NANOTECHNOLOGY

1.0 Introduction:
1.1
Definition
nanotechnologies

of

nanoscience

and

Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation

of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales,
where properties differ significantly from those at a larger
scale
Nanotechnologies are the design, characterisation,
production and application of structures, devices and systems
by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale.
Nanotechnology is thus the technology of the extremely
small; one nm is defined as one billionth of a meter. Bulk
materials (the big pieces of materials we see around us)
possess continuous (macroscopic) physical properties. The
same applies to micron-sized materials (e.g. a grain of sand).
But when particles assume nanoscale dimensions, the
principles of classic physics are no longer capable of describing
their behavior (movement, energy, etc.): at these dimensions,
the principles of quantum mechanics principles. The same
material (e.g. gold) at the nanoscale can have properties
(e.g. optical, mechanical and electrical) which are very
different from (and even opposite to!) the properties the
material has at the macro scale (bulk). Nanotechnologies
are defined thus:
.

Nanotechnologies are the design, characterization, production

and application of structures, devices and systems by
controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale.
In the next sections of this chapter we will discuss these
definitions and their meaning, starting with what is meant by
the nanometer scale.
.

1.2 The nanometer scale

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The nanometer scale is conventionally defined as 1 to 100 nm.

One nanometer is one billionth of a meter (10-9 m). The size
range is normally set to a minimum of 1 nm to avoid single
atoms or very small groups of atoms being designated as nanoobjects . Therefore, nanoscience and nanotechnologies
deal with clusters of atoms of 1 nm in at least one
dimension

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A very important concept to bring in to the classroom is the

smallness of nano. Nanomaterials are larger than single
atoms but smaller than bacteria and cells. It is useful to use a
scale such as the one shown in where students can visualise
the relationship between bulk materials, for example a tennis
ball, and nanomaterials.

How small is Nano

Size matters:

Our fingernails grow at the rate of 1nm per second.

The head of a pin is about 10,00,000nm in diameter.
A human hair is about 80,000-1,00,000nm in diameter.
A DNA molecule is 1-2nm wide.
Three and half gold atoms are placed in a row equal to
1nm ( assuming diameter of atom is 0.288nm ) .

1.3 History of Nanotechnology

The history of nanotechnology is generally understood to
have begun in December 1959 when physicist Richard
Feynman gave a speech, There's Plenty of Room at the
Bottom (Feynman 1959), at an American Physical Society

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meeting at the California Institute of Technology in which he

identified the potential of nanotechnology. Feynman said it
should be possible to build machines small enough to
manufacture objects with atomic precision, and that if
information could be written on an atomic scale, all of the
information that man has carefully accumulated in all the books
in the world can be written ... in a cube of material one twohundredths of an inch wideabout the size of the smallest
piece of dust visible to the human eye. He claimed that there
were no
physical laws preventing such achievements, while noting that
physical properties would change in importance (e.g., gravity
becoming less important), though surface phenomena would
begin to dominate behavior.

Richard P. Feynman

2.0 Nanomaterials for the 21th century

This chapter is concerned with various new or enhanced
nanomaterials that are envisaged to have a major impact on
technological applications in general and medical technology in
particular. Nanomaterials are categorized into carbon and

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inorganic nanomaterials. It should be noted that not only

nanoparticles are discussed, but also nano-structured bulk
materials, because the physical interactions at the nano-scale
interface between biological structures and materials are
crucial for the biological response.

2.1 Quantum dots:

2.1.1 Introduction

Quantum dots are spherical nano-sized crystals. They can

be made of nearly every semiconductor metal (e.g., CdS, CdSe,
CdTe, ZnS, PbS), but alloys and other metals (e.g. Au) can also
be used (Alivisatos, 1996; Bailey and Nie, 2003; Zheng et al.,
2004a). The prototypical quantum dot is cadmium selenide
(CdSe). Quantum dots range between 2 and 10 nm in diameter
(10 to 50 atoms). Generally, quantum dots consist of a
semiconductor core, overcoated by a shell (e.g., ZnS) to
improve optical properties, and a cap enabling improved
solubility in aqueous buffers.

Quantum dots
2.1.2 Properties:

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Quantum dots take advantage of the quantum confinement

effect, giving these nanoparticles unique optical and electronic
properties. A theoretical framework for these properties was
already described in 1982 by two research teams in the former
Soviet Union (Efros and Efros, 1982; Ekimov and Onushchenko,
1982). Fluorescence semiconductor quantum dots offer
advantages in that they have a tunable absorption spectrum,
which is very broad, extending from the ultraviolet to a cut-off
wavelength in the visible spectrum. Emission is confined to a
narrow band and can also be tuned. Absorption and emission
characteristics are dictated by size for binary quantum dots or
by composition/internal structure independently of size for
alloyed semiconductor quantum dots, such as CdSeTe (Bailey
and Nie, 2003). When illuminated, smaller binary quantum dots
emit shorter wavelength, such as blue, whereas larger dots
emit longer wavelength, such as red (Figure 6). Moreover,
quantum dots have brighter emission and good photostabilitys.

2.1.3 Applications:
Biomedical monitoring applications have taken considerable
advantage of using quantum dots for sensitive optical imaging
in fixed cells and tissues, living cells and animal models(see
Section 4.4.2). Electronic applications of quantum dots are
envisaged in future highspeed electronic and photonic devices.
Quantum dots provide a promising way forward for a new
generation of lasers (Huang et al., 2000), infrared
photodetectors (Kim et al., 2000),
photovoltaic devices (Pan et al., 2000), and optical data storage
media (Son et al., 2001).

2.2 Bucky balls ( C60 ):

2.2.1 Introduction:
It is the roundest and most symmetrical large molecule
known to man. Buckministerfullerine continues to astonish with
one amazing property after another. Named after American
architect R. Buckminister Fuller who designed a geodesic dome

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with the same fundamental symmetry, C60 is the third major

form of pure carbon; graphite and diamond are the other two.
The buckyball, being the roundest of round molecules, is also
quite resistant to high speed collisions. In fact, the buckyball
can withstand slamming into a stainless steel plate at 15,000
mph, merely bouncing back, unharmed. When compressed to
70 percent of its original size, the buckyball becomes more than
twice as hard as its cousin, diamond. Because the buckyballs
sphere is hollow, other atoms can be trapped within it. They
have heat-resistance and electrical conductivity. Their
applications appear to be endless.

Bucky balls ( C60 ):

2.2.2 Properties and Applications:
C60 has appealing physical, (bio)chemical, electrical and
optical properties. These properties can be modified by
functionalization, i.e. attaching chemical groups to a fullerenes
carbon atom. When crystalline C60, normally an insulator, is
doped with alkali metals, such as potassium, caesium or
rubidium, it can be made metallic (Haddon et al., 1991).
Various functionalizations have been utilised to increase
hydrophilicity of fullerenes as well as to prepare new
compounds with biological and pharmacological activity (Bosi
et al., 2003). C60 derivatives have a high physical and chemical
affinity for the active site of various enzymes, such as HIV-1
protease (Friedman et al., 1993; Schinazi et al., 1993; Sijbesma

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et al., 1993). Introducing a C60 molecule into the catalytic

cavity of HIV-1 protease inhibits this fundamental enzyme for
virus survival. Evidence has been found for superconductivity
(Hebard et al., 1991) and currently C60 is being investigated in
artificial photosynthetic applications, e.g. photovoltaic devices
(Cho et al., 2005). Fullerenes are powerful antioxidants,
reacting readily and at a high rate with free radicals, which are
often the cause of cell damage or death (Chueh et al., 1999; Lin
et al., 1999; Straface et al., 1999). Fullerenes could hold
promise in health and personal care where prevention of
oxidative cell damage or death is desirable

2.3 Carbone nanotubes:

2.3.1 Introduction:
Strong covalent bonding, unique one-dimensional
structure and nanometer size, together impart unusual
properties to the nanotubes. These properties include
exceptionally high tensile strength, high resilience, electronic
properties ranging from metallic to semi-conducting, the ability
to sustain high current densities and high thermal conductivity.
Thus carbon nanotubes could be used as fillers in super-strong
composite materials, as wires and components in nanoelectronic devices, as tips of scanning probe microscopes and
in flat panel displays and gas sensors. Nanotubes still cost
much more than gold on a weight basis, most preparations are
highly impure and many of the purifications reported in the
literature do not work as stated. Purification of the carbon
nanotubes is a particular. Fluorinating nanotubes also make it
easier for scientists and engineers to exploit their incredible
strength. SWNTs are 100 times stronger than steel at one-sixth
the weight. At full size, we view carbon nanotubes as
macromolecules that should be ideal constituents of polymers,
copolymers, polymer composites, and biological structures
where their outstanding physical properties, such as high
strength, exceptional thermal conductivity, and singular
electronic properties distinguish them from all other
nanomaterials.[3] The carbon nanotube is the ultimate
molecular carbon fiber if it can be processed into useful

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structures. At the other end of the size scale, where the

nanotubes are shortened to the molecular size regime, interest
will focus on their unique cylindrical physical shape together
with their conjugated electronic structure.

Carbone nanotubes
2.3.2 Properties and Applications:
Carbon nanotubes are potentially the ultimate material for
high-strength materials applications such as reinforcement of
composite materials or cable components. Applications in
sports engineering are emerging, such as VS Nanotube Power
and VS Nanotube Drivemade tennis rackets ($200.-) made of
high modulus graphite and carbon nanotubes by Babolat VS
North America, Inc. (Boulder, Colorado, USA) and Synergy SL
hockey sticks and bicycle components (e.g. handlebars)
incorporating Zyvexs NanoSolve carbon nanotechnology by
Easton Sports, Inc. (Van Nuys, California, USA). Mechanical
applications could also be in armour, although a suitable matrix
must be chosen to exploit the mechanical properties in a
macroscopic product. Furthermore, the exceptional mechanical
properties make carbon nanotubes ideal tips for force sensors
in scanning probe microscopy such as atomic force microscopy
(Dai et al., 1996; Hafner et al., 2001).

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3.0 Fabrication of Nanotechnology:

3.1 Introduction:

There is much discussion what nanotechnology really is:

anything produced in the nanometer scale, manipulating atoms
or small particles. Seeing the wide variety of materials and
fabrication technologies one could better speak of
nanotechnologies. In general the fabrication technologies could
be divided into four groups as pictured in the following figure

Nanotechnology fabrication methods

3.2 Top-down nanofabrication

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The currently best developed area is the top-down

nanofabrication with its base in the semiconductor industry.
This industry is rapidly entering the sub nanometer area, and
they need increasingly more accurate and therefore more
expensive
equipment.
For
semiconductor
lithography
nanoimprinting can offer a less complex process using more
affordable equipment. The process uses a stamp instead of the
more commonly used transparent mask. On a longer time
frame, nanotubes are becoming of interest In the deposition
area much attention is given to processes like Atomic Layer
Deposition (ALD) and Molecular Layer Epitaxy, cyclic processes
to make gap layers with high conformality and breakdown
voltage. Basically the buildup is layer by layer, whereby the
layers can be varied according to need for specific layer
properties.

3.3 Nanopartical creation:

The simplest process to create nanoparticles is the sol-gel

process. Hereby mixing of ingredients dissolved in a liquid
creates the initial particles. At a certain moment a surface
active material is added to stop the growth. Hereafter the
materials, still dispersed in liquid, can be transferred to the
point of use. Pyrogenic processing on the other hand is a
process carried out in large expensive tools. It is used to create
oxide particles by means of flame oxidation of metals,
metalloids or their derivates in the gas phase. A slightly more
exotic process is called Controlled Detonation Synthesis and is
used to create Nanoceramics and cubic carbon nanoparticles
(Nanodiamonds). It involves the atomization of an explosion
precursor material, immersed in specific gas medium. During
the fly from the middle of reactor to the reactor walls atoms are
clusterized and form nanoparticles.

4.0 Unique Properties of Nanomaterials:

Researchers are using the unique properties of materials at
this small scale to create new and exciting tools and products in
all areas of science and engineering.

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Nanotechnology combines solid state physics, chemistry,

electrical engineering, chemical engineering, biochemistry,
biophysics, and materials science. It is thus a highly
interdisciplinary area integrating ideas and techniques from a
wide array of traditional disciplines. Some universities have
begun to issue degrees in nanotechnology; others view it as a
portion of existing academic areas. Either way many trained
scientists, engineers, and technicians in these areas will be
required in the next 30 years.
Many are predicting that nanotechnology is the next technical
revolution and products resulting from it will affect all areas of
our economy and lifestyle. It is estimated that by 2015 this
exciting field will need 7 million workers worldwide. The
workforce will come from all areas of science and engineering
and will include those with two-year technical degrees up to
PhD researchers in universities and industry.

5.0 Applications of Nanotechnology:

5.1 Disruptive Application:

Fiber that is stronger than golden spider web.

Metal that is 100Xs stronger than steel.
Plastics that conduct electricity.
Coatings those are nearly frictionless.
Plastics and paints that will store solar power and convert
to energy.
Materials that can change colour and transferency on
demand.
Batteries that store more energy and are much more
efficient.
Cosmetics that can penetrate the skin.
Technology that can re-grow bone and organ.

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Cure for cancer, diabetes.

5.2 Current Applications:

burn and wound dressings, water filtration devices,

paints,
cosmetics,
coatings,
lubricants,
textiles,
memory/storage devices
medical diagnostics, displays, sensors, drug delivery,
composite materials, solid state lighting, bio-materials,
nano arrays, more powerful computers, protective armor,
chem-bio suits, and chem-bio sensors

6.0 Misconception about Nanotechnology

With nanotechnology is possible False.
With nanotechnology we will be able to eliminate
cancer, diseases & live forever False .
With nanotechnology we can easily clean up the
pollution False.
Nanotechnology is dangerous . A small mistake
with
nanomachines can destroy the entire planet False.

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