F..
]
elements and
~:E ~
F a mapping of E into
~
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
311
PROBLEMS
EXERCISE 6-1:
Let a be an
algeb~aia numbe~_
over~.
algeb~aia numbe~
q.a is an algebraic
Lastly, N(a) denotes
1 such that
a.
(1):
(a):
By using that:
B.
n and height H
P(a)
(b):
e~
[Xl of degree
1 we have:
or
312
CHAPTER 6:
(2) :
or
Let .e ea:.
-as(P)
I.e - .en I
wi th 1im k
for all n
n~
1,
= +00.
n-++oo n
-~
+00,
such that:
(2):
>
(3):
Let
APPLICATION:
e Ill.
>
0 such that:
lan I
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
313
L II
n=l i=l a i
is irrational.
EXAMPLE:
e
l/q
1
q
cos
sm
q'
cosh - ,
q
sinh ~
q
are irrational.
EXERCISE 63:
Let u . . (1
1,J
v,l
~ ~)
.. 1 ~
L lu1,J
i=l
.e. .e.
1
JJ
IT
i=l
(1 ~ j
V.
~ ll).
(l+X.).
1
lei
1
~ X.1
I~
u. .
(b)
Let a . . (1
and:
i=l
el
1,] 1
1,]
n,l
j ~ m) be complex algebraic
314
CHAPTER 6:
integers.
For 1 , j
a 1 ,j' ,an,j'
and let:
o.
[K.:ID]
integers satisfying:
(1 , j
, m),
where:
(j)
(j)
,,0.
J
Assume
(1 , j 'm).
> ]l
Show that there exist rational integers x 1 , ... ,xn , not all
zero, satisfying:
n
i=l
a . .x.
~,
(1 , j
, m),
and:
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
315
H a positive integer.
Show that there exist rational numbers so, ... ,sm' not all zero,
such that:
max 1s.1 ~ H
O",j~m
and:
(b) :
teger.
Show that there exist rational integers so' ... , sm' not all
zero, such that:
max 1s1
O",j",m
and:
luos o +
(c):
... + umsml
<
I2clu o l +
...
2
+ 1u m1 )H-lCm-l)
complex numbers.
Show that there exists a non-zero polynomial P eZ': [Xl' .. ,Xq]
of degree at most Nh with respect to Xh (1
less than or equal to H, such that:
where:
and:
q) and of height
CHAPTER 6:
316
(d):
>
such that
o
<
la
>
the inequality:
+ a x + + a xnl
1
< (
O~i~n
EXERCISE 64:
(1):
m(]R
9i (]R~.
et
g~om~tpie ~l~mentaipe,
' -lT 0 ,
PX
Let
P~ ,. 0,
P(O,O) ,.
0,
PO,l) ,. O.
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
317
.e e a:
satisfies:
= 0,
Let Me M (a:) be an n
n
0. 1 ,0. 2
x n
and
belong to the general linear group GL (iii) of invertible n x n matrices with algebraic coefficients.
0. 1 ,0. 2
are
~-linear1y
dependent.
+ 0,
the matrix:
expMo.
does not belong to GL (m).
n
(2):
expMu e GL
(iii).
~-vector
318
CHAPTER 6:
Let 8 . . (1
~,J
i , h,l
k) be algebraic numbers,
and let y l' ... 'Y k be non- zero algebraic numbers. For 1 $!, j.!;. k let log\
be a non-zero determination of the logarithm of Yk . Assume:
k
8 . . logy.
~
j=l
,J
(1 ~ i
h).
8 . . c.
j=l
~,J
(2):
(1 ~ i ~ h).
following:
Let a 1 a n be non-zero aLgebraic numbers; choose a determination of the logarithm at each of the points a 1.. a n and assume that the numbers 10ga1 loga n are m-LinearLy independent.
If 8 0. 8n - 1 are aLgebraic numbers. then the equaLity
8.
(3):
= O.
Let 10ga1 , ... ,10ga n be non-zero logarithms of algebraic numbers, and 81 , ... ,8 n be algebraic numbers. If:
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
319
is transcendental;
(iii):
As-
sume that at least one of the numbers Sl, ... ,Sn is irrational.
Then the number:
is transcendental.
(iv):
Let L
gebraic numbers.
(4):
m.L
= {Sl.e.l + + S.e.
:13. eiji,e leiji,n ~ O}
n n l
is transcendental;
(vi):
i=l
J3.loga. )
l
320
CHAPTER 6:
(5):
(v).
Let
tl, ... ,tn be- m-linearly independent complex numbers such that:
exp(Mt.) e GL (m)
J
m
(1 ~ j ~.n).
(7):(a):
morphism; assume ~~n) C GLm(m), and let semn, S = (Sl, ... ,Sn)+O,
be such that
~(S)eGLm(ii}).
+ 0,
the homomorphism
z ~
is non-rational. If al, ... ,a are m-linearly independent elements of mn such that ~(aj) e GLm(iii), then a l , ... ,a are a:-linearly
independent.
Show that the number:
flo 1 dx+ x 3
is transcendental.
EXERCISE 6-7: LOWER BOUNDS OF LINEAR FORMS IN LOGARITHMS
Let al, ... ,an be positive rational integers and bl, ... ,bn
rational integers. Assume that the number:
321
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
is non-zero.
Denote:
Then:
IAI
> A
-nB
IA I
>
exp{ -
(8n)
Let 10gal ... 10gan be m-1inear1y independent logarithms of algebraic numbers. Let Bl ... Bn be m-1inear1y independent algebraic numbers. Then the numbers:
m.
which amounts
322
CHAPTER 6:
(3):
is
Ul
mof
un
, ... ,e
,e
the field:
vU l
, .. ,e
n - 1.
(4):
212,
are algebraically independent over
(5):
m.
x,x
is transcendental.
(6):
numbers ~,~
is transcendental.
EXERCISE 69: Assume the following result: There exists an absolute constant Co > 0 such that for every non-zero polynomial P e
1l; [X] of degree", n and size", 8, we have:
logIP(n)1 > - C n8(l + logn).
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
(1):
323
(2):
Let (a)
1 be a sequence of rational numbers, an inm m;:
Consider the function f de-
f(z)
Let
I;
Z
m
1.
is convergent.
(a):
m;:O
a I;m
m
is non-zero.
(b):
m.
m(l;)
m(l;)
324
CHAPTER 6:
SOLUTIONS
an
0,
If P(a)
Let a
(1)
,a
(2)
, .. ,a
(8)
be the conjugates of a.
This
yields:
IT
qnp(a (i
i=l
qn8P (a)
IT
p(a(i.
(2)
i=2
Now,
n
k=o
,a
"
a (i),k
(Contd)
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
325
(Contd)
with:
1 +
sup
la
.)
1.
I.
1::;i~8
And so:
(3)
s-l '
where a
= (2~) l-sq -s
(b):
> 0
By the preceding, i f
Pe~[X]
is a non-zero polynomial
=0
or
-[n10g1/c + (s-l)logH].
e
~ -E-1
s- =
IP(a) I
max{log
(2):
braic.
a1 ,8
1}
o.
to be alge-
=0
Pe~[X]
0 such
we have:
or
326
CHAPTER 6:
) =d
+ 10gh
= s(Pn ).
~n
-as(~
+ 0,
(~)
and
~n
and consequently:
(4)
If:
L
k=o
P (X)
n
a kX ,
n
this yields:
Ipn (~) - Pn (~ n )1
L la II~k _ ~kl
k=l
nk
lim k
By hypothesis we have:
I~
~n
-k
s(~
with
dn :
n+t co n
~ 1, and consequently,
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
327
(6)
-(k
I)-kn s(~ n )
)
n ,
-d)s(~
with:
=2
+ log(l + I~I).
- d)s(~ )
~ as(~ ),
or, again,
k
a + d,
which contradicts
lim k
n++"" n
Consequently
+"".
is transcendental.
= n/4
(n
1) and
d(~
n.
~em
,."
328
CHAPTER 6:
we have:
(*)
For P
Pn and q
we obtain:
~ a ('X'+3)~lx
whenever
I:: -xl ~
_:nl
n
1, and so:
<
-~
(2):
+1
+1
Ii
>
O.
If
r..q + ~
we
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
APPLICATION:
Let
L IT - .
00
denote:
Whenever a N+2
329
2 we have:
2
~ 0 when N ~ +00, we deduce from this that ~ is irralaN+11
tional.
Using the classical expansions of the functions expz,cosz,sinz,
coshz,sinhz as power series finishes off the numbers mentioned.
For example, for exp(l/q) we will take a = nq.
Since
:N(X1, ,X)
which to
... '~\I)
(~l'
Xi,l:lO i:lO
associates (nl, ... ,n~) with:
~
\I}
of the set
intolRlJ
\I
i=l
u . . ~.
~,J
(1 ~ j
:10 lJ).
., ... ,u .}.
,J
\I,J
v.
w.
u.
J
(1 ~ j
~ lJ).
330
CHAPTER 6:
with X
max X
For 1 ::; j
1::; ili: v
\.I
R. 1 o oR.
\.I
<
II
i=l
(1 + X.)
~
= card:N(X1 . .. ,X
I;
1n1
J
t.u.
j
(n 1 , ... n
(1
J = ~(I;)
~ j ~
with 11;.1
~
~
I;
under
(j)
01
For 1
, ... ,0
\.I),
(j)
OJ
for 1
~ X'.,
]
(l~i~v).
satisfies:
X.
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
331
a(j)
= ~
r .+8 .+k
r .+k
J
where r. and
J
O.
8.
= r. +
28
(j)
Define the mappings Th , 1 ' h , OJ' of Kj
a(
.)
T J
(
j)
for 1 , h
for r. + 1
Im(a~j))
for
r. +
+ 1
8.
by:
r.,
Re(a(j))
into~
r. +
J
j,
h ~ o ..
J
where
01 + + om.
therefore, because A.
J
(1
+ X)n >
Thus we have:
1 for 1
m,
mo.
IT
(1
j=l
+ I2A .X) J
J
that there exist rational integers x 1 , ... ,xn , not all zero, satisfying:
332
CHAPTER 6:
max
l~i~n
Ix. I
~ X,
and:
(1 ( j ~ m).
A.X
(1 ( j ( m),
+ [fiA.X]
J
and:
max
~
r.+ 1~ h~u.
And so:
I K/lIl ( nL
a . .x )
i=l 1,J i
(1 ~ j ( m).
~=
I ( 2s.( 1 + A.X
[12A .X]
J
OJ
)
(1 ~ j ( m);
is bounded
1, J
, because s . ..;;
J
I2A.X
(1 + [k l
])
., by:
OJ
< 1.
Hence:
n
i=l
with:
a . .x.
1,J 1
(1 ~ j
( m),
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
333
m, such that
; 2-wn
a~j)(Kj)
-]J
can be replaced by
(0
12
H1
++0 )/(n-jJ)
m
v.]
Reu.
jJ
= 2,
]J
max
I ~.I ::;
]
= m + 1,
m let:
w.]
and
1et us choose
For 0
Xi
~O""'~m'
= H,
I1
= I2 = H(m+1)/2 ; there
and:
I ,: I Iv i I
m m ~ i=l
+ + V ~
H(m+1)/2 '
i~l IWil
H(m:i)/2
334
CHAPTER 6:
As:
lu os0
+ + u
s 12
mm
Iv 0"0
<"
+ +
+
Iwos0
<"
m"m
12
+ +
s 12
mm '
and as:
m
I Iv1~
i=o
I lu.l,
i=O
I Iw1
i=o ~
I lul,
i=o
therefore:
m + 1
it
h=l
(1.+ Nh )
= M,
so, ... ,sh' not all zero, such that:
now:
m
I lu1
i=o
we majorise Nh + I by e
Nh
for I
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
(2):(d):
335
number; an integer N
2w + 3 (for example N
= [2w
+ 4]) is chos-
>
H > Ho) there exists a non-zero polynomial P e:?l [X] of degree less
if H
> Ho
(Pk)k~O
of polynomials
Ip(x)1
>
< (H(P))-w
336
CHAPTER 6
~)
is finite.
t o.
O~i~n
hence:
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
For
337
+ 1:
I
Ii=o
a. (0 (x) ) i
J.
0+1
hence:
\i~O
aix i \
x max
O,.i..,n
-(0-1)
Ia. 1
J.
SOLUTION 64:
(1):
+0
e,
x,
eax
is transcendental.
But for x
1, eax
Theorem (2) and the hypothesis P(l,l) + 0). Finally, as P is irreducible (1) shows that if e~ is algebraic, then e~a is algebraR.
R.a
338
CHAPTER 6
By
+ 0,
then b is rational,
Let P e
GLn(~) be such that P- 1MP is a diagonal matrix (if M is diagonalizable) or reduced to the form of diagonal blocks (Equation (2)).
Let A1 . ,A n be the eigenvalues of M. with 1.1
+ O.
The diagonal
-1
Therefore expA 1a
e~,
(2):
Then,
with the notations of Question (1), one of the blocks A1 , ... ,Ar
of the matrix:
o
A
[",
(2)
iJ i
and:
expAiz
exp"i' [
2T
z
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
339
Ql,
= [
p-1MP
A1
A
n
and:
expP
e A1z
AZ
e n
-1
MPz
A.U
1
gen-
logy.
b.
x
J,s s
8=1
j=l
8 . . logy.
1, J
8=1
( kL 8 . .b. ) x
j=l 1,J J,S S
o.
Hence:
k
j=l
8 . . b.
1,J J,S
(1
8 :::: r).
As the b.
are not all zero, there exists
J,S
8,
1 ::::
8 ~
r, such
340
CHAPTER 6
Multiplying
~-linearly
dependent:
(S. e gj),
1
-1, and:
lation:
a
(3)
n-
+0
+o.
~,
(4)
with logaI, ... ,loga n ~-linearly independent and So, ... ,Sn-I algebraic. By taking the logarithms of two members of (4) we establish that there exists a rational integer k such that:
(5)
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
341
fore (by Baker's Theorem) 2in,loga1 , ... ,logan are m-linearly dependent; from this we deduce the existence of rational numbers
with
-1.
kb.]. e
8].
= 2I1
(1 ~ i ~ n).
= log2
81
8n - 1 80
a 1 an
e
can hold with-
=>
=>
(iii).
342
CHAPTER 6
= -1;
Let So
.. . ,l
we have
i=o
(i)) .
To prove (iii) we notice that if 11, ... ,ln are m-1inearly independent, then lo belongs to the vector space m generated by
11' ,.in:
n
i=l
k.l. ;
1
k . . A.
1, J
(0
Thus:
i
n),
hence:
n
L s.l.
i=o
j=l
1 1,J
o,
.L
"2-=0
S.k . .
1
1, J
o for 1
q.
=0
for 0
n,
which is contrary to the hypothesis that 11' ... ,In are not zero.
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
343
~-linearly
dependent.
t 1 , ... ,tn be
Let
numbers, and
~-linearly
~-linearly
L B.L
i=1
0,
with B1 , ... ,Bn algebraic numbers not all zero. We can reduce
to the case where the B. are ~-linearly independent, in fact,
~
if:
n-1
i=1
k. e ~,
k. B.,
~
set:
and
t'.~
t.~ + k.t
~ n
t~,
(1
n - 1),
~-linearly
~-linearly
n - 1 let
have:
tn
n-1
i=1
n-1
i=1
b. = -B./Bn , and we
~
b.t.
~
independent; they
~-linearly
independent and
b.L
~
~
It remains to verify
344
CHAPTER 6
Let il, ... ,in be W-linearly independent logarithms of algebraic numbers; if they are iii-linearly dependent we have:
n
(3.i.
i=l
0,
-(3./(3
~
n
as il, ... ,in are W-linearly independent, at least one of the numbers (31, .. ,(3n_1 is irrational, which contradicts (iii).
(4):
a non-zero element:
since the numbers (31, .. ,(3n are not all zero, we can assume (3n i 0,
and then:
exp - (30 +
e~n il
~-1]
+ + -(3in-1
n
contradicting (vi).
Let us show that (v) => (vi).
=-
13 i
1 1
(3
n n
Let i n+ 1
- i n+ 1 e
13
++(3i
o +(3i
l i n n'
(lij.L)(')lij,
hence (30 = O.
Finally, (v) is obviously a consequence of Baker's Theorem.
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
(5):
345
Baker's Theorem.
...
-+
First of all let us remark that an analytic homomorphGLm(a:) is of the form 1/I(t) = exp(Mt), with MeMm(rr.), in
~:rr.
-+
~(t)=~[.~
J=l
and t.
~ ~(t.e.)
J J
t.e
.J
J
IT
j=l
~(t.e.),
J J
is a homomorphism of a: into GL
(a:).
Furthermore,
and:
346
CHAPTER 6
M2.+2MM
J
j k
M2
+ k'
(7):(a):
and are not all nilpotent (otherwise <p(t 1 , ... ,t n ) would be a rational function), there exists a common eigenvector corresponding
to the eigenvalues A1 , ... ,A n of M1 , ... ,Mn respectively, with
(A 1 , ... ,A )
n
expM. e GL (m)
<p(e.) =
J
(1 ~ j ~
n),
A.
logy o
j=l
S.logy.,
J
and part (1) above shows that there exist rational integers
c O,c 1 , ... ,c n , not all zero, such that:
j=l
S.c ..
J J
~-linearly
we have:
<p (t)
dependent.
exp(Mt) ,
MeM (a:),
m
For n
= 1
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
347
dependent and:
h
1:
j=l
S.a. ,
J J
~ ~(a1t1 + + aht h ) of ~h
into GL (~) takes algebraic values at the points of~h and at
n
+Olh ,
(Sl' ... , Sh )
bn+1
1: b.J S.,
J
j=l
b a.
b.a
J n
n J
(1
Set:
n + 1),
so that:
a
But
n-1
n+1
a~,
...
1:
j=l
,a~_l
S.a~.
J J
are
~-linear1y
As
J:
:Xx 3
t[lOg2 +
Ii) ,
and as in is a logarithm
348
CHAPTER 6
of -I, by Baker's Theorem the integral has a transcendental number as its value.
REMARK: More generally, we can show the following result:
Let P,Q be two relatively prime polynomials of m[X). Assume
that the degree of P is strictly less than the degree of Q and
that the zeros of Q are all distinct. Let r be a path in the
complex plane; assume that r is closed or that r has algebraic
or infinite limits.
If the integral:
I
=J
P(z) dz
Q(z)
show:
~
-2nB
By the inequality:
satisfies:
Now,
IX:
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
IAI
349
:> nBlogA.
b1
1
- - -a
b
n
n - 1
I satisfying:
We obtain:
and:
(b):
First of all A
0 implies A
2.
For
= I we have:
IAI
Ihloga I
log2
>
21
1
1
A
~ :B
IAI
<
350
CHAPTER 6
[~n]
and since:
Gn]B1ogA > 0,
we have:
IAI
[~nJB1ogA.
<
Therefore:
IAI
~ exp{-2[~n]B1ogA} > A
-nB
On the other hand, an analogous proof shows that if a1, ... ,a n are
n), if
the number:
H(a.)}.
l~j~n
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
351
m of
the field:
is equal to n, therefore loga l , ... ,logan are algebraically independent over Oi, and in particular 1, loga l , .. , logan are iP - L - I.
Let us define xl" .. ,xm+n by:
(1 ~ i ~
X.
n),
.
n+]
(1 ~ j
~ m).
By Baker's Theorem the numbers xl""'xm+n are m-1inear1y independent, therefore, by using Schanue1's Conjecture (S), the
transcendence degree over 00 of the field:
m(xl, ... ,xm+n ,e
xl
, ... ,e
xm+n
is equal to m + n.
(2):
Let us choose:
X.
(1 ~ i ~
n),
and:
xn+l = loga.
By hypothesis the numbers xl"",x n+l are m - L - I, therefore
the transcendence degree over mof the field:
352
CHAPTER 6
Sl
, ... ,
m.
REMARK:
The number 2
Let n +
~
t (0
~ n)
L
i=l
a.
L
J=l
.u . +
k,~
bk . VU .
,J
(1 ~ k ~ n - t).
system of equations in ut+l' ... ,u n ; the determinant of this system is non-zero, because of the transcendence of v (it would be
enough, if v is not algebraic of degree
for
t + 1 ..
n we have:
n - t). As a consequence,
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
353
is
i + 1.
is at least n + i.
(4):
x l7
Thus we are led to showing that these six numbers are algebraically independent.
354
CHAPTER 6
(5):
(for example, by Question (2) above, or more simply by the Gel'fond-Schneider Theorem (2)).
If x is transcendental, the numbers:
2
If
355
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
uox
+ + u o'
u~s
u
= v O,r + v l,r ~ + . +
],r
orised by:
max
d(v.
],r
V~-l,r~
0-1
) ::: r max d (u . ) ,
o:::i:::o
O~:::o-l
H(v.
],r
Let P(X) = a
n and size
)::: 2r(l
o:::i:::o
+ a X + + a Xn be a polynomial of degree
n
j=O
b.
- ] ~]
U
n-o
o
We have:
'
b.
The norm
R(1I:)
n-o n-o-r
r=l
u 0:
ar+ a- lV'] ,r .
356
CHAPTER 6
R(lt)
02
= Uo
IT
(0-1
b.~
]
j=O
{a}
jJ
Conse-
IT
afl
'J
( 0-1
L b.~]
j=O ]
Therefore:
nor upon n.
(2):(a):
numbers Qm
such that:
mo
-l(~),Qm (~)
(2):(b):
= Cl(~)
Since
f(~)
an irreducible polynomial
is algebraic over
~,
f 0, one of the
f 0), because:
m(~),
there exists
in2Z[~]:
U.
]
such that
~(f(~))
0.
6 ~[~],
o
~
0,
(that is
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS
357
f(~)
over
m(~)).
The norm R
II (- ni
R (0
m
i=l
(~)
is:
of
+ 1 + a 1 ~ + . + am~m)
-1 I0
Uo
j=o
'J
u. ( m
I ai~l j .
J
i=o
Therefore:
D u~R (0
mum
is a polynomial in
with coefficients
~,
k'D o
in~,
of degree
~ k~m,
and of height '" 2 m' where k~,k; do not depend upon m. Furthermore, if mR, is a sequence of integers for which Q (~) f 0, we
mR,
have P
mR,
(~)
plies:
-
>
>
00
m(~)).
have:
ia m+k +1 i
<
e -2C" m+k,
with:
"m+k
Clearly we have:
" k~ (1 + !::...)"
m
m+
m;
M, we
358
CHAPTER 6
as we have Am
>
m2 , we obtain:
-2CA
1m
(lsi
+ l)]k ~ e
-CA
Consequently:
CHAPTER 7
INTRODUCTION
7. 1
HODULAR FORMS
Let f(q)
8;'8 0
in the disc 0
<
Iql
< l.
f(q).
>
Set q = e
O.
2illZ
,and
+ 1 and by z
-liz,
F[az + b)
ez + d}
= (ez
+ d) k F(z)
359
f is holomorphic
360
CHAPTER 7
at the origin (A
=0
for s
< 0),
[l~]
ifk
[ lk2] + 1
if k
if k
2 mod 12, k
>
0,
2 mod 12, k
0,
* o.
<
For even k
(m ,n )ez:;xz:;
(m,n)+(O,O)
4, the series:
(mz + n)
expansl0n at q = e
2illz
Its
is given by:
2(2ill)k
21;(k) + (k - 1)
where:
1;(k)
and
din
k-l
= k.
361
The group r
-+
2 matrices
This group
= SL2~)/{I}
operates
H by:
az + b
cz + d
= I,
(TJ)3
= I.
From this we
H is transformed by an element of r
+ Number of Vertices.
If we want to apply this to the quotient of H by a subgroup of
CHAPTER 7
362
~;
ing the cusps) invariant under the group such that every function
having the same properties as
is a rational function of
f.
This
is what happens with the group r, the function f then being the
"modular invariant" function
~(z),
1.
~(z)
to
363
PROBLEMS
coefficients in F
= xP - X.
ula:
~ (n)
n din
n]
pd]1 [-d
xP - X
a IN A FINITE
Set P(x)
= xP -
x, Q (x)
r
=x
r-l
+ x P + --- + x P
364
CHAPTER 7
u(a)
P(a)
v(a)
and
= Qr (a)
Ker(v) = Im(u).
Establish the relation:
(2):
II
aeF
- x.
p
(3):
+ 1 be
Denote by w(h)
w(h)lw(h + 1)
(2):
w(h + 1)
~/p ~*.
Assume p
+w(h
w(h + l)lpw(h)
and
+ 2).
+ 2.
+ w(h
+ 1) implies
that:
For a11 h
Define h o'
(3):
~ h
o'
w(h)
(1)
= 2.
of
365
1 and
= 2.
Show that there exists a satisfying the conditions of Ques-
(4):
the numbers a satisfying the conditions of Question (3) belong to distinct classes modph, the number of these being equal to the number of
generators of
(~/ph~),.,.
(5):
(~/5h~),~.
n=O
00
n.
a ~ and
n
n=O
CONGRUENT mod m if a
_ b
n=O
~ are said to be
n n
(mod m).
(1):
fez )g(z),
f'(z) ,
m!
if f(O)
O.
(2):
(e Z
fez )m
1)m-1
=0
2
(mod m).
2k+1
\
z
(mod 4).
k~l (2k + i)!
L
k=l
k(p-1)
[k(p - I)]!
(mod p).
366
CHAPTER 7
Set:
(3) :
z
2n
(_1)n-1 B z
n (2n) !
n=l
-'2+ L
- 1
(4) :
Set:
be the denominator of B
=2
(5) :
If 3 ~ P ~
>
2 a (n)
a (n)
p
~
12n,
and P
+ 2).
0, and that;
(2n) 3/2 ,
p>12n
(6):
~~
a (n) ~
P
2n
I2n -
Calculate:
nQ1Q2"qn
(2n)!
XIX):
cp(x) =
IT
367
L (_1)nx~(3n2+n),
(1 - xm)
n=-oo
00
3
cp (x)
n=O
(-1)n(2n + l)x,
(2)
For
0,1,2,3,4 set:
(_1)nx~(3n2+n)
G (x)
s
~(3n2+n)=B(mod5)
D=
By
G4
G3 G2
G
Go
4 G3
G2 G1 Go G4
G3 G2 G1 Go
G4 G3 G2 G1
Go
G1
(2) :
G3
G1
G2
G3
G4
Go
G1
and
=-
(x)
[cp(x 5 )]6
cp(x 25 )
Show that:
= G4 = 0
(3):
(1)
G1
O.
Set:
~
L p(5n +
n=O
)x 5n+s .
xcp(x
25
).
(3)
368
CHAPTER 7
Show that:
Conclusion?
EXERCISE 76: CALCULATION OF DETERMINANTS mod p:
CHARACTERISATION OF LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIALS
Throughout this problem K is a field of characteristic p.
With P a polynomial of K[x] , of (at most) degree p - 1,
(1):
calculate (in
K):
p-l
P(n).
n=O
(2):
ant:
J.
J.
with the a.'s is the sum of that obtained by starting from the
J.
a1
a2
a1
.......
.... ....
a1 - i
....
a1
a
a
p
p-l
p + 1
(4):
Define an operator
369
[I
a
n=-N
t n)
n=-N
ria
tn.
a t n =1)
n
n=-N
i f and only i f a
(a )p for all n.
n
np
-z+m
au+b
au + d
z + m'
with u
w (z)
P
= p k-1F(pz) + -1 p-1
L
P m=O
[z + m)
F--
Show that:
(z + 1)
(3) :
F(z)
w (z)
p
and
wp (
with q
-;)
Assume that:
n~nO
Anq
2iltz
w (z).
p
To it as-
370
CHAPTER 7
(z)
may be written as
n~n
cusp form.
(4) :
Set:
F(z)
lI( z )
n=l
n
-r(n)q
a+1
N
= -r(p)-r(p")
- p
11
N-1
-rep"
1 we
).
~
we
have:
an Eisenstein series of
weight k.
Show that <I>p and Gk are proportional.
EXERCISE 78: STUDY OF A SUBGROUP OF THE MODULAR GROUP
(1) :
[: :]
[: :]
[: :]
[: :]}
371
[SL2~/4~/I].
(2) :
4
-1
Denote by r 4 the subgroup of r generated by T ,J,TJT
(a) :
Show that:
(b) :
Set q = e 2
(3):(a):
H, such that:
e4
--;:::: +
2f2q
H(z)
H(yz)
for q
O( q)
II
Calculate
+ h)]
[x - H(z
h=o
(x,z).
(4): (a):
16, and set
0,
for all y e r 4.
H(z)
(b):
-+
= !(l + ilV).
D+ 1
4
S :=
(mod 4),
a > 0,
which satisfy:
H(T +!)
(b):
H ( a (T +
Show that:
f)
sJ
372
CHAPTER 7
IT
a,a,o
[X - H(az
0-
a)]
ao=~(D+1)
0", a<40
a>0,a=Omod4
is a polynomial in x and H(z), we will denote it
(c):
~(x,H(z)).
two equations:
(x - 3)(x + 1)3
{
q,(x,x) =
o.
0,
373
SOLUTIONS
aP = a
is equivalent
to a e JF k' therefore P has all its roots inJF n' that is to say
P
pi TI n .
(2) :
divides TI
;
pm
F m must therefore be included inJF n ,which implies that m diP
vides n.
divides
degree m with m dividing n, and by them alone. It is not divisible by any power of these polynomials since it only has simple
roots.
that:
p
min
m1jJ (m).
CHAPTER 7
374
The
M~bius
chapter 1).
SOLUTION 72: (1):
= aP
- a + aP
- a P +
We
- a
0,
Since IF
(2):
We see that u
F , therefore Im(v)
P
= 0,
= Ker(u).
II
aEiF
[Q (x) - a] is a
r
Cl,
o
with
Cl
two conditions:
The roots of the polynomial x P - x - a lie inF r (a e Im(u),
Qr (a) =
are equivalent.
a elF h.
P
If l'
P
(a
e Ker(v),
= sh +
375
2h-1
h-1
sh-1
+ + a P
+ + a P
a + + a P
Q (a)
r
sh+k-1
+ + a P
o.
Now, if k
+ 0,
Qk(a) is not in
F , for it follows from Question (2) above that the only numbers
P
=1
1, which is impossible if a + 1. If
w(h+1)
h+1. .
a
= 1 (mod p ), 1t 1S clear that a w(h+1) = 1 (mod p h),
h, that is to say, a k
=1
=1
(2):
Assume w(h + 1)
+ w(h),
w(h+1)
pw(h)
that is to say, a
w(h)
=l+ap
Convers1y, if aw(h)
h p
(1 + ap )
376
CHAPTER 7
= pw(h)
for
2.
Now, by Question (2) above, w(l) = p - 1 and w(2) = p(p - 1) certainly implies that w(h) = ph-l(p - 1).
(4):
Now:
(a
Ap)
p-l
=1
+ pv (mod p2).
Since (p - 1) and a
are non-zero (mod p), for each a there exists a single value of
A,
say (-
(p -
-2)'
l)a P
_ 1 (mod p 2 ).
377
For the (p - 1) other values the resulting a's give us our result.
It is clear that a generates ez/ph~*, therefore this group is
cyclic. (p - l)~(p - l)incongruent solutions mod p2 have been
found, that is to say, ph-2(p - l)~(p - 1) = ~[~(p )] solutions
= cardez/ph~~ ~[~(ph)]
is the number of
its generators.
EXAMPLE:
For p
Now,
A l l mod 5
=1
+ 5(1 + 4.27A)
* 3 mod 5;
(3 + 5A)4
00
fez)
= L
n=O
Let us set:
n
~
00
~
n n!
and
g(z)
\'
L
n=O
n n!
we then find:
r(z)
378
CHAPTER 7
0 and that
fez )m-l
Gn _ 1)!
is H-entire;
fez )m-l ,
since [ and [' are H-entire, the same is true of (im _ 1)! [ (z),
therefore also for:
m-l
fo let)
m-l)!
z
r(t)dt
.Jf!f_\
= LJEl
m!
m = p2 with p prime; if p
2 we then see that p and 2p are sma112
er than (p - 1), whence the result).
We have:
in particular,
ex>
n=l
ex>
n=2
[3 + 3n]~
n
(mod 4).
Now 3 2
379
=1
2k+1
(mod 4).
n=l
p - 1; if we set:
zn
n!
=1
= -1
Zp-l
- (-1) (p _ 1)! + ...
(mod p),
L
hi
(3) :
k(p-l)
z
[k(p - i)]!
le z
and for
Now set z
= loge 1
- 1
eZ
t is
1),
( e Z _ l)m-l
(_l)m+l...:...:..._........:::...:......._
m
m=l
As f(z)
(mod p).
- 0 (mod m) is equivalent to ~
being H-entire, we find:
m
z
1 - 2
zk
\' 7.7,
- 3.. L\'
k=l K!
4 k=l
00
2k+l
z
(2k + 1)!
"7"::"''---~~
(Contd)
CHAPTER 7
380
(Contd)
pprime p k=l
p>2
k(p-l)
pprime
p>2
(p-1)/2n
- + integer,
p
IT
p>2
(p-1)/2n
p,
- [~] - [~l
p divides q
that is to
~ay
= k(~)
= k(p
- 1),
. h mu 1
Wlt
tlP 1
lClty [2n]
p-:-T , an d consequent 1y:
a (n) = [p 2_n 1]
P
(5) :
We find:
a (n)
~[p2~1]
_[~] _[2~]
P
2n
P
2n
2
p
- ----
[p
2~ 1]
2n
1
P 1 -
----~
381
1-
2n
p-:l
2n
- - > - 1.
P - 1
_... _[2;]
P
~ ~ _ (2n _
P - 1
1) _... _ (2nr _ 1)
p
+ ~ _ 2n [ 1
p-1
-~]
pr
1-~
<
r+1
,for p
3 we find:
3
+ ----EP - 1 " r + -2
a (n)
E;:
r + 1.
Therefore, for 3
a (n)
p p
If P
>
"p
fin we find:
log (2n)+1
= (2n)3/2.
382
CHAPTER 7
[k 2-:: 1] - [2;]
[k 2~ 1]
)'
k?[I2n] +1
- [2;]
[[~]]
We have:
(6):
n,----Q1" 'Qn
IT
(2n) !
3... p~12n
a (n)/n
pP
p>?2ri
a (n)/n
pP
a 2 (n) < -
n
n
n
"2
+ 1 - 4" + 1", - - + 1,
2n
or:
- n
a 2 (n)
< -
n +
2 +
+ h,
-1
.;
a 2 (n)/n
2(h/n)+(1/(2 h+1
.; 2- 1
2
that is to say,
"
lim2
a 2 (n)/n
_
a 2 (n)/n
h
+1)
.; lim2
.. lX21/(2
2
383
lim2
a 2 (n)/n
~.
a (n)/n
~
p P
~ [( 2n ) 3 / 2n] 2n
IT
and because:
lim(2n)3/~
n-+ oo
= 1,
we have:
a (n)/n
lim
p P
3... p.. 12rl
1.
It is known that if p
1T
p>./2n
a (n)/n
p P
>
2n + 1, a (n)
P
(2n +
1)
1T
n-+oo p>72n
a (n)/n
p P
1.
lim
n,.--Q1" Qn
(2n) !
l2
0, hence:
(p>~n ~)
and therefore:
lim
384
CHAPTER 7
Hence we find:
where
D = IT cp(~) =
IT
m=1
IT (1 - ~rnxrn).
~
(1 - x Sm )
IT
ml~odS)
IT
(1 - xm)S
m==O(modS)
IT (1 - xSm)s
IT--(-1-_-x"""2'""s'-m-) m
m
2
3n 2+ n == 8 (mod 5).
We multiply both sides by 24 (which is invertible mod 5), and we
(2):
find:
36n 2 + 12n _ 248
- 8 (mod 5),
or:
(6n + 1)2
==
1 -
(mod 5).
=3
or 4.
=0
if (1
Hence G3
385
8J
= -1,
= G4
O.
=0
=1
That is to
8 _ 2 or
3, so
=0
= -1
G1 (x)
- xcp(x
25
).
L (-1)n(2n
+ l)x(n +n)/2
8 we find:
We observe that:
386
CHAPTER 7
Dx
Po
Pi
P2
P3
P4
0
0
0
0
G4 G3 G2 1
Go G4 G3 0
G2 Gi Go G4 0
G3 G2 Gi Go 0
G4 G3 G2 Gi 0
Go
Gi
P 4D
Gi
P4 D
G2 0
G2 Gi Go
0
G2 Gi
0
0
0
GO
G2 Gi
2
G4 - Gi (2G i G2GO) - G2 (G OGi
1
p(5n + 4)
=0
(mod 5).
GOG2 )
387
p-1
n=O
p-1
p-1
- 1.
n=l
p-1
pen)
n=O
(2) :
b2 +
b1 +
+ c
f 1 (1)
C2
C1
f (p)
P
f (1)
P
f 2 (1)
f1 (p)
where f runs over the set of functions from {l, ... ,p} to the
If f is considered as a function on
1"'
l'
1')
is equal to that
obtained by starting from f (it suffices to make a cyclic permutation of the columns and the same permuation on the rows).
Let us assume now that f 1"' (i)
l' ~
388
CHAPTER 7
and kr runs over the whole of 'O./p'O. when k runs over 'O./p'O.. From
this it follows that fCi) = constant. Therefore, i f fC i) is not
a constant there are p distinct elements, e.g. f , which
r
give the same value to the determinant, that is to say, which
give zero to the total in the summation.
b
bi + c i
bi
Hence we find:
b
ci
c2
ci
b2 + c 2
bi + c i
b2
bi
We notice then that the system Cai, ... ,a p ) is the sum of the systems (O, ... ,ai, ... ,O), and that:
a.1
o
o
a.
a.
1,
a.
a~,
1 a~.
a=i
(3):
, , , ,
ai - 1
a2
f1 (1)
(p)
II
f 2 (1)
389
(1 -
keK
f1 (p)
k),
= {k:f(k) f a}.
= 0hk (the
to:
D=
IT
(1 - k)
k=1
f
\'
p~1
L
IT
(p)
(1-k+r)
f1 (p)
r0
p-l
2 IT
1'=0 keK
(1 - k +
1')
p-1
IT
1'=0 k=2
if cardK
(1 - k + 1')
< p -
1,
-1 otherwise.
Hence we find:
D=
a . a
1
P
a
P
a 2 a 1
(Continued)
a1
o 0
1 0
a2
IT
(-1) +
k=1
(1 - k)
390
CHAPTER 7
(Contd)
i=l
(4):
only finitely many terms of negat i ve order] formal series, we can wri te:
p-l
a =
bo
(k)
with a(k) =
n:=kmodp
(ab)(k)
a(h)b(h'),
h+h':=k(modp)
(0)
(1)
(p-l)
(1)
(ab ) ( 0 )
(0)
n:=kmodp
n:=k
= 0,
in kt)),
391
(0)
a
(1)
a
a
(p-l)
(1)
a(O) -
O.
(p-l)
a (0)
b(p-l)
(p - 1)
p-l
i=o
(a(i))p _ a (0)
aP - a
(0)
aP
(0)
np
~ a npx .
n + b
- z1 + m
P
can be written:
mz - 1
pz
au + b
au + d
with u
z + m'
p
392
CHAPTER 7
Solving for
we obtain
[: :
-mm~
- 1
-m'
m,
As 1
p - 1,
(2):
(z
1)
pk-1F(pz +
p)
+ ~ p-l
L F (z + ~ + m) ,
p m=O
and on setting n = m + 1,
(z
+ 1)
Pk-1 F(pz) +
1 F(~E.) .
P n=1
(z + 1)
p
F is
gives:
modular of weight
k,
we have
F( -;-)
in
F(z), and we
obtain:
As
(z).
393
by using
As au + d
z,
When m takes all the values between 1 and p - I, m' takes all
the values between 1 and p - I, and we have:
k
z ~ (z).
p
If:
(3):
A e2illnz
n
F(z)
we have:
~ (z)
p
=p
k-l
L
n:.mo
A e 2 i llnpz +!
n
p
n~n 0
p-l
m=O
e 2illn (z+m)/p
e2illnz/p
p-l m
L
m=O
p-l
n m=O
Setting
2i lln( (z+m)/p)
e 2i1ln/p ,
CHAPTER 7
394
p-l
The sum
<P
(z)
with:
= Apn
(1)
(2)
=0
and <Pp is
1, and <Pp
Since the vector space of cusp forms of weight twelve is onedimensional, <P
and
are proportional.
= T(p),
T(ph(n),
T(n)
we obtain:
395
T(pn) = T(p)T(n),
p 11 T[n)
p , a
For n
+ T(pn)
(3)
= T(p)T(n),
(4)
T(p)T(p ) - p
11
T(p
0.-1
(5)
).
T(p s)
= T(p a )T(S)
(6)
for a
vious.
= pax
1,
gives:
( P0.+1 S )
T(p
0.+1
)T(s),
a.
= II
p.l.
.
l
"
Let us
is multiplicative.
396
CHAPTER 7
(5):
We know that:
with:
and
If we set:
To show that
k_lCp)F,
~p
If n
If n
>
and if pln,
1+
397
ok_len).
k-1A
nip
+A
pas, p%s:
pn
k-l(p
a-l
~p
[a
[-a
In
b] and
-b] are identical.
e d
-0
-d
An elementary calculation allows us to establish the following
multiplication table:
d
aid e b
bel d e
del a
e
0
abe
d
e
boa 1
e
a
b
abe
398
CHAPTER 7
for example:
ed [
i.
(2):(a):
I
and consequently:
~(n)
such that:
y = T IJT 2 JT r,
that is to say:
399
Ye r T r
4
r-l
-~(
'
In this case T
for is enough to show that T,T 2 ,T3 are not in r 4 . Now, if we reduce our matrices (mod 4) we see that J becomes the a of Question (1), T4 the i and TJT- l
= [1
-2] the b.
-1
By reduction (mod
i=o
(2) : (b) :
(group of 1)
? 1).
x {1}].
fundamental domain of r
Izl
xT
(-!
Re(z)
!,
r 4 (a subgroup of r) is made up of a
certain number of "copies" of V.
In
400
CHAPTER 7
oo '
Therefore we have
2,
~),
it is therefore uniquely
defined.
(3):(b):
By Question (2)
i~
is clear that
r, the full
II
h=O
(x -
= H(Thz)
~(x,z)
ilt 4
e / 1
-----.-n
are
401
the roots of X4
2/2q
--].
64q4
~(z)
~+
744 +
L a(n)q4
1
4"
+
0(1),
~(z)
cannot be
o( ~)
and
q
a constant could not be 0(1) without being zero, from which it
follows that:
~(x,z)
:4 j(z),
x4 + ax 2 + bx + a +
= H(j
H(j)
+ 1)
= H(j
~(x,j)
+ 2),
~(j)
0,
therefore:
(x -
ex) (x
. x 3 must b e zero, ex
an d as t h e term In
6) ,
= -36.
say, that
~(x,i)
must
= H(i
~(i)
+ 3), that is to
64x27
= 1,728,
mon with its derivative [3x + 96 + x - 6](x - 6)2; this can not
be 6 (27
+ 0),
therefore it is x
= -26,
hence it is necessary to
have ( - 26 + 36)(26 - 6)3 + 27 = 0, that is to say 64
1; it remains to choose a suitable fourth root (the choice of S corresponds to the four functions H,iH).
402
CHAPTER 7
on the right).
line j
the function
~ 00
~(z)
takes
to
Imaginary
Branches
i4 '
to
+00.
On the graph we see that the branch arising from the simple root
= H'(z)
varies from -3 to
_00;
by the form
~ 00
(H' + 3)(H' -
j
- 64
1)3
=e
(in/2)5/2)+ih)
therefore if q
H(z)
e in / 4
5in/4
with a lR +,
0,
'\,---x
212
ae
-5in/4
1
a
x -
Hand
(4):(a):
main of
therefore H'
= H(aw;
8)
is equival-
ent to:
There exi,,, [:
that is to say:
1'
4 which transforms
aw + 8 .
Into w,
0
403
+ (as + do - aa)w - ob - as
O.
( - as - do + aa)
+ 4aaob + 4aa8a
because ad - ba
= 1.
a~ 0
- 4ao,
[otherwise take
= aa
-a -d
The solution w be-
H is then:
- as - do + il4ao - (aa + as + do)2
2aa
1 +
+t
which implies:
= D(aa) 2 ,
404
CHAPTER 7
aa
1,
aa +
as
do
that is to say a
1,
= a = 1,
since a,a
essary that:
1 +
2i = aa -
as - do
D+ 1
-4-
and
= 1,
a+B+dx~=1
4
ad - b
'
1,
~
= 1 + 2i,
4
a - S - d
which gives:
f + i,
1i,
f - i,
1-
1 -
i;
D + 1.1S pr1me
.
now, ~
4 -= 1 (mod 4) , t h ere f ore --4--to 4 , t h ere f ore
< S
of 4 (and
<
a =
1 +
1i,
i,
d,
=0
(mod 4) we have:
1-: _
t
(mod 4)
ad - 1,
i -
(mod 4),
the matrices
i - 1 (mod 4),
the matrices
i - 2 (mod 4),
the matrices
i - 3 (mod 4),
the matrices
405
: ~O' I [: I
[:
[:
[:
[:
I [: ~: I
[:
[
~l
or
~31
-2
~31
or
-1
~71
-1
- d
~l
-3
-2
or
~71
-3
- e,
or
=2
exists y e r 4 such that A = yB; we are going to prove the each class
contains an unique representative of the form:
so, in effect, A
[:
:] e E, then a
AY +
y'
with
Iy'l
<
Iyl.
406
CHAPTER 7
and:
-1
4p
[:
[:
2 + 4p
4p + 3
1 - Bp
4p + 1
-1
- 3 - 4p
4p + 3
I'
a - "Ay
entry y whose absolute value is strictly less than the one you
start with, and by iterating this procedure we will obtain an
equivalent matrix having an entry y
= 0;
ao
D; 1 );
multiplying by [-1
0]
>
-1
0 (non-zero,because
but since:
<
40; finally,
the matrix obtained must be congruent modulo 4 to one of the elements i,a,b,c,d, or ie, and it can only be ii, hence S
(mod 4),
Let us show the uniqueness.
Let us assume
0'
[ ao :u 1
s' ]
a'
we find:
[ao'
=0
u
:,'
407
o
a
= a'o',
but since ao
that is to saYar
0
= 8'
'
= a'
therefore
S - S'
0'
As a,a' are
<
It is clear that
H(Bz).
II (x
= 1,
we see that S
is equivalent to
= S'.
if and only if
H(Az)
classes; but if A
hence Ay
= y'By],
B it is obvious that Ay
H(z)
= 0,
= B(z),
~(x,x)
= o.
e H (unique up to the
therefore we have
~(B(z),H(z))
such that:
Now, we have seen in Question (4)(a) above that this is true for
=T
CHAPTER 8
Quadratic Forms
INTRODUCTION
eK
IN K
= y).
NOTATIONS
by:
and a. S e m*.
v
Ca.S)v
= -1
The
HILBERT SYMBOL
Ca. S) v is defined
1Of ax 2 + Sy 2 represents 1 1n
my.
otherwise.
222
Let f = a1x 1 + a 2x 2 + + anxn where a i e my. be a non-singular diagonalised quadratic form in n variables. We denote by
E
v
408
<f) the
HASSE SYMBOL.
defined
409
QUADRATIC FORMS
IT
d(f)
8.2
i=1,2, ... ,n
a.
and
v
v
(f)
-(<j
(f)
(a.,a.)
1
ifn
>
ifn
2,
1.
PROPERTIES
if peP - {2},
(p,
if
d p
is an unit of ID p '
0 eZl, " 0 (p ) ;
ifp
2,
if
if
if P = 2,
and n
are units of
(a,S)
11
-1
= 0(4),
ID 2 , 0' nO eZl,
n = no (4);
if a or S > 0,
if a
<
O,S
<
0.
410
CHAPTER 8
aonditions hold:
(1):
n =
(2):
(3)
n = 4 and
and'-d(f) is a square in
111 ;
p
(4): n
5.
in n variables 3 with aoeffiaients in 111p ; in order that f repreit is neaessary and sUffiaient that one of the
p
p
following aonditions hold:
(1)
n =
(2)
(3)
=3
e: (f) = C-l,....d(f)) ;
p
(4): n
4.
If
ve V and:
IT
veV
(a,b)v = 1.
QUADRATIC FORMS
411
PROBLEMS
= a1x 12
Show that:
EXERCISE 82:
m7
(f) (g)(d(f},d(g
.
p
p
p
(f .;. g)
by the form 3x
EXERCISE 8'3:
7y
m7
represented in
where a, S
by S.
412
CHAPTER 8
m5
2-adic
of 5-adic numbers.
(3):
X~
m2 of
3X~
m:
lOX;,
For which
for all
Ve V.
~*
in mv?
(5):
of~
sented in
mby
5X~ - 7X~.
f
(1):
(2):
integer a in
(5,-7)
mif
and
QUADRATIC FORMS
413
m,
distinguishing the
m?
414
SOLUTIONS
SOLUTION 81:
We argue by induction on n.
If n
=1
there cer-
tainly holds:
(1)
so:
by Equation (1).
g
(f'
+ g) =
+ f',
Then we have:
(f')g (g)(d(f'),d(g
p
QUADRATIC FORMS
415
So:
e:p(f.j. g)
SOLUTION 82
.:
i)
e: (f')(a1,d(f')) e: (g)(a1d(f'),d(g))
p
p p
p
7. not square In
. 1P7
not represente db
O IS
, ecause - "31S
since V 7 [ co 1.
By Theorem (II) y is represented if and only if:
(1)
Or, in 1P7
y
y
n
7 (a o + 7a 1 + + 7 a i + ),
where:
n ez-::, a i e {O,1,2,3,4,S,6}, a O
+ o.
But:
If n is even:
CHAPTER 8
416
(_1)~(7-1)
-1,
(a70)
-1
if n is even,
a0
(71
J
i f n is odd,
or:
aO
e {l,2,4}
i f n is odd,
a o e {3,S,6}
if n is even.
The elements of m7 represented by the form 3x 2 + 7y2 are therefore those whose expansion have the form:
y = 7 2k (a o
+ 7a 1 + + t na n + ) ,
where:
aoe
1,
or of the form:
7 2k +1 (a o + 7a 1 + + 7na n + ) ,
where:
aoe
m2 it
~ 1.
= 2a+1S8+13b
be a square in
QUADRATIC FORMS
a odd and 5
417
a+1
3b square in
m2 .
a odd
and 3b square in
m2 ,
or:
a even
m2 .
m2 is
m2 to
be
that:
x :: 1 (mod 8).
As 3.3
=1
m2 is
that we have:
(i): a odd;
and:
(ii): either:
or:
a odd
a even
lal
=1
~ 50:
0,
1,
2,
-1,
-17,-9,-1,7,23,
=3,
=3
0,
-1,
=5
0,
-1.
CHAPTER 8
418
lal
+0
m2 ,
with
~ 50, is:
{-50,-34,-32,-18,-8,-2,14,30,46},
(2):
= 2a +15 a+1 3b
be a square in m5 it is
a odd
and 2a +1 3b square in
m5 ,
or
a
2 b square modulo 5,
Now the only squares ofF 5 , the field with five elements, are +1
and -1; on the other hand, if a is even:
2a
= l
modulo 5,
a odd;
and:
(ii): either: a odd and b
or:
a even and b
= 2
= l
mod 5,
mod 5,
a=1
lal
a
a
a
~ 50:
= 0,
=1
= 2,
= -9,-1,1,9,
-3,+3,
-1,+1,
419
QUADRATIC FORMS
lal
Ws with
~ SO is:
{5,20,30,45}.
(3) :
= (3,-10)..,
1,
as 3 is positive.
For p an odd prime, if u and v are two p-adic units (u,v)
the value 1, and from this it follows that:
E
If P
1 for p ; 2,3,5.
3:
(-~o)
(Legendre symbol)
-1,
= 5:
= (3 ' -10) S = (~)
= -1 '
S
E2
1, and so we deduce
that:
E
has
CHAPTER 8
420
and:
= (-1,30) v ,
(-1 , -d) v
(-1,30)=
in~,
If P
f:
=1
as 30 is positive.
(-1,30)
2,3 or 5
= I,
=3
( -1,30) 3 = (-31)
-I,
=5
(-1,30)5
I,
=1
and:
(-1,30)2
(-1,30)3
-1.
Fop v
Fop peP,
E
<f)
+2,
+ 5:
= <-l,d<f)) p
We have:
421
QUADRATIC FORMS
=-
e: (f)
p
(-i,-d(f
mp
every element
mp
m,
-50,-45,-34,-32,-30,-20,-18,-8,-5,-2,0,5,14,20,30,45,46.
SOLUTION 84: (1):
square in
m.
msince
~ is not
IT
peV
(a,b)
=1
i f (a,35)
= (5, -7) p
= (5,-7)
(1)
422
CHAPTER 8
(S,-7)
(S,-7)5
=1
+5
if P
= <t) = -1
and 7,
and
(5,-7)7
(1)
(a, 3 S)
Now i f
P.
= -1
for p e {5, 7} .
=1
(a,3S)P
= -1
P.
(1)
i f pe{5,7}.
= (p,3S)
= (3S\ ,
(a,35)
(b) :
=1.
(a,3S)
=1
= -1
and
P.
{2,5,7},
(1)
423
QUADRATIC FORMS
(a):
{
(b) :
(~5) = 1 for
(~)
= -1
and
(~) = -1.
7~
i.e.~
= Sa'
(-1)(1)(~) = - (~),
and:
(a,35)7
= (5a'
,7)7
(f)[c;)
(a):
(b) :
(~5) = 1
(~) = 1
(a;)
(2b)
= 1.
S~
i.e. a
( -1)
(c;)
(a,35)5 = (7a'
,5)5 = (~)(a;)
_ (a:) ,
= 7a'
(a; )(
-1 )
and
CHAPTER 8
424
(a) :
~5) = 1
(~) = 1
(b) :
and
(2c)
(a~) = -1.
= _
[a;) ,
(~)
(a):
{
[a;)
(b):
(4):
= 1
= 1
(a;)
and
(2d)
= -1.
(~) = 1.
Therefore if:
p = 3
p = 11
p = 13
(t)(t]
(i~) (t](*]
(i;) (t] (~1)
(~5)
(-1) = (-1)(-1)(-1)
(-1) = -1,
= (-1)(-1)
1.
-1,
We have:
QUADRATIC FORMS
425
from~,
that is
to say {3,6,11,12}.
After examining the other numbers we see that for them the
conditions of (a) are realised.
the conditions of (b).
mis:
CHAPTER 9
Continued Fractions
INTRODUCTION
The problem is to determine the best approximations of a
real number a by rational numbers.
APPROXIMATING FRACTION,
or a
CONVERGENT,
2lX:W"
is called a
BEST
1~
2l
x]N"',
q'
<
q =>
Iqa - pi
<
Iq'a - p'l
2.1
CALCULATION OF CONVERGENTS
We define the sequence (a ) of partial quotients of a by the
formulae:
426
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
et
an
427
if n ~
2.2
with
(P-2,q-2)
(0,1),
(P-l,q-l)
<1,0) .
FORMULAE
From the recurrence relations we deduce the formulae:
(_l)n+l,
et
Pnet n +1 + Pn - 1
qnetn+l + qn-l
and:
1
428
CHAPTER 9
The se-
<
o(a)
<
and a satisfy
2.3
> 1
1a - 1q . . ~,
2q
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[Har] , [Niv].
then
q is a
(p,q)e~x:N*
convergent of a.
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
429
PROBLEMS
EXERCISE 91:
P
n
Pn
B.
qn
nO e:N
such that:
P
{
n+s
detT
EXERCISE 92:
Let a
u
- =
and
and:
q
ifk
1.
be a continued fraction
= 0 with
E
by:
q
period k.
if k
De-
2,
430
CHAPTER 9
Pn
Let -- be the convergents of a, and P the vector in the plane
qn
n
(2):
A,~,p,C,C'
such
EXERCISE 9-3:
Let d
>
fect square.
(1):
with:
and
(2):(a):
a.1
a B-1. for i
1,2, ... ,s - 1.
(2):(b):
m ~ ns we have:
(2)
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
431
(3)
(2):(c):
(4)
2
2
P ns- 1 + dq ns- I'
(3):
is to say, set:
Ps - 1
n+k
k=O
Show that
lJ
(2n
u n,k'
lJ
+ 0,
set:
2i<" ,
a
av
lJ
Vn+l
+ l)a +
lJn +1
432
CHAPTER
coth
i as well as that of : ~ i
(2):
as a se-
[go(ba +
a'
p
1) +
b + a.g1 (ba +
1) +
b +
].
p'
q3n+2
= (ba
+ l)q~.
~1inkow
<po
cP
= o.
cp(l)
l',
(1)
p')
+
(p
q + q'
(2)
n'
q
= 1);
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
433
q> is continuous.
(3)
q>(~)
Pn
(2) :
of
~ and
set q>(::J
un
Show that:
Un
[1 - ! )Un2 n
1 +
+ un_
2 n
ql(f)
ql
(f)
as a function of the
in binary.
ql
defined by the
of
(4):
q>(x) + q>(1 - x) = 1,
Aq>(x) + B,
a
where b ' d are two adjacent fractions in [0,1], and A,B are
independent of x.
CHAPTER 9
434
(1):
in~,
= a nPn- lCaO,,a n- 1)
+ Pn- 2 Ca O,,a n- 2)
(n
PoCa o )
2,3, ... ),
aO'
an Qn- lCaO,,a n- 1) + Qn- 2 Ca O,,a n- 2)
(n
2,3, ... ),
a.l.
2, n
1:
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
(2):
Let
A
B
>
435
Pn
Denote by -- the n-th
qn
= a N_n ,
= 0,1, ... ,
In the case
< I?
Pn
and
Define A', A" by the equalities:
Ia
(l):(a):
P"
-E..I
- q"
n
P'
P"
Show that q~' ~ are irreducible.
n
qn
2.
CHAPTER 9
436
( l):(b):
with S
n
(1):(c):
~I < ~
q
satisfies Ict
(1): (d):
with b n
2.
satisfies Ict -
~I ~ ~
q
IS 2
Pn .
'Q 1 ts
15 +
2
P 2m - 1
+--Q2m-l
Set:
n-th convergent, m
I an integer
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
437
"
(1)
_1
C 2
mq
equality:
Show that:
(2):(a):
Verify that:
8
3
< -
(2):(b):
of a.
C .
(2)
" -2- ,
Cq
CHAPTER 9
438
Take a
(4):(a):
+ ao'
Show that if an
2 from a
Assume that a
=1
>
1.
Show that:
... ,
are m solutions of (2).
(5):
(1) .
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
439
SOLUT IONS
SOLUTION 9'1: Let TeM 2 (lR)be the matrix of the mapping T with
respect to the canonical basis. Let us assume that the development of a is periodic starting from the index nO'
ine T
Let us determ-
aPn
-1 +
bqn -1'
0
These two systems have a solution (a,b,c,d) e~4 since the determinant of these two systems is equal to:
n -1
(-1) 0
T(Pn ) if n
and
no - 2.
Let us show
We have:
440
CHAPTER 9
n+s-2
= T(pn-2 )
and
Pn+s- 1
= T(Pn- i)'
we then have:
=[
Pk-1 Pk - 2 ]
qk-1 qk-2
hence:
and
T- 1 =
(_l)k[ qk-2
-qk-1
-Pk - 2 ]
Pk-1
441
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
o.
(2):
x
If k
(1)
2 we have:
and, if k
= 1:
p'
such that
!p'!
<
>
1 and a
1.
, m
= AP
+ A
" P ,m ,
with:
>. + >.'
= a 0'
)1 + )1' = 1
and meN.
>'P + >.'p' = P k ,
>',>",)1,)1' can be calculated with the aid of the two systems,
because the determinant has the value p - p'
We then have:
+0
442
CHAPTER 9
Hence we obtain:
lA' I
IA'I<IAI + IA'I)
c
IA'p,ml = -<
= --,
Pmk
Pmk
pm
Ipmk - Apml
and similarly:
Iqmk - llpml
I
Ill'p,ml =Ill'
-m
p
If we set a
In fact:
a 1 is a convergent.
Ill'I<llll + Ill'l)
qmk
c'
= --,
qmk
I.d=a=a +..l..
a1 '
therefore:
a'
=-
.fd
= ao
+ -,- ,
a1
and therefore:
2.fd> 2,
and since ~
a1
< 1,
lr >
1, and a 1 is
and we have a s +1 = a 1 .
We can obtain an equation of the second degree satisfied by a
by using the formula given in the introduction:
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
443
Ps
(a - a ) +
p s a s +1 + Ps - 1
Ps - 1
q s a s +1 + qs-l
which gives:
2
= O.
so:
or, again:
[a s ,a s- l' ... ,all
so:
(2) : (a) :
a o)
a = qns + q
l(a - a ) ,
ns0
CHAPTER 9
444
so:
a2q
ns-l
- a(a q
0 ns-l
- q
ns
+P
ns-l
) + a_v ns _1 - P
~
ns
O.
aOqns-l - qns +
Pns - 1
= 0,
(1)
Pns + aOP ns - 1
= dqns-l'
Pns - 1 -
(2): (b):
d 2
qns-l
= a ns-m if 1 ~ m ~ ma.
m
If m = I, since qo = I, q-l = D, and (2) is certainly satisfied. Therefore it suffices to prove that:
or again:
)P
m m-l + q
m-2
ns-m-l + qm-lPns-m-2'
(a q
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
445
1 we must
Now:
PDS
= 2a oPDS- 1
+ Pns- 2'
since a DS
2a o' and (3) is certainly satisfied if m
Next, it suffices to verify the equality:
1.
ns) that:
(5)
but:
2q
DS
+ (q
Ds-2
2ns-l
= 2pDs-l qns-l
since
- q
DS
CHAPTER 9
446
similarly:
by
2dqns-l -p
- ns +pns-2'
Therefore we have:
2
+ dq ns- l'
(3):
= Pns- 1
P n
2 s-l
n
If n
q n
2 s-l
=0
P n
= ![P:n - 1S_l
n
so:
dq~n-1S_l]
q n-l
P n-l
2 s-l 2
s-l
'
2 s-l
-'-'--"-we deduce
q n
2 s-l
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
447
P n
2 8-1
q n
2 8-1
by formulae (4).
Therefore we deduce from this that:
limx
= Id,
and that:
1
q nan
2
8-1
1
"'n--2q n
2 8-1
so:
SOLUTION
Un ,k+1
-"--- =
(k
+ 1)(2n + 2k + 1) - 2 '
2a
448
CHAPTER 9
whence:
lim
k-+-+co
n.k+1
O.
un k
(with u n+2 .- 1
0).
k we obtain:
and by multiplying by ~ ,
n+1
=(2n+1)a+
Wn+1
(2n
l)a ~
and
< - - < 1.
Wn+1
Wo
[a,3a,5a, .. ].
!a
. h 1,
aSln
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
l.U O
= coth
by taking a
e +
e -
449
- .
a '
=2
we obtain:
- - 1 = [2,6,10,14, ... ].
(2):
bP 3n - 3 + P3n - 4 ,
1,
P3n - 1
eP 3n - 2 + P 3n - 3 ,
- b,
P 3n
gnP3n-l + P3n - 2 ,
P3n+1
bP 3n + P 3n - 1 ,
P3n+ 2
= eP 3n+1
+ P3n '
be + 1,
e,
1.
forms a
CHAPTER 9
450
A and
-1 and n
0; we obtain:
= (be
q3n+2
+ l)q~.
(be +
1)
P~
..1E.!3.. = qr- b.
q3n+2
= (be
a'
taking b
+ l)a + b;
= e = 1.
e + 1
--1 whence:
e a
= a'
- 1
2
IOn
= 2n
1
-----1
e -
= [0.1.1.2.1.1.4.1.1 .. 1.
and:
because ---e - 2 = a 2.
SOLUTION 9,5: (1):
that:
p'q - pq'
= 1,
p + p'
= P,
q + q' = Q.
E
and ~ such
q
q
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
= 1,
Pq - Qp
451
Using Bezout's Theorem we can verify the existence and uniqueness of p and q. Next we have the existence and uniquess of p'
and q'.
An induction on Q then shows the existence and uniqueness of
~ (~)
='2'
(2):
4" '
The fractions:
and
(h - 1)Pn_1 + Pn-2
(h - l)q n- 1 + qn-2
Hence we have:
=
Pn-1)
(- ).
qn-1
452
CHAPTER 9
(1 - 2J
+ _1_ (u
- u
)
a J n-1
a
n- 2
n-2
u
2 n
2 n
we have:
(_1)n-1
= a + '+a -1 '
2 1
hence:
1
(_1)N-1
2 1
a1
a2
a3
aN
digits
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
ql(X) =
co
I
n=1
453
(-1 )n~l
a +a + +a ...1
2 1 2
n
>
1 we
1.
[O.1.a 1 - 1.a 2 ].
-aa =
and:
454
CHAPTER 9
We then have:
I
n=l
q>(y)
I
n=l
(_l)n-l
b +b +---+b -1 '
2 1 2
n
(_l)n-l
2 k+1
+b
k+2
+---+b
k+n
-1'
writing:
k
I
n=l
q>(y)
(-1) n-l
b +---+b -1
2 1
n
(_l)k
00
(_l)n-l
b +---+b
b
+b
+---+b
-1'
2 1
k n=l 2 k+1 k+2
k+n
we find:
B=
I
n=l
(_l)n-l
b +- - -+b -1
2 1
n
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
455
P (a , ... ,a o)
MM
n n-l
oM
00
0 = [
l(an , ... ,a o)
l(a,
... ,a O)
n
n-
n-
and by transposition:
M Moo oM
p(a, ... ,a o )
Q (a , ,a o)
Pn - l (an' ,a l )
Q l(a , ... ,a l )
nn
Taking the entry in the first row and first column we obtain:
m+n (a o'
... ,am+n )
m+n ) =
A
B>
1 implies a O ? 1, therefore the continued fraction
[aN, .. ,a o] exists.
456
CHAPTER 9
hence:
The identity:
can be written:
A
so
2
qN-l - B
= (_l)N-l,
certainly divides
B2
+ (_l)N-l.
Conversely, if A divides
B2
(B' an integer).
On the other hand we know that:
Hence by addition:
IB -
PN-11.
From this
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
457
;D
and since an
= a 2M+1 - n
>
for n
= D... 2M
+ 1 we have:
squares.
valid if ~ < 1. Dividing B by A. there
such that B = AQ + R with ~ > 1. Since A
sum of two squares.
p'
p"
qn
qn
qn-l' and they are irreducible because:
and:
1.
458
CHAPTER 9
We have:
(1) : (b) :
la -
tl
IPn an+1
qn a
n+1
P n + Pn - 1 1
qn + qn-1
+ Pn-1
+ qn-1
so:
A'
and so:
1
1 + _~1_7
a
- 1
n+1
qn
SInce - qn-1
S .
similarly,
n'
P"
la - .22.1
q"
n
P n a n+1 + P n - 1
qn a n+1 + qn-1
so:
A"
n
(a n +1 + 1)(qn - qn- 1)
and so:
A"
1 + Sn - 1
(l):(c):
a n +1 + 1 .
We have:
1
since a n +1
> 1
and Sn
> 1,
2,
and similarly:
>(
qn
an+1 - 1
an +1qn + qn-1 )
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
1~ > 1 -
459
a n +1 +
i,
1 >
(l):(d):
We have:
l' + 1"
2 +
22
en -
+ -a'=2-2__-1- > 2;
n+1
la
Either:
P~I
< _1
q'n
q'
2 '
or
1
q,,2
n
(2):(a):
bn- 1,bn + 2] and [bo, ... ,bn- 1,bn - 1], then a can be written as:
with:
b
- 1
= a
+ - - , bn + 2,
a n +1
>
1, therefore:
with
e {-l,O,l}.
p.
But if ~ denotes the convergents of a which are also the conqi
460
CHAPTER 9
so:
P
Pn + gPn - 1
= qn + gqn-1
and
Because ~ lies between B1 and B2 it suffices to show that:
1 .
inf B. i=1,2 ].
q
Now,
(bn + 2)P n _1 + Pn - 2
(bn
+ 2)qn_1 + qn-2
(b n - 1)P n _1 + Pn - 2
(b n
p.
where ~ denotes the convergents of ~ , or again,
qi
q
P + 2Pn _1
q + 2qn_1
1)qn-1 + qn-2
461
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
We obtain:
because 2qn-i
similarly:
qn
q(qn
Therefore, if
Ia
qn-l) ~ q2
la - ~I ~ ~
r..1 ~
q
inf lB.
i=1,2 1
we have:
- r..1
'
q
q (q a
+ q
)
n n n+i
n-i
we deduce that:
A-
so:
A- n
(2):(a):
Therefore:
462
CHAPTER 9
15= 15+
2
+ 152
315
15 +
7, therefore:
<
em < 15+
2
<
Pi
15+
+ -=
Q
2
8
3
< -
(2):(b):
Pn
em
>
2, every
(3):
An
so:
Therefore
la
e.1
q
< _1
e/
with
>
em
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
463
la - lllq .. cl
_1
(4):(b):
A-
>
n+l
a n+2 + 1
> 2 + 2
3
+ ----:;an + 1 '
= 2,
then:
8
3
We then have:
38
1:
464
CHAPTER 9
so:
A
+
1
r-l > a r
[1,1, ...
Pr - 1
Pn
(n - r)
times
IS +
(2m - 1)
times
or again,
[1, ... ,l,a , ... ,a 1 ] "
~
(n - r)
(2m - 1)
times
times
times
which is realised because a
[a , .. ,a 1 ]
r
> ar
? 2 and:
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
465
Pr-1+2j
qr-l+2j
are solutions of
CHAPTER 10
p-Adic Analysis
INTRODUCTION
Denote a prime number by p;
:N,
!<Z, Ill,
JR, JR
meanings.
We know that for every prime number p there exists on III an
non-Archimedean (ultrametric) absolute value (called the p-ADIC
11 (or 11 if
following wa~: let x e Ill,
defined in the
= ~n
ph be an expression
for x in lowest terms, with h e!<Z, m,n e!<Z, and set Ixl
= p -h.
We
= h.
IT
pprime
PROPOSITION 2 :
of integers
(0
value on Ql by Ixl
""
Ixl""
Ixl
1.
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
467
converges p-adically to x.
EXPANSION of x.
value, denoted:
Ix I
-v(x)
where
(NL/K(x)
~
Lover K.
is normalised by Ipl = p .
P
If P(X) e K[X] the degree of P is denoted degP, and the image of
P in K[X] by P.
LEMMA: (Hensel): Let K be a complete non-Archimedean field, and
PeA [X] a non-zero polynomial of degree d. Let us assume that
there exist two monic polynomials g,h in A[X] such that P = gh,
g and h are relatively prime in K[X], degg + degh ~ d. Then
there exist G,H in A[X] such that:
G
= g,
li = h,
degG
degg,
and
P = GH.
CHAPTER 10
468
valuation ring A and maximal ideal M, and let P be a monic polynomial in A[X] :
P(X)
= Xn
If a. eM for
J.
n-l
+ a1X
+ + an.
ible in K[X].
extension of K.
Let L be a finite extension, of degree n, of the complete nonArchimedean field K. Let w be the unique extension of the valuation v of K.
of~,
then:
V(K*) ~ w(L*) C
! v(K'~)
-n
implies that v(K*) is a subgroup of w(L*) of finite index e which
divides n and which is called the RAMIFICATION INDEX of Lover K.
Let f be the dimension of
L,
since
R is
e~+,
then:
{xeK:
Ix - al
< d.
469
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
n~O
If K is also algebraically
sup
IF(X)I
xeB(a,r+)
closed~
= supla
n~O
then:
Irn.
supIF(X) I.
XeB
If Band C are two topological spaces we denote by C(B,C) the
space of continuous functions from B to C with the norm given by uniform convergence on B. If m,n e72:, (m,n) denotes the greatest
common divisor of m and n. U denotes the group of units of m,
U = {x em:
p
p
Ix I
= 1}.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[Ami], [Bac], [Bor]. [Sam]. [Serl].
470
CHAPTER 10
PROBLEMS
= K(X)
471
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
= P(X,Y)/Q(X,Y)
(b):
valuation.
Hi x H~.
(b):
Let a
(1 + pX)p
has a root in
(c) :
1 + P b,
be~
=a
~p'
(~/p~)
472
CHAPTER 10
(a):
Show that:
11
<
1.
n~O
xn
with 1"0
+ O.
For 1"
<
If the residue field k of K is finite and if v(K*) is a discrete subgroup of~, show that we do not always have M(f,l") =
sup If(X) I.
Ixl~l"
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
(a) :
Let
= 1 - XP-1 ; determine:
P(X)
M(P.K)
473
inf
Xe lllp
v(P(X.
ke:?2:.
v(x)=k
(b):
we have:
sup
xe lllp
v(x) ..-k
(c):
1.
\Pk(x)i
function on III .
p
is divisible by 2
aelll
l'
>
0 such that a
(m
e:?2:).
n+r
474
CHAPTER 10
<X
<X
e III
e Ill.
is periodic i f and
+2
in III .
p
log(l + 3)
EXERCISE 10-14: UPPER BOUND FOR THE NORM OF THE POLYNOMIALS (~)
IN
l?Z
(p
+ 2).
{x
e III
1, satisfies:
{O}:x
= Y 2 ,Y e II1p}
is open in II1p
<
1 and If'(<xl)1 = 1.
475
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
f(J,l)
(J,2
... ,
(J,l - r(J,l)
f.
converges in 0 to a root of
11 -
~hl
1) lip
h-l
= pJ
(p-l)
can be solved
in~
= 0 mod
has a solution in ~
p
CHAPTER 10
476
(1) :
ct
e:iZ
rational integer.
mp
be algebraic over
mof
ct,
such
that:
Ict
- A
IAI
where
Ip
(2):
Let a. e:iZ.
<
Ict
I <~
PIAl
We say that
ct
+ +1)
such that
is transcendental over
m.
ct
property.
Let
(3) :
ct
e:iZ
and 1 et
ct =
k=l
a~
bk
k-++'"
b
k+l
-b-- = + '"
Show that
Example:
ct
is a Liouville number.
ct =
k=l
k!
mP
mP the
(bk)k~O
( -
1)
>
O.
477
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
Show that
is an m-th power in
mp .
mp
00
1 +
2
n=l
~,
10g(1 + 1;)
and
n~l
~!,
that:
p
Ilog(1 + I;) 1
and that:
e 1og(1+1;)
Let m
=1
+ ".
=f
(f) 0).
(2):
m.
of
to be adjoined to
in order to obtain K .
P
Let S e
b + PS1' where 1
Show that:
and satisfying v un = O.
P
b < p - 1 and V(Sl) ? O.
Let us set S
478
CHAPTER 10
wi th
(a') > o.
= !!!.(m
- 1)
(m)
k
k k-1
(2) :
Let
pf+1af +1 , where
V p (a f +1 )
(a)
0, and set a
a +
o.
(1): Let
Show that v
(2) :
v(a')
e!D
p
(yP - y)
= o.
v(a)
Show that if there exist two distinct integers k,k' such that:
then:
v(p P-1 - 1) > 2.
(3):
such that:
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
then for p
p
=2
479
3 we can choose
we have p
= 3.
satisfying 1 <
-&
eU
mp [pl/p]
contains a
mp (p + 2)
of;
x2 - cS,
where cS e
ible in ; [/Y].
U ,
are reduc-
(2):
IF]
o or 1)
=a
(2):
lal 2 2- i ,
la - 11 < 12 123 .
(where
(3): Show, by a simple change of variables, that the extensions defined by X2 - 3 and X2 - 7 are ramified.
(4):
fied.
480
CHAPTER 10
mp OF
DEGREE TWO
Show that if p
(1) :
= 11
or 19, then 8,
e belong
to
mp .
(3):
N(~ -
a)
= (~ -
a)(e - a)
for a
= 0,1,2,3,4.
m5
generated by
and
~.
mP BY
(1): Show that the extension m7(~) of m7 is completely ramified. Find a uniformizer for m7[~].
Show that the equation X7 - 1 = 0
splits completely
into factors of the first degree in m if and only if p = +1
p
mod 7.
(2):
(3) :
mp
if p
if P
481
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
= 1, ... ,
Set Po(x)
= (~) , ....
Pk(x)
we have:
Show that
(2) :
k=o
Let
~p
with:
f e
C(:7l; ,~ ).
F(X)
P P
defined on B( 0,1 -)
- B(l,l-) of a sequence of
f e
Show that:
lim ..!...(pn]
n h
p
n-+o:>
e:N'~.
482
CHAPTER 10
(2) :
- 1].
m.
+p
-m.
J
--:-.--=1=--_
pJ(p _ 1)
Deduce from this that lim A (x) = !(x) exists in ~ for all x
n-- n
P
satisfying Ixl < 1. Show that for all x,y e ~ with Ix - 11 < 1
P
P
P
and Iy - 11 < 1 we have:
P
!(xy - 1)
= !(x
- 1) + fey - 1).
Give the expansion of lex) as a Taylor series, and give its radius
of convergence.
(3):
A (x)
B (x) _ ..,.......;n::....,.~
n
-An _ 1 (x)
<
I?
= F(x.!(x
with
teo)
o.
483
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
If x eZ';
with 0
a. < p - 1.
1.
Set:
Set:
M
sup IF(x,y) I ,
xeZ';
P
yeZ';
and let k
P
P
e:N
M -(k+1)
p
be such that:
" 1.
Set:
f n (x) = f n- l(x)
+ (x - x )F(x ,f l(x .
n
n
n nn
(1) :
(2) :
If n- l(x)
- f n (x)1 p ,
and deduce from it that limf (x) exists for all x eZ': .
n+oo n
CHAPTER 10
484
Set:
I(x)
= nlimfn (x).
f n (x)
O.
(3) :
Show that:
(a) :
For all e: > 0 there exists N e:N such that n '" Nand:
Ix - x'i
< p-(n+l)
implies:
If
In
(x) -
x - x
If m
(b):
(x')
>
- F(x,l(x))
I -<
e:.
implies:
If m
(x) -
x - x
(x')
_ F(x,l(x))
I -<
e:.
1 is differentiable
on~
and that:
485
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
1).
(1 -
(ph - l)X)
that:
Show that:
(1):
n>,.O
(1 -
X)"'(l -
nX)
P -1
n~O
Xn (l -
(n
+ l)X)'"
(1 -
X)"'(l - (p
- l)X) -
xP
n~
(2):
k(p) _ pP -
- P - 1 '
then:
P
n+k(p)
- Pn mod p.
- 0 mod p
486
CHAPTER 10
SOLUTIONS
Let q =
q
1
cardK. let x e k*. We know that x - = 1. therefore i f the absolute value on k is denoted 11 we have Ixl q- 1 = 111 = 1. hence
Ixl = 1 for all x e k*. If L is an algebraic extension of k then
L is itself a finite field. and the preceding argument can be applied.
SOLUTION 101:
On
The valuation ring A of K(X) for the P-adic valuation is the set of rational functions ~ such that (R.S) = 1 and
(S.P) = 1. The valuation ideal I is the set of rational functions
R
S such that (S,R) = 1. (S.P) = 1 and P/R. The residue field is
A/I. and by Bezout's Identity:
SOLUTION 102:
_ ARK[X~ _ KIX]
A/I - I K[X - P(~)K[X] .
If P(X) = X. the completion of L is the set of Laurent series
with coefficients in K having only finitely many negative indices.
If P is an irreducible polynomial the completion of L is the set
of Laurent series in P(X) with coefficients in a complete system
of repre~entatives of K[X]/P(X)K[X] (hence in a finite extension
487
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
SOLUTION 10-3:
be discrete (which is
the case here since it is~) and that the residue field be finite.
Now, the residue field is a finite extension of K. Therefore it
is necessary and sufficient that K be a finite field.
= a~ +
hence v(K(X,Y
(b):
of~
generated by a and b
on~,
b~.
P(X,Y)
Q(X Y) suc h th a t
,
P(~,~)
-h
Q(~,:r)
has T-ad'lC va l
'
uatl0n
+ 0.
, hence,
The valuation
+ and
P(O,O)
= 0.
The residue
field is K.
(c): The completion K(X,Y) is isomorphic to the set of
Laurent series:
(m,n)e~
tnr
m,D
such that:
lnf
+0
m,D
(am
bn) > -
00.
488
CHAPTER 10
~(X,Y)
If a
(b):
(1 +
This is immediate.
p)p - a - 0 mod p 2 ,
and:
+ pX)p - a
(1
in
mp '
and, furthermore,
x(c):
m~'
hence:
now,
1 mod p.
We have:
Z:::xTx
(1
489
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
and
(1
p'll )
1 +P
'llp'
therefore:
'" rp,/P'lZJ .
L has a normal basis over K if and only if L is
SOLUTION 106:
f a (x)
n~O
We have:
e C('ll ,a)
p
if
a e L.
and therefore, by
continuous, since:
a; i t is
We have:
for all x eN,
and therefore, by continuity, for all x e'llp; in fact, if a,b e L,
then so does abo
490
CHAPTER 10
SOLUTION 10'S:
q.
Ixq - xl
< 1
M(f,l)
if
Ixl.;
We have:
1,
but:
<
0, M(P,k)
(b):
f(x)
if
= xq
x.
= k(p
= 0, M(P,k)
- 1).
determined; then:
1
for xe(ll
and
v(x) ~
-k.
Therefore:
k(p -
1)
= h(k),
+ (k - l)(p - l)h(l) +
(c):
We have:
= Pk(X)(
(Il.
In fact,
- 1 + (1 _ pk+1 X )p-1)h(k+1.
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
491
+ Pk
sup Ip k+1x I
xeD
..
E.
, and
.
Let us consider the identity:
SOLUTION 10'10:
o.
We have:
1 - (1- 2)2
2k
_ (_1)n 2 n 2:...[2 )
2k n
n=l
2k
Now, ifn - k
2n
2k
-~
h, then:
2h ,
therefore, for n
k + h,
is divisible by 2h
(_l)n 2n[2k)
2k n
(since
[~) e:<z).
(_1)n-1
n
2
+ ,M(n),
n.
where M(n)e:<Z.
492
CHAPTER 10
And therefore if n - k
k -
I [~]
i,l
2l
< h
we have:
> k - n > h,
hence:
n
2k +n M(n)
(_l)n- 1 _2 + __
n!
Cl
h
k mod 2
i f k ~ h,
and that:
where:
:A(n,m) =
Inf(n -
[~]
log 2
'm -
[~])
log2'
+... , and
ist
nO
Cl
n for
n ~ nO'
let us assume
493
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
+ ) +
+p
n o+2r-l
+ )
no
nO+I'-l
a p
+ + an +r-1P
+ __n~o____________~o~_________
1 _ pI'
therefore (l e !D.
Conversely, if a e!D, then a = ~
with m,n e~. There exists n'
n
such that if n > 0, then n'n
(pI' - l)ps (this is an application
cp(n)
of Lagrange's Theorem which says that p
- 1 is divisible by n
if (n,p) = I, where cp(n) is Euler's TOTIENT function). So let us
assume that m > 0 and n < 0 (in order to fix our notation). Theremn'
By possibly
fore there exists n' > 0 such that a = ---------pS(1 _ pr)
modifying n' we may assume:
Therefore:
a
=M +
1 _ pS
+ mn'
pS
WI. th
R < PS -
L'
1 , M e ....
.... .
T
Hence, if we set:
mn ,
with k
< 8,
for l + 1 a multiple of
= mo" + m1p
and l
, j ,
+ + m.p
J
sup(i,j), we have:
494
CHAPTER 10
+ +
+
The Hensel expansion of a is therefore periodic with period s for
n~.e.+1.
SOLUTION 1012:
y - 1
= u.
Let y
+ 1 be
Now,
which is impossible i f u
SOLUTION 1013:
la We have:
10g41 ....-
em.
p
(_13) 5
m.
p
Set
495
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
since:
15
J
whenever n > 5.
Now,
3 -
32
33
34
"2
+ "3 - '"4 = 12
99
'"4 = 12 +
243 - 99 mod 35
4
48 mod 35
SOLUTION 1014:
We know that
(~)
Therefore:
Now:
Z?:
= {x e IIIP : Ix I <
1}
i f x eZ?: .
p
SOLUTION 10'15:
up = {x eZ?:p : Ix I = 1} ,
496
u2
CHAPTER 10
is open in~
=0
.
X3 - (x + h)
t h en t h e equat10n
- x
=0
ently small h.
.
X2 - x
ybe a root 0f h
t e equat10n
L et
the sequence:
... ,
o-
a n - 1 - (x - h)
n-l -
2a n _1
Hence:
h
y + -
2
h2
a 1 - (x + h) = ---
and
2y
4/
n-l
and:
2
a n - 1 - (x + h)
2a n _1
therefore:
a
and:
a 2 - (x + h)
with
- An
hn - 1
o.
Let us consider
497
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
+ h)
(x
<
a 2 - (x + h)
a - --"""'"'2"""a---'-
or, again,
o.
a 2 - (x + h)
SOLUTION 10'16:
We have:
Now,
(k)
f k! (X) e O[X] ,
therefore:
Hence:
2[r(a1 )
2!
(a 2 - a 1 )
498
CHAPTER 10
and:
Now, la 2 - all
<
I, therefore:
= 1,
and that:
la.~ - a.~- 11
<
If(a1 )l i - 1
Therefore:
o.
limla. - a. 11
i-+<
~-
f(a)
= a -f'(a)
,
therefore f(a)
=0
because If'(a)1
= 1.
SOLUTION 10'17:
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
a1
= 1,
499
= -10
because P(l)
and P'(l)
a2
P(a 1 )
pi (a 1 )
P' (a 2 )
P(a)
=0
= -1.
and
a 1 15
t.
In add-
- 9,
and if:
a3
P(a 2 )
1,531
- 2'59
then:
la 3 - al 5 ~
?"
and therefore:
1,531
+ 125
i
L a.5 ,
i~o
CHAPTER 10
500
Now, 1,531
1,531
25'9
= -
31 + 1,500
9 + 250
1 and
31
- """9
1915
31
= 1 - 10
31
- - + 125k',
= 1);
31(1 + 10 + 10 2 ) + k".125,
where k e!iZ5.
H
What is left is to find a representation of 3,441 modulo 125 lying between 0 and 124.
63 = 66.
P(x) = x 3 - x 2 - 2x - 8
is 63
= 66.
SOLUTION 1018:
xP
Let us set y
~h
~h
- 1.
- 1
X - 1
then
'
is a root of:
and that:
h-1
Let:
near to
501
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
= -p
1 lip
and
h-1
(p-1)
(k)
(k)
SOLUTION
(xik ) . x~k
- 0 mo d p.
k f or:tZ n.IS d ense In:tZ
.
n an d F IS
. a
=
p
SOLUTION
lal
1. then:
and therefore:
502
CHAPTER 10
P(x)
= Xn
Let:
+ a 1~-1 + + an
m.
Set a O
For A ez*
1.
we have:
P(A) =
P(a)
(a -
A)F(a,A),
(a -
A)p'(a) + +
and:
F(a,A)
since P(A)
+ 0,
+ 0,
m.
Therefore:
and:
therefore:
where c
i
1
= max IF(a,A>1
na;T'
A eZ
and c
+ 0,
since:
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
max
A e:iZ
503
(2):
+ l)
such that:
O<la-AI P
This implies that for every value of N e:N there exists A e:iZ
(A
+l)
o
<
IAI
in fact
such that:
<
< N we
have:
la - AI P
{a}
and for
<
Ia
- A
I < _e_
PlAin
We have:
504
CHAPTER 10
1
b N+1
Now,
0,
>
-b-~-+-l <
p
-)-n
-(-N;;--.:;:l-"'-bk
a~
k=l
EXAMPLE:
(k
<_1_
PlAin
Clearly:
k!
+
1)!
SOLUTION 1022:
P(X)
k+T+
O.
~ - e:
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
505
has a root in W.
in
We have
[X].
P(X) =
xn - 1.
The identity:
.lD-1 +
x
and
+ 1
xn -
clude that
gree in W [X].
P
The inequality:
(y - 1) ~
f +
implies that:
y
1 + p f+1 Y1
with
IY1 Ip
1.
Therefore:
logy
= log(l
+ P
f+1
Y1 )
f+1/
~ /~
=p1
Consequently e
logy/m
506
CHAPTER 10
0f
y.
(2):
P a where a e U.
p
Therefore, since:
him 11m
a
,
and since:
P h 1m
=(
1/m)h e K
p'
If an extension K
of III
1)
v p (~a
therefore:
e III ,
p
f+1
f.
507
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
11m
eK
There~ore
by adjoining to
m the m-th roots of the p (p - I)-elements of A and p 11m ,we
f
we have:
am
__ bm +
~
[ml]palbm-l
~
aaa
(m]k Pk 61kbm-k
aaa
+ p mam
~1'
= (m - 1]~
(m]
k
k -1 k
implies:
Now, if k
v (k)
P
= pha,
=h
"
with (a,p)
= 1,
we have:
log k '" k - 1,
P
1.
508
CHAPTER 10
Therefore:
(2) :
11m
;
v(a)
=0
implies v(S)
p
= 0,
S can be written:
=b
and V(Sl)
+ PS1
~
with 1
b < p - 1,
with v(S')
whence the congruence:
m
:: a mod p
f+1
0,
O.
= 0 we have:
a
- = 1 + p f+1 a "
with
(a")
0,
such that
and therefore
509
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
e Q1
shows
e + PY1 with 0 (e
P - 1
0, we obtain:
yP = e P + p2Y2
(since
By writing y
and Vp (Y1)
Q1
with Vp (Y2) ~ 0
Vp(~]) ~ 1 for 1
that a P = a mod p,
v (yP - y)
P
( k (P - 1).
therefore:
1.
Let us set:
It follows that:
= y (y
p-1
- 1)
(2):
1
?
2.
(For k = 1, H = 0).
satisfying 1 ( k
p - 1, the inequality:
510
CHAPTER 10
is satisfied, then:
(pp - p) ~ 2.
Now,
o = d o ... po 1
we deduce from this:
~ 2
(ph - oP)
we deduce:
p
= d Po +
with vp(n 1 )
n1
h
0 and p
= do
O.
Hence:
511
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
and therefore:
(3):
with 1
For p = 2, that r
consider (p - 1)
(p - 1)
p-1
p - 1.
3 is obvious.
If P
+2
let us
P-1
j ~ p - 3,
p - 1 and 0
or again:
By Exercise 1024:
p - 1 such that:
512
CHAPTER 10
-&
[k
Jlip em,
P
therefore
-&
e m (p G) .
P
Let us set:
and
mp ;
ro e mp [/Y].
yo
P(X)
mp [/Y].
Let:
= X2
+ 2XX + ~
P(X)
= (X
+ X)2 + ~ _ X2.
Let us set:
~
- X
= Pk
where k
e~
and
eU
P
/Y6emp ,
513
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
= 0,
If k
then
reducible over
+ 0,
If k
~
mp [IY].
= 2h,
and k
2h
- A =P
- A
therefore:
and
P(X)
If k
and
is still reducible on
+ 0,
and k = 2h + 1, then:
is reducible over
P(X)
mp [IY
mp [IY].
+ IP]
c mp [IY]
mp [IY] [vp]
[IP] .
2/YP =
[IY + vp]
- y - p,
we see that:
/YP
mp [IY
IPL
and that:
/yp(1Y +
vp)
mp [IY +
vp],
IY
e Qlp [IY +
IPL
It is obvious that:
514
CHAPTER 10
=1
+ 2y.
2
Ibl2
< 1.
Let us set
+ Y - 2b =
o.
y(y +
1) =
o.
~2'
(1
2c)
Therefore:
a-I
Now in
a(1
= 4c(1
+ c).
2 we have:
+ c) = 0
therefore:
for
a 0 or I,
where
1c 12 <
1.
Converse-
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
515
and therefore:
(2):
lal 2 = Ibl2 = 1.
The extensions
b - a mod 2 ::Z2'
Now ::Z3/23::Z2 has four elements and one can choose 1,3,5,7 as
2
2
representatives in::z 2 . The extensions of ID2 by X - 1, X - 3,
X2 - 5, X2 - 7 are therefore distinct. Let us note that the ex.
tens10n
0 f ID2 by X2 - l '1S ID 2
able X
1 + Y, which gives the Eisenstein polynomials y2 + 2Y - 2
and y2 + 2Y - 6.
(4) :
.
glves y2
516
CHAPTER 10
m2 by
X2 - 5.
IF.
If P
degree two.
in
m2 of
b)
X2 - X - I = (X - a)(X -
with ab = -1 and a + b
1.
and
It suffices to take a
4 and b
=5
and b
(2) :
in
and -\1,.e: e m
11 .
15, and the same result holds.
8.
If p
'Zl./7'Zl. = IF 7.
m11 ,
For
mIg
we take
6, 1
b _ 8 - a mod 7
a(l - a) =: 6 mod 7,
and
m7[-\1]
over
m7
We have:
N(-\1 - e)
Then:
1
ife
3 and 0 otherwise.
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
517
=3
+ Y, gives y2 + 5Y + 5.
The extension
~5[~]
~5'
1 satisfied by
~,
The polynomial:
- 1).
(~
~
Hence
~7[~]
- 1 is a uniformizer for
since:
~7[~]'
1
6
(2) :
Therefore IF
I, and so OF
)* contains a subgroup
Conversely, if
~p
must
as a product
518
CHAPTER 10
(3):
If
is of degree two on
~p[~]
mp '
m [~],
IF
is of degree one or two over IF (hence s
ps
p
In
we have:
JF
~7
If s
1 or 2).
I,
and
7 divides p2 - 1, so by
[~]:m
] = 2.
Gauss~s Le~a,
~ e
OJ , which
p
= 2,
Therefore s
and
7 divides p - 1, or 7 di-
em,
p
mp .
(4):
mp [~]
~7 = I
and
fie1dlE' 2 of
we must have:
1,
therefore 7 divides pS - 1.
then s = 1, 2 or 3.
p3 =: 1 mod 7,
which implies:
p =: 2 or 4
Conversely, if
mod 7.
71 p3
519
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
the extension of
degree three.
mp ,
Therefore:
[m [.e]:111 ] =
P
3,
mp [.e],
by Hensel's Lemma.
6, then necessarily:
p
=3
or 5 mod 7,
=3
or 5 mod 7, the smallest s such that 7 divides pS - 1 is s = 6. Therefore the polynomial X7 - 1 determines
an extension of degree six OfF, since we always have [Ill [.e]:m ]
~
6.
= k.
~p
such that:
520
CHAPTER 10
converges uniformly
1y on
towards f e
(2) :
Now
f e
C(~
that:
on~
C(~ ,0: )
neN:
We have:
In-n'l
~p-h
implies:
If(n)
- f(n')
< E.
Therefore if we set:
h
P -1
~
Fh(X)
n=O
1 -
f(n)r
h
xP
we have:
521
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
p-l P -1
k=o
- B(l,l
h+l
11 - xP
n=O
1 - xP
and on
xn +kp
h+l
we have:
Ip
Ip
Ixl PP
if
Ixl P
~ 1,
or:
11 -
xP
h+l
h+l
h.
again is denoted by F.
Ix -
>
for converges on ~
for
Ixl P
Therefore:
whenever h'
if
11 ~ 1 we have:
F(X)
c.
'+1
j~O (1 - X)J
L
. h
Wlt
limlc.1
j-+oo
O.
f(n)X n ,
n .. O
we deduce that:
f(n) =
I c.(n+~-lJ
j .. o
522
CHAPTER 10
f(X) =
j~O
,0: ),
c.P.(x + j ] ]
1).
we deduce:
f(X)
= L
ho
akPk(x)
with:
_ .L~
ak -
J~k
(j - 1)
O.
c .. - k
] J
We have:
Let us set:
.t(n)
[~J
logp
Then:
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
523
Therefore:
(_l)h-l
lim ..!...(pnJ
n-- p n h
(2) :
_pi] 1/ (p-l)p
(
with 0 " h
n,
<
reducible on W , because:
p
= ..!...
A (x)
n
[(1
+ x)p
n-l
(p-l) + (1 + x)p
n-2
x [(1
+ x)p
x [(1
+ x) p-l + + l]x.
-ffi.
+P
with
m.
(p-2) + + 1]
(p-l) + + 1]
If:
l'
n-l
then:
=P
+1
-J-l pJ
l'
524
CHAPTER 10
] >
Ixl
> p
m.+1
= ...!..
IT
n
yer
(x
1 - y),
ea:p
such that
Ix IP
1, as the Tay-
<
Ixl p
<
1.
We have:
f(x - 1)
= limA
(x - 1),
f(y - 1)
= limA
(y - 1).
n+oo n
n-- n
since:
(xp
l)(yP
pn
- 1)
525
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
1imlyP
n-+<x>
11 P
0,
and we have:
0,
e a: P
such that
xl P
< 1,
or because:
(3) :
(1
is irreducible on
+ x)p
n-1
(p-1) + + 1
The
and therefore:
f(x)
limA (x)
n-+<x> n
0.
526
CHAPTER 10
Conversely, let
o.
Uh
x ,
r h , then IA
(x)
I is constant for
large
o.
h
for all x
that (x
e:<Z
then so is f
1,f (x
is defined
n+
n n+
is to say that f (x 1) e:<z.
n n+
p
f n - 1 (x n ) + (x
Now, we have:
n+
1 - x
)F(x ,f
n-
1(x )),
therefore:
f n (x n +1 ) p ~ max( Ifn- 1(xn ) Ip , Ix n+1 - x n Ip IF(x,f
n n- 1(xn )) Ip )
~
and as n
max(1,Mp
-( n+1)
),
k we have:
we obtain:
By replacing f
n+
x [F(x,f
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
527
If n+l ()
x
- f
(x)1 p
Mp-(n+2).
<'
...
The series:
(fn + 1 (x) - f
n~k
(X))
n (x)
>
k,
k we have:
M -(n+2)
p
,
(x)
.. Mp -(n+2) ,
Furthermore, as:
f
f n _ 1 (0)
(0)
for all n
we have:
f(O)
o.
(3): (a):
Ix
- x 'I
implies xn =
f
The inequality:
.. p -(n+l)
x~,
(x) - f
therefore:
(x')
n-
l(x ) - f
n-
l(x') + (x - x
n-
)F(x , f
l(x'))
n-
l(x ))
= (Contd)
528
CHAPTER 10
(Contd)
On z::
Ix
n- l(x n .
(x - x' )F(x , I
- x'
Ip
F(x ,y)
0 there exists n
E >
~ n
0 such that:
>
Iy -y'l p .;
and
is uniformly continuous.
implies:
IF(x',y') - F(x,y)1
E.
-(N+l)
n,
then:
II(x)
1n- l(x n ) Ip .;
~
Therefore, for n
Ix -
x n Ip ~
-(N+2) M -(N+l
, p
n.
N we have:
II(x)
and
1n- 1 (x n ) Ip
~ n,
hence:
IF(x,/(x
n- l(x1
n
p ~
- F(x , I
(b):
The equality:
f m(x)
1m(x') = 1m(x)
1n (x)
E-
1n (x)
- 1n (x') + 1n (x')
implies:
- Irn(x')
1n- 1 (x n ) Ip )
529
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
If(X)-f(X')
m x _ x~
f
- F(x,f(x))
I
p
(x) - f (x'')
~ max [ I n x _ x~
- F(x ,f(x))
I
p
'
<Elx-x
n+ 11 p
implies:
If+ 1 (x)-f(x)1
> n:
If(x)-f(x)I"Elx-x'l
similarly:
Ifm(x')-f(x')I .. Elx-x'l
n
p
p
Hence for m
Ix
implies:
> n
- x '1
the inequality
.. p -(n+l)
<Elx-x'i p
n- l(x))]
n
530
CHAPTER 10
By making m
1x
00
we thus obtain:
- x 'I
p -(n+1)
which implies:
I[(X)x
- x
x ') - F(x'[(X))1
e:,
hence:
1
1m
= F( x, [( x )) .
[(x) - [(x')
x-x'
x '-+x
Therefore [ is differentiable
[,(x)
on~p'
and:
= F(x,[(x)).
n~O
(1 -
X)(l -
L (1
n .. O
X)"'(l - nX)
nX)
p-ADIC ANALYSIS
531
n=O
(1 - X)(l -
Therefore
and so mod p
n ..O n
h
(p
xP
l)X) -
the (P)
n n ..
[Ami]) .
(2):
Modulo p we have:
p-1
n=O
X (1 - (n + l)X)(l (1 - X)(l -
p-1
n=O
satisfy:
~l+p+ +p
p-1
xp- 1
F.
p
xP
l)X)
is irreducible over
m,
P
IF
for it
its roots
= 1.
.,rk(p) = 1 ,
~
(p -
and therefore in
l)X)
l)X) - xP
Xn (l - (n + l)X)(l -
(p -
(p -
to
IF).
p
Therefore:
532
CHAPTER 10
In addition, i f I',;i and I',;j are two distinct roots of 1 - Xp- 1 XP , then:
I1',1;.
- 1',;1
]
= 1,
and the Mittag-Leffler Theorem (cf., [Ami]) then gives the result:
F1 (X) =
where
IA.I
1
p-l n
L X (1 - (n + l)X)(l n=O
1 - Xp-l - xP
~ 1.
Consequently:
(p -
l)X)
Bibliography
[Ami]
[Bac]
Cambridge, NY.
A. BLANCHARD: Initiation
[Bla]
[Bou]
N. BOURBAKI:
[Bor]
[Cas]
[CaF]
[Che]
533
BIBLIOGRAPHY
534
[Com]
L. COMTET: Analyse combinatoire, Vol.s 1 and 2, Collection Sup. P.U.F., (Paris), (1970).
[El1]
[Gun]
R.C. GUNNING: Lectures on Modular Forms, Annals of Mathematics Studies No. 48, (Princeton University Press),
(1962).
[Hal]
Princeton.
S~quences,
Vol. I, (Oxford
[Has]
[Joly]
fini', Enseignement
[Kui]
Math~matique,
&Sons),
(1974).
[Langl]
[Lang2]
[Lev]
[Mac]
Reading, Mass.
[Mor]
[Niv]
[Pis]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[Rau]
G. RAUZY:
535
Propri~t~s
statistiques de suites
arithm~tiques,
[Sam]
P. SAMUEL:
[Sal]
Th~orie aLg~brique
[Ser1]
[Ser2]
[Wa1]
d'arithm~tique,
Index of Terminology
additive function 5
algebraic 171
Clausen 380
conjugates 172
convolution 7
arithmetic function 3
arithmetic progression 31
decomposition 177
basis 127
Bernoulli 365
Dieudonne 316
Besicovitch 244
Brun 122
Cantor 164
dihedral 184
character 28
discrepancy 241
discriminant 175
537
INDEX
e 431
Ikehara 13
Euler product 10
inertia 178
integer 174
Fatou 149
irreducible fraction 33
Khintchin 254
Koksma 243
Galois 173
Kummer 202
Lagrange 428
Goldbach 43
Landau 261
group 370
Hadamard 150
Mann 128
Hasse 410
Martinet 207
Mertens (formula) 20
height 308
Mittag-Leffler 532
INDEX
538
multiplicative 5, 369
reducibility 475
residual degree 176, 468
Roth 254
SchUtzenberger 169
Selberg 14, 41
p-adic 466
Siegel 313
sieve 14, 41
size 308
Payan 207
'IT 323
trace 172
unit 180
valuation 466
INDEX
539
N, 'll, IQ, lR, ([: The entire, natural, rational, real, complex
numbers.
N *, 'll *,
~*,
IF P = 'll /p'll;
'll 7n'll .
x - [x); II xII
min Ix-al.
IT (x);
e(x)
Ch. 1; 1
540
~(n),
INDEX
541
* G,
e(n), G, f-*
Ch. 1; 7
Ch. 1; 8
aT" F
s(A,p) Ch. 1; 14
A(X),
Ch. 2; 127
Ch. 4; 174
r 1 , r 2 Ch. 4, 180
Ch. 5; 242
Ch. 5; 243
W Ch.
N(a)
Ch. 5; 241
Ch. 6; 308
6; 309
Ch. 6; 311
GLn(Q)
Ch. 6; 317
H Ch. 7, 359
SL 2 (A), r, 0k(n),T
(a,S)v' d(f),Ev(f)
[ao,al' ... ,an ]
Ch. 8; 408
Ch. 9; 429
~p' ~p'
B(a,r-), B(a,r+)
e,f
Ch. 7, 361
K, A, M, X,