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The answers to these questions give, respectively, the hydrocarbon in place, the reserves, and the rate of
production. The determination of these three quantities is the heart of reservoir engineering.
, and S are normally determined from isopach maps constructed from geological, petrophysical, and log
Estimation of Reserves
Reserves, unlike Initial Hydrocarbons in Place, are not invariant. Rather, they are affected by the production
method planned for the reservoir. The most significant factor in determining the production method and hence
the reserves is economics. The current oil price structure, the time value of investment capital, and the tax
environment will determine how much oil can be economically recovered. Other factors that influence reserves
are well location and spacing, production rates, and the drive mechanism of the reservoir.
Oil production can be said to take place in two phases: the primary recovery, and improved recovery. During the
primary recovery phase, hydrocarbons are produced using only the natural energy contained in the reservoir.
This primary recovery phase may be supplemented or followed by an improved recovery phase, in which energy
is added to the reservoir by injecting water, gas or a combination of the two; or the addition of energy may
involve more complex enhanced oil recovery (EOR) methods, such as miscible gas injection, chemical injection
or thermal processes.
In the reservoir's primary recovery phase, several sources of internal energy may contribute to fluid production.
The five basic natural drive mechanisms drive mechanisms are
expansion drive
solution gas drive
gas cap drive
natural water drive
gravity drainage
All of these functions are integrated in order to arrive at a plan for the development of the reservoir.
First we shall describe the four sources of data related to the reservoir rock and reservoir extent, which are
the reservoir extent and its closure (the height of the crest above the lowest contour that completely
closes the reservoir)
flow barriers, such as faults or pinchouts
fluid contacts, (i.e., oil-water, oil-gas, and gas-water interfaces)
aquifer size
lithology variations
continuity of the reservoir in the areal as well as in the vertical direction
Core Analyses
Cores provide petrophysical data essential to reservoir engineering. Basic core data, such as permeability,
porosity, and fluid saturations help the engineer decide whether or not to complete the well and where to
complete it. Special core analyses also help in evaluating reservoir performance, estimating hydrocarbons in place
and reserves, evaluating the feasibility of EOR projects, and providing input data for reservoir simulation
studies.
A second type of data used in reservoir engineering concerns the properties of the reservoir fluids and how they react
to changes in pressure and temperature. Expressing the original hydrocarbons in place in surface volumes
requires such data. Quantitative calculation of recoverable reserves requires estimates or laboratory
determinations of formation volume factor, gas-oil ratio, and oil and gas compressibility, all as a function of
pressure. Determining production rates of oil or gas requires knowledge of their respective viscosities at
reservoir conditions. Any assessment of the practicality of EOR methods requires an understanding of the effects
of the particular method employed on the behavior of the oil in the reservoir (i.e., oil viscosity reduction in a
steam flood).
Reservoir fluid data is generally determined from a laboratory analysis performed on a carefully obtained
representative sample of the original reservoir fluid. Where sampling is impossible, empirical correlations are
available to estimate oil, gas, and water properties.
Production Data
This is another important type of data used in reservoir engineering calculations. By production data, we generally
mean a careful accounting of the volumes of produced oil, gas, and water, as functions of time. Pressure as a
function of time is also extremely important. The decline curve analysis and the material balance equation of oil
or gas reservoirs require accurate production data in order to be of any value as predictive techniques.
The accuracy of production accounting can vary from field to field, particularly in large offshore developments
where isolated wells and "satellite platforms" preclude the individual measurement of well production volumes
on a regular basis. In such situations, individual well production is allocated from a total field production volume
based on monthly well tests. In areas with high water-production rates the accuracy of measured water cuts also
becomes a factor. Some estimate of the reliability of production data should be made by the engineer using such
data in his or her calculations.
Areal Extent
The area of the reservoir is needed for calculating the hydrocarbon in place, for selecting the proper locations of
wells, and as input data for reservoir simulation studies.
Fault Patterns
The location of faults and their effects as barriers to flow define the boundaries of the reservoir and help
determine the locations of production and injection wells. Fault patterns strongly affect the design of the field
development plan. The number and orientation of faults strongly influence the number of wells (and, in the case
of offshore, the number of platforms) required for development.
Fluid Contacts
Determinations of oil-gas, oil-water, or gas-water contacts are needed for a complete description of the reservoir.
Without such information, the hydrocarbon in place cannot be determined to a reasonable degree of accuracy and
a proper recovery plan cannot be developed.
Aquifer Size
The size of the aquifer relative to the hydrocarbon reservoir is important in predicting recovery under primary
depletion. Furthermore, this measurement has a strong bearing on the planning of a secondary or tertiary
operation.
Reservoir Models
Reservoir engineering calculations require the formation of a mathematical model for the reservoir. This model
should be based on the physical model that emerges from data obtained from the geological, geophysical,
petrophysical, and log information. It is evident that in the majority of reservoirs the complexity is so great that it
is not practical to expect a faithful mathematical description. Furthermore, it is impossible to obtain a physical
description of the reservoir that is 100 percent accurate. One knows the physical properties of the reservoir to a
high degree of accuracy only at well locations. In between the wells, or in the part of the reservoir for which no
subsurface data are available, the physical description can only be deduced. The more drilling, the better the
definition of the reservoir.
However, 3-D seismics and cross-well seismic tomography can provide information about the portions of the
reservoir that lie between wells. 3-D seismics employs large amounts of closely spaced data and improved
migration techniques to provide volumetric reservoir interpretatios, while cross-well tomography applys highfrequency seismic waves, in which both source and recever are located in existing wellbores. These tools give
the geophysicist an active role to play in modeling the reservoir.
The mathematical representation of the reservoir can range from a very simple model, the tank-type (or zerodimensional) model, to a highly complex set of equations that require numerical techniques and computers for their
solution (the reservoir simulation approach). In the tank-type approach, the engineer assumes that the reservoir can
be described with average values for properties such as thickness, porosity, and fluid saturations. While this
approach may be satisfactory for simple problems, it may not be sufficient for other purposes. For instance, the
tank-type model or a variation of it is normally used in volumetric estimation of the initial oil or gas in place. In
some reservoirs it may also be satisfactory for material balance calculations. However, in other reservoirs such a
model might be totally unsatisfactory and the engineer would have to resort to reservoir simulation. Generally
speaking, as the heterogeneity of the reservoir in creases, so too does the required complexity of the
mathematical representation.
Reservoir Simulation
As the complexity of a reservoir increases, the need for a more complex mathematical representation arises. The
engineer must use a reservoir simulator to predict the performance of the reservoir under various development
schemes.
Modern reservoir simulation is based on the tank type model, which forms the basis of reservoir engineering.
However, ratherthan considering the reservoir as one tank unit, the simulationdivides the reservoir into many tank
units that interact with each other. The number of tank units, or cells, depends on many factors,including the
heterogeneity of the reservoir, the number of wells, andthe field development scheme. Heterogeneous reservoirs
require a largernumber of cells.
The basic reservoir engineering equations that have been used to describe the reservoir when represented by one
tank unit are used in reservoir simulation. In the single-cell representation, no oil or gas crosses the boundary of
the tank (i.e., reservoir). However, in a simulation with many cells, each cell interacts with its neighbors. Fluids
may enter a cell from adjacent cells or may leave a cell and go to the cells neighbors.This fluid movement is
governed by a well established flow equation, known as Darcys law. Keeping an inventory of the fluids in each
cell is a rigorous bookkeeping operation, well suited to computers. The advent of the modern computer has
increased the reservoir engineers simulation capabilities.
The rock and fluid data required for reservoir studies using the one-tank model representation are required for
each unit cell in a simulation study. The effort required to prepare such data and input it to the simulator is a
significant part of the cost, which can range from tens to hundreds of thousands of dollars, depending on the
size, complexity, and purpose of the model.
A reservoir may have closed or open boundaries, or both. If the reservoir is completely bounded by
sealing faults or pinchouts, it is closed. Some reservoirs are completely surrounded by an aquifer, thus
their boundaries are open to water movement into the hydrocarbon zone. Still other reservoirs may be
bounded by faults or pinchouts along part of their boundary and by an aquifer along the remaining part.
Most reservoir engineering calculations require an accurate knowledge of the boundary conditions of the
reservoir. This knowledge may establish the possible existence and extent of an aquifer activity in the
reservoir.
Heterogeneities
All reservoirs are heterogeneous, varying only in their degree of heterogeneity. This means that the
physical properties of the rock change with a change in location. One of the very important
heterogeneities that needs to be considered in reservoir engineering calculations is stratification. Many
reservoirs contain layers (strata) of productive rock that can be communicating or non communicating.
These layers can vary considerably in permeability and in thickness. A good description of the layers and
their respective properties is critical in planning many EOR operations.
Fault System
Another common heterogeneity in reservoirs is the fault system. Faults can be completely or partially
sealing. Well locations for both production and injection are affected by the fault pattern and its effect on
fluid communication. Faults are normally defined from geological, geophysical, and production data.
Permeability
Permeability is another directional property. When permeability measurements vary depending on the
direction in which theyre measured, we say that the reservoir is anisotropic with respect to permeability.
Permeability anisotropy is important in determining well spacing and configuration, as well as in
considering the option of horizontal wells.
, and
and
Matthews et al. (1954) and Matthews and Russell (1967) have shown that the well-drainage volume
proportional to its flow rate, Substituting for
In Equation 3 gives
then
is
Equation 4 is the more Practical equation because the flow rate is usually available, while it may be more
difficult to estimate the drainage volume.
A very useful plot is that of the average pressure values obtained on several wells versus the total oil production
of an oil reservoir, or total gas production of a gas reservoir. The pressures are plotted on the Y-axis. If there is
continuity in the reservoir the Pressures from the various wells should plot close to each other. If the pressures
for a well plot are consistently higher or lower than the other values, it may indicate that the well is not in good
communication with the reservoir or that it is in a separate reservoir. This may point out the need for more wells
to effectively drain the isolated portion of the reservoir. Furthermore, the data from the isolated well should not
be lumped in with the data from other wells in material balance engineering calculations.
Before comparing the pressure values measured in wells at various depths in a reservoir (very thick and/or
steeply dipping reservoirs), they should be referred to a datum depth (Figure 1).
Normally the depth of the volumetric midpoint of the reservoir is taken as the datum depth. This is determined by
constructing a plot of depth versus cumulative pore volume ( Figure 2).
The depth corresponding to 50% pore volume is the volumetric midpoint depth. If a particular pressure value is
obtained at a different depth than the datum, it is adjusted to the datum by
where:
the pressure at any elevation, psi
specific gravity of fluid
the vertical distance between the point at which the pressure was measured and the datum depth, ft
Equations 5 and 6 apply when the point at which the Pressure was determined is, respectively, above and below
the datum depth.
When an aquifer is associated with the reservoir, the Pressure behavior as a function of time at the hydrocarbonwater contact (or as close as possible to it) is needed for water influx calculations. If this is not available, one
usually uses the average reservoir Pressure and adjusts it to the hydrocarbon-water contact depth.
The average reservoir pressure is needed in many reservoir engineering calculations. In the case of miscible
EOR techniques, for example, the average reservoir pressure determines whether miscibility will occur when
or other gases are injected. This in turn affects overall recovery and the economic feasibility of the project.
Reservoir pressure is a topic of significance in reservoir engineering because it is one of the critical pieces of
data required by the reservoir engineer for an effective analysis of a reservoir. obtaining reliable pressure data
should be a primary goal of any reservoir management program.
Reservoir Temperature
The calculation of primary recovery relies on the reasonable assumption that the reservoir temperature stays
constant. Thus, hydrocarbon recovery during this phase is considered to be an isothermal process. This is so
because as fluids are Produced any change in temperature due to Production is compensated for by heat from the
cap or base rocks, which are considered to be heat sources of infinite capacity.
The average reservoir temperature is needed for laboratory analyses that are made at reservoir conditions.
Determining fluid properties, such as viscosity, density, formation volume factor, and gas in solution, requires a
value for reservoir temperature. Reservoir temperature is usually measured at the bottom of the well or wells in a
reservoir using a wireline temperature gauge. If a variation in temperature is detected across a reservoir after
correcting for depth, an average value can be used for the constant reservoir temperature.
For EOR techniques such as chemical and miscible processes, temperature affects the phase behavior of injected
and produced fluids, and thus the recovery. The feasibility of these processes must be determined by laboratory
tests carried out at reservoir temperature. In EOR processes that employ heat injection, such as steam or in-situ
combustion, the reservoir temperature is not constant and hydrocarbon recovery is not an isothermal process.
Therefore, in mathematical formulations of such processes, it is necessary to write an energy balance over the
entire reservoir. From an operations standpoint, reservoir temperatures need to be measured continuously at
monitoring wells. These measurements indicate the heat fronts pattern of movement. Normally, a uniform
movement is desired, but the heat-front pattern can be altered by changes in injection and/or production
schedules.
porosity (fraction)
pore volume
bulk volume
and
Two types of porosity can exist in the rock: total and effective. Total porosity comprises all of the pore spaces,
including connected spaces, isolated spaces (e.g., vugs or fractures) and, in shaly formations, water which is
bound to clay minerals. Effective porosity refers only to the interconnected pore spaces, although among some
companies it is more strictly defined as interconnected porostiy without clay-bound water). While it is effective
porosity that is of primary interest to reservoir engineers, a knowledge of total porosity is also important with
respect to reservoir description and characterization. In some reservoirs (e.g., clean, unfractured sandstones), the
difference between the total and effective porosity will be negligible; in others (e.g., highly vuggy carbonates or
very shaly sands), the difference may be significant.
Various methods exist for measuring porosity. Some are based on measurements of a rock samples bulk volume
and solid volume, and obtain the pore volume by subtracting the solid from the bulk volume. Thus: [pore volume
= bulk volume - solid volume]. Other methods are based on measuring the pore volume directly in addition to
the bulk volume. Such methods utilize gas expansion, fluid saturation, or mercury injection. Porosity measured
by these techniques is the effective porosity.
Permeability is a measure of the ability of porous rock to transmit fluid. The quantitative value for this
characteristic is the permeability. The permeability may be absolute or effective.
Absolute permeability occurs when only one fluid is present in the rock. It is a property of the rock and should
be independent of the fluid used in the measurement. This assumes that the fluid does not interact with the rock.
Absolute permeability is calculated by Darcys law using laboratory-measured data. The unit of the permeability
is the darcy. The permeability of one darcy may be defined as that permeability which will allow the flow of one
cm3/s of a fluid of viscosity one centipoise through a rock sample of one cm 2 in cross-sectional area under a
pressure gradient of one atmosphere per cm. A permeability of one darcy is a large value, and we normally use
the unit of millidarcy (0.001 darcy) to describe the permeability of most reservoirs. In some reservoirs the
permeability may be as low as a fraction of a millidarcy, while in others it may be several darcies. The well-flow
rate is directly proportional to permeability. Thus, wells with very low permeabilities are normally marginally
productive, and may require stimulation and remedial action to improve their production.
Effective permeability occurs when more than one fluid is present: it is a function of the fluid saturation.
Therefore, one speaks of effective permeability to oil, water, and gas. Effective permeability cannot be higher
than specific permeability. The ratio of effective to specific permeability is termed relative permeability.
Saturation is a measure of the relative volume of each fluid in the pores. Thus the oil saturation is defined as the
ratio of the volume of the oil in a porous rock to the pore volume of the same rock. It is expressed in fraction or
in percent, and ranges from 0 to nearly 100%. Water is always present in all reservoirs, and its saturation is
always greater than zero. In contrast, the oil saturation is zero in gas reservoirs, and the gas saturation is zero in
oil reservoirs when the pressure is above the bubble-point. The water saturation is normally obtained in situ from
log data. The oil or gas saturation is then calculated by subtracting the water saturation from unity (in two-phase
reservoirs).
Sometimes the fluid content and saturations are measured directly in the laboratory on fresh core samples. These
cores are obtained using an oil-base drilling fluid, and considerable care will have been exercised during the
coring operation.
Oil or gas saturations are needed to volumetrically calculate the initial oil or gas in place.
where:
flow rate in cm3/s
permeability in direction of flow, darcies
viscosity in centipoise
pressure gradient in atm/cm
cross-sectional area in cm2
Note that the negative sign in front of the equation is needed to obtain a positive q, since dp/dx is negative. The
most common application of Darcys law is to linear and radial flow geometries. Linear Flow In linear flow, A is
constant (Figure 1).
where:
flow rate in reservoir bbl/day
area in ft2
permeability in direction of flow, (md)
pressure at the inlet end, psi
pressure at the outlet end, psi
viscosity in centipoise (cp)
length, ft
Radial Flow
In radial flow, which represents the flow pattern around a well,
This yields
where:
thickness of bed, ft
pressure at outer boundary,
pressure at the inner boundary,
radius of the outer boundary, ft
radius of the inner boundary, ft and the rest of the symbols are as defined previously.
In the case of a well,
drainage area.
and
The assumptions underlying Darcys law require that the flowing fluid be incompressible, and that the
flow be laminar. Strictly speaking, while reservoir fluids are compressible, Darcys law is still a very
good approximation of the flow of oil and water. In the case of gas, it is used if the gas production is
associated with the oil, and a modified form of it is used for gas wells. The modified form is
where:
flow rate in MSCF/D at standard conditions of temperature and pressure
permeability in direction of flow, millidarcies
gas deviation factor (evaluated at average pressure)
viscosity in centipoise (cp) (evaluated at average pressure)
reservoir temperature,
thickness of bed in ft
Relative Permeabilities
All of these equations assume that only one fluid saturates the porous media; thus k is the absolute permeability.
However, as mentioned previously, water is always present. Furthermore, in oil reservoirs, oil, gas, and water
exist together, below the bubble-point. In such cases, one must use the effective permeability to the phase of
interest in place of the specific permeability. Normally, one replaces the effective permeability by
where:
the relative permeability
Note that the figure shows that relative permeability values equal to zero exist for saturation values greater than
zero. This means that a critical saturation value must occur before relative permeability exceeds zero, that is to
say, before the fluid starts to flow.
the flow of the free gas in the oil zone, which occurs when the pressure in the oil zone is below the
bubble-point and the gas saturation is above its critical value;
the gas that is liberated from the oil during its trip to surface because of the drop from reservoir pressure
to surface pressure. This portion of gas is expressed in standard cubic feet/stock tank bbl (SCF/STB) or
cubic meters per cubic meter
, and is indicated by
The ratio of the flow of free gas to the flow of oil at standard condition is calculated by means of Darcys law
and is given by
where:
And
Or
where , , and
are, respectively, the gas in the reservoir at any time, the initial gas, and the produced gas
(all in standard volumes).
is the density of gas at standard conditions.
Because of the form of Equation 1, some authors refer to the MBE as a volumetric balance. This is misleading,
since Equation 16 was derived from a mass balance equation. The complete derivation of the MBE requires
expressing the three terms , , and
in Pertinent parameters. The resulting equation is
Note: only the expansion of rock and its associated water in oil zone is considered in Equation 2.
where:
cumulative oil production, STB
two-phase formation-volume factor, RB/STB
cumulative produced GOR, SCF/STB
initial gas in solution, SCF/STB
gas formation-volume factor, RB/SCF
water formation-volume factor, RB/STB
total water produced in STB
initial oil in place, STB
initial two-phase formation-volume factor
ratio of gas cap pore volume to oil leg pore volume
initial gas formation-volume factor
initial water saturation, fraction of pore volume
water saturation, fraction of pore volume
rock compressibility, vol/vol/psi
water compressibility, vol/vol/psi
The two terms on the left-hand side indicate the total fluids production in reservoir volumes. The first three terms on the righthand side are, respectively, the total expansion of the hydrocarbon in oil zone, the total expansion of the gas in gas cap, and
the total expansion of the rock and its associated water. The last term is the water influx. Thus, a statement of the MBE which
is simple and easy to remember is: total fluids produced in reservoir volumes equals total expansion of the hydrocarbon in
the oil zone, the gas in the gas cap, and the rock and its associated water, plus the water influx in oil zone.
can be as low as
vol/vol/psi and higher than
like the rock compressibility. It normally ranges between
To illustrate the meaning of compressibility and the unit vol/ vol/Psi consider two cubic feet of water that are under pressure.
Assume the Pressure is decreased by 10 Psi and the water compressibility is
per psi. Since the pressure decreases
by 10 psi, the two cubic feet of water expands by
and cannot account for the effect of heterogeneities on the behavior of the reservoir. When any of these factors is
significant, reservoir simulation is required to predict precisely the behavior of the reservoir.
where:
the total gas in the oil zone at time t in scf,
the original gas in the oil zone, scf, and
the total gas produced at time t, scf.
The gas in solution in scf =
has two components: the gas in solution in the oil and the free gas in the oil zone.
The free gas volume in the oil at time t, (scf) is equal to:
[the oil zone volume occupied by the initial oil - the volume of oil at time t - the decrease in the oil zone volume
due to the expansion of the gas cap gas and the oil zone rock plus its associated water, and due to the net water
influx]
Note that all the terms between the brackets are in reservoir barrels.
The oil zone volume occupied by the initial oil
Thus:
However,
, since
9.- Exercise
Exercise No. 1
What is the basic difference between the hydrocarbon in place on one hand, and reserves and rate on the other?
Hydrocarbon in place is an invariant quantity, while reserves and rate are variable.
Exercise No. 2
State the two methods for determining the hydrocarbon in place. What is the fundamental difference between the
two methods?
Hydrocarbon in place is determined by either volumetric or by MBE calculations. The volumetric method is
static, while the MBE is dynamic, since it utilizes production data and the response of the reservoir.
Exercise No. 3
What two reservoir engineering models are normally used to predict reservoir performance?
The unit cell (tank model) and the reservoir simulator (multiple cells model) are used to predict reservoir
performance.
Exercise No. 6
How does a reservoir simulator resemble the tank-type model? How does it differ from it?
Both the reservoir simulator and the tank-type model use the material balance equation. However, in reservoir
simulators, hydrocarbon crosses the boundaries of the tank units, while in the one-tank-unit model the
boundaries are closed. Therefore, in the reservoir simulator the MBE contains additional terms to account for the
interactions among the cells.
Exercise No. 8
Why is it important to obtain accurate pressure values on wells? What is the difference between the pressure
value required by the tank-type model and the values required by the simulator?
The pressure value is an element in all reservoir engineering calculations. The pressure value required by the
tank-type model is the average pressure for the reservoir, while that for simulators represents the average value
in the drainage area of the well.
Exercise No. 9
Identify the various expansion terms in the MBE and their sources.
The expansion of oil, the expansion of the gas cap, and the expansion of the rock plus its associated water.
Exercise No. 15
Data Sources
>Reservoir data relates to the type and extent of the reservoir rock, the reservoir fluids and their
properties, and the reservoirs production performance history including pressure performance.
>>Geological information of importance to the reservoir engineer includes the reservoir aerial
extent and its closure, that is, the height of the crest above the lowest contour that completely
closes the reservoir, also any flow barriers such as pinch-outs, faults, and fluid contacts. Knowing
the size of the aquifer is also useful along with a sense of lithology variations and the continuity of
the reservoir in the vertical and horizontal directions. Well logs provide the subsurface data
needed to construct structure and contour maps to show reservoir extent and thickness, giving us
an idea of the bulk volume of the reservoir. They also provide the measurements necessary to
calculate porosity and fluid saturations.
>While well tests can provide estimates of permeability and reservoir continuity, more precise
measurements of rock properties can often be obtained from analyses of cores retrieved from
individual wells.
>>A second type of reservoir data concerns the properties of the reservoir fluids and how they
react to changes in pressure and temperature. For volumetric calculation of hydrocarbon in place,
a value for the oil formation volume factor is required in order to relate hydrocarbon fluid volumes
in the reservoir to volumes at the surface.
Material balance calculations require knowledge of oil and gas properties over a range of pressures
obtained from a laboratory analysis performed on a carefully obtained representative sample of
original reservoir fluid. Where sampling is impossible, empirical correlations are available to
estimate oil, gas, and water properties.
>Careful measurements of the volumes of oil, gas, and water produced from a reservoir over time
along with carefully measured subsurface pressures are essential for an accurate material balance
calculation of hydrocarbon in place. This data can also be analyzed to give an indication of the
type of reservoir drive mechanism operating in the reservoir and to determine the need for
pressure maintenance.
measuring device. We assume that as fluids are produced the reservoir temperature is kept
constant by heat from the cap or base rocks, which are considered as heat sources of infinite
capacity. A value for average reservoir temperature is needed for laboratory analyses of reservoir
fluids that are made at reservoir conditions.
Introduction
>In oil reservoirs solutiongas drive takes place when
the reservoir pressure dropsbelow the bubble point of
the reservoir fluid and gasis liberated from the oil.
The expanding volume ofliberated gas helps to push
fluids from the reservoir.
>>When an oil accumulationhas a free gas cap, gas cap
drive can occur as thereservoir pressure drops and
the gas cap expands, drivingoil to the producing wells.
>A natural water-drivemechanism relies on the
influx of expanding water tosustain reservoir pressure
and drive the oil and gasinto the producing wells.
>>A fifth drive mechanism,gravity drainage, involves
the rearrangement offluid distributions in the
reservoir due todensity differences.
Gas tends to migrate upwardforcing a countercurrent of
Gas Reservoirs
>Dry gas reservoirs arefairly simple in the sense
that their initial gas inplace may be calculated
using a gas-material balanceas long as water influx and
raw compressibilityare accounted for when
necessary.
>>The material balanceequation for a gas reservoir
with no water influx can beexpressed as G sub p times B
sub g equals G times thequantity B sub g minus
B sub gi.
That is, the gas producedexpressed in reservoir
volumes is equivalent to theexpansion of the gas in place.
B sub g, the gas formationvolume factor, is the volume
which one standard cubicfoot of gas occupies in the
reservoir and may beexpressed in terms of the
gas equation of state.
Water Drive
>When we speak of a waterdrive reservoir we mean
natural water influx as opposedto artificial water injection.
Water moves into thereservoir from the aquifer
in response to a pressuredrop, which causes the water
and the rock in theaquifer to expand.
If the aquifer is small one,may safely assume that the
pressure drop isinstantaneously transmitted
throughout the reservoir.
Cumulative water influx willthen be equal to the product
of the volume of waterin the aquifer, the total
compressibility, water androck, and the pressure drop.
>>For example, if the totalcompressibility is 10 times
10 to the minus 6 for psiaand the aquifer volume is
10 to the ninth reservoirbarrels, assuming a pressure
drop of 1,000 psi, the waterinflux will equal 10 to the
seventh reservoir barrels.
This water influx amounts toonly about one hundredth of
the original oil volumeassuming the reservoir is
equal in sizeto the aquifer.
We see that unless theaquifer is very large
compared to the oil volume,the effect of water influx
on recovery isnot significant.
>However, when the aquiferis large the assumption that
the pressure drop isinstantaneously transmitted
throughout thereservoir is not valid.
There is a time lag betweenthe pressure change at the
oil-water boundary and when itis felt throughout the aquifer.
This means that water influxis a function of time and
pressure and our equationis thus not adequate for
calculating W sub e.
Gravity Drainage
>Gravity drainage ismost effective in thick
Examen
1 Which of the following statements is NOT true?
(D) Waterflooding is considered an enhanced oil recovery method.
Gas Reservoirs
Gas reservoirs are hydrocarbon reservoirs that contain dry gas (i.e., the methane mole fraction is greater than 95%).
Behavior of these reservoirs is governed by the gas equation of state and the material balance equation. Three quantities
pressure, volume, and temperaturedefine the state of a gas. As we mentioned, in most hydrocarbon reservoirs the
temperature is considered to be constant.
where:
pressure, psia
volume,
number of pound-moles
gas constant = 10.732
temperature,
weight, lb
z-Factor Correlations:
The z factor may be obtained from correlations given in Katz 1959 and Standing and Katz 1942. The correlations give z as a
function of pseudoreduced temperature and pressure
These quantities are defined by
and
where
and
are the pseudocritical pressure and temperature for the hydrocarbon system. (The critical temperatureis the
temperature at which the meniscus that separates the liquid and vapor phases of a fluid disappears. The vapor pressure at
this critical temperature is called the critical pressure. Above the critical temperature, there is no reason to draw any
distinction between liquid and vapor, since there is a complete continuity of states.)
The preferred way to obtain
and is by calculating them from a gas compositional analysis, i.e.,
(20)
(21)
where:
mole fraction of component i
critical pressure of component i
critical temperature of component i
The sum is taken over all the components.
Table 1.
and
are listed in Katz et al. (1959) and Standing (1952) and are given in
Component
Methane
668
343
Ethane
708
550
Propane
616
666
Isobutane
529
735
Normal Butane
551
765
Isopentane
490
829
Normal Pentane
489
845
Normal Hexane
437
913
Normal Heptane
397
972
Normal Octane
361
1024
Normal Nonane
j32
1070
Normal Decane
304
1112
Carbon Dioxide
1071
548
Hydrogen Sulfide
1306
672
Nitrogen
493
227
Equations 20 and 21 require knowledge of the gas composition. If this is not available one may use correlations given in Katz
1959. These give
and values as functions of gas gravity.
where:
cumulative gas produced, SCF
original gas in place, SCF,
original gas in place, SCF,
taken at the original pressure
is calculated by
(23)
where
is the reservoir temperature in R, and standard conditions are taken at 14.7 psi (101 kPa) and 60 F (289 K).
Substituting for
in Equation 22 and simplifying gives
(24)
FIGURE 1
The p/z plot is used in the petroleum industry to predict gas recovery versus pressure, and initial gas in place. It is evident
that some pressure and production data are required to establish a straight line. The more data that becomes available, the
better the definition of the straight line, and the more accurate the prediction. One must always remember that we are usually
dealing with field data where inaccuracies are present, and where scatter occurs. Therefore, any p/z plot should be routinely
updated as pressure and production data allow.
Effect of Water Influx If water influx is present, Equation 22 becomes
(25)
where
Since
is a function of pressure and time (i.e., it is not constant), and
is a function of pressure, a plot of
versus p/z
will not give a straight line. However, at early time We is normally small, and, because of this, the plotted points may appear
to fall on a straight line. Such a straight line will have a relatively flat slope, and its extrapolation to p/z = 0 will give an
erroneously high value for G. Later tine production data will not continue on a straight line trend. Rather, they will curve with a
slope as shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2
Recovery Factors
Gas recovery by pressure depletion usually is the most efficient means of producing gas reservoirs and results in a maximum
recovery. Recovery can easily be calculated by Equation 24, and requires an estimate of the level of abandonment pressure.
This recovery can also be approximated by
When water influx is present, recovery is adversely affected because of the tendency for the encroaching water to trap
portions of the gas in the reservoir, perhaps 15 to 50% or more. This trapped gas is unrecoverable. In addition,
heterogeneities and stratification may cause the encroaching water to bypass a por tion of the reservoir and prematurely
"water out"the producing wells. Generally speaking, when water influx is present, reservoir and production engineers may try
to "outrun" the water by producing the gas at a high rate. This tends to maxi mize the effect of the expansion part of the
recovery mechanism, before the water can move into the gas-saturated portion of the reservoir. The success of such a
technique depends to a large extent on the permeability characteristics and geometry of the reservoir rock, the reservoir
aquifer sys tem, and the location of the producing wells. Other strategies for handling water influx, as outlined by the Gas
Research Institute in its publication Managing Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs (1993) include
continuing to produce watered-out wells in order to lower reservoir pressure and thus remobilize trapped
gas,
selectively recompleting wells with multiple horizons,
drilling additional wells to avoid bypassing reserves,
increasing off-season takes to maximize the net present value of reserves.
p/z Behavior
In applying the MBE to gas reservoirs with no water influx, it is normally assumed that the rock and its associated water
expansion is insignificant compared to that of the gas expansion and is normally ignored. This assumption underlies the
linear p/z versus cumulative production plot. In the case of abnormally pressured gas reservoirs, the compressibility of the
rock cannot be ignored. It acts to maintain the pressure at a relatively high value. Thus a plot of p/z versus cumulative gas
production for these reservoirs will show two distinct slopes (Perez and Robinson 1976). The early slope exists during the
period of abnormally high pressure (because of gas expansion, as well as pressure maintenance resulting from formation
compaction, crystal expansion and water expansion), and the later one characterizes the reservoir when the pressure
reaches the normal value (Figure 3).
FIGURE 3
Extrapolation of the early slope to obtain initial gas in place will result in an optimistic value. In this sense it is similar to the
p/z plot when water influx is present, as discussed earlier. If the second straight line is adequately defined it may be
extrapolated to obtain an estimate of the initial gas in place. If only the first slope is defined the engineer is advised against
using the p/z technique for determining gas in place: instead, the MBE with compressibility terms should be used.
Equation 27 should be used to calculate the initial gas in place, in place of the normal p/z versus
pressured reservoirs.
Element
Crude Oil
Asphalt
Natural Gas
(% Weight)
(% Weight)
(% Weight)
Carbon
82.2 - 87.1
80 - 85
65 - 80
Hydrogen
11.7 - 14.7
8.5 - 11
1 - 25
Sulfur
0.1 - 5.5
2-8
trace - 0.2
Nitrogen
0.1 - 1.5
0-2
1 - 15
Oxygen
0.1 - 4.5
------
------
Sulfur and nitrogen are both undesirable elements within petroleum. Sulfur is most abundant in the heavier crude
oils and in asphalt. It can also occur in natural gas mixtures such as the poisonous corrosive gas H 2S. Such
natural gas is called sour gas (as opposed to sweet gas, where H2S is low or absent) . Nitrogen content is
generally higher in both asphalts and natural gas, when compared to crudes. In asphalt, it occurs mostly in high
molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds called NSO compounds because they contain impurities of nitrogen,
sulfur and oxygen. In natural gas mixtures nitrogen occurs mostly as the inactive gas N 2 which lowers the
heating capacity (BTU) of the natural gas. Other compounds may also occur in natural gas mixtures, including
CO2 and the inert gases.
Although the elemental composition of hydrocarbons is relatively simple, there are a vast number of ways in
which the atoms can be arranged. Compounds with similar physical and chemical properties be grouped into
hydrocarbon series, of which four are particularly important in petroleum chemistry the paraffins, naphthenes,
aromatics, and resins and asphaltenes ( Figure 1 ).
Paraffins occur as chain-like structures with the general formula C nH2n+2 The carbon number, "n", ranges from
one in the hydrocarbon gas methane (CH 4), the simplest member of the paraffin series, to over 40. A natural gas
composed of nearly pure methane is called dry gas. Other lightweight paraffins, with carbon numbers up to 5,
are also gaseous at normal temperatures and pressures. A natural gas that contains these other heavier paraffin
gases along with methane is called wet gas. Paraffins with carbon numbers higher than 5 are normally liquid.
High molecular weight paraffins become viscous, waxy solids.
Naphthenes form as closed ring structures with the basic formula C nH2n. Compounds of the naphthene series
have chemical and physical properties similar to equivalent paraffins with the same carbon number. Together
with the paraffins, naphthenes form the major components of most crude oils.
The aromatics are the third group and have a structure based on a hexagonal ring of carbons, with alternate
simple and double bonds. This basic unit is called the benzene ring, after the simplest and most abundant
aromatic compound, benzene. Other aromatic compounds are made by substituting paraffinic chains or
naphthenic rings at some of the hydrogen sites, or by fusing several benzene rings together.
The fourth group, the resins and asphaltenes, are also composed of fused benzene-ring networks, but they
contain other atoms and are not true hydrocarbons. These "impurities" are the high molecular weight NSO
compounds. Resins and asphaltenes are the heaviest components of crude oil and the major components in many
natural tars and asphalts.
Figure 1
Most normal crude oils fall within only three of these fields. They can be either: (1) rich in paraffins (paraffinic
oil); (2) they can have nearly equal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes which together make up more than 50%
of the crude (paraffinic-naphthenic oil); or (3) they can have subequal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes,
which total less than 50%, and the composition is dominated by the aromatics, resins and asphaltenes (aromatic
intermediate oil).
Oil may degrade into heavy oil and tar as a result of bacterial action and of flushing by fresh meteoric waters of
surface origin. This oil falls into one of two classes (aromatic-asphaltic or aromatic-naphthenic), both of which
are enriched in aromatics. Some may contain naphthenes (aromatic-naphthenic oil) but the paraffin content is
always very low. Deep burial, however, usually has the opposite effect in altering crude oil. It tends to make an
oil less dense and more paraffinic, through processes involving both thermal maturation and the precipitation and
removal of asphaltic molecules.
The chemistry of petroleum determines the types and amounts of refined hydrocarbons produced. Figure 2 shows
a generalized correlation between the hydrocarbon components of petroleum, its density, and the commercial
products resulting from the refining process.
Figure 2
There are several measures of the weight or density of crude oil commonly used, two of which, relative density
and API degrees, are shown in Figure 2 . Natural gas and lightweight oil yield mostly fuels. Gasoline consists
mostly of medium weight hydrocarbons with carbon numbers ranging from 7 to 12. These can occur either
naturally or be cracked from higher weight molecules. Cracking is the process in which carbon-to-carbon bonds
are broken down by heat, into simpler, lighter weight hydrocarbons. Other high weight compounds, with carbon
numbers greater than 15, are refined as lubricants, waxes and asphalts.
Type I kerogen is derived mostly from the remains of algae, and when it matures it yields mainly crude oil. It is
also capable of generating the most petroleum of all the kerogen types. Type II kerogen consists mostly of
amorphous material, derived from the bacterial and mechanical breakdown of a mixture of marine, one-celled
plants and animals. This kerogen is also oil-prone but yields more natural gas than Type I. Type III kerogen,
derived from the higher land plants, is sometimes known as coaly kerogen. The humic material in Type III
kerogen has a low capacity to form oil and yields mostly natural gas. Type IV kerogen consists mostly of inert
particles that have been highly oxidized before burial, like charcoal. It is the rarest kerogen type and has
practically no ability to generate either oil or gas.
The chemistry of crude oil can also be linked to kerogen type and original organic matter. Usually landderived, non-marine organic matter deposited near continental drainage areas (Type III coaly kerogen)
will form mostly gas, but any oil formed will be low sulfur, paraffinic to paraffinic-naphthenic crude oils.
Marine organic matter, particularly protein-rich types derived from marine animals (Type II mixed
marine kerogen) tends to yield high sulfur aromatic-intermediate crude.
The alteration of kerogen to petroleum is similar to other thermal cracking reactions. Large kerogen molecules
decompose upon heating, to yield smaller molecules of petroleum These reactions usually require temperatures
greater than 60 C. At lower temperatures, during early diagenesis, natural gas, (called biogenic methane or
marsh gas) is generated through the action of microorganisms that live near the earth's surface. Vast quantities
of biogenic methane are probably generated, but most of this will not encounter a trap and will be lost to the
atmosphere.
The temperature range between about 60C and 175C is commonly called the oil window ( Figure 1 ). This is
the principle zone of oil formation. It begins at burial depths of 1 to 2 km and ends at depths of 3 to 4 km in most
areas, depending on factors such as the geothermal gradient. The first oil generated is heavy and tends to be
richest in aromatic and NSO compounds. As burial and temperature increases, the oil becomes lighter and more
paraffinic. At temperatures much above 175C, the generation of liquid petroleum ceases and gas formation
becomes dominant. When formation temperatures exceed 225C, most kerogen has used up its petroleumgenerating capacity. Source rocks become overmature. However, some methane can still be created, even at
these very high temperatures, by the breakdown of the larger, heavier molecules of previously generated crude
oil.
Since the conversion of kerogen to petroleum is basically a series of chemical reactions, time must also play a
major role in this process. Young, Tertiary-age rocks must be deeply buried or have high geothermal gradients in
order to generate significant amounts of petroleum. Although generation, migration and entrapment have been
documented in rocks as young as 1.0 to 1.5 million years old, major petroleum accumulations have not been
found in rocks less than 10 million years old (Halbouty et al., 1970). On the other hand, some older Paleozoic
and Mesozoic source rocks may not have been buried very deeply, perhaps only to the uppermost part of the "oil
window", but have still generated petroleum because of the time factor. However, in most petroleum
occurrences, temperature appears to be a more significant factor than time.
The worldwide average geothermal gradient, which measures the increase in the earth's temperature with depth,
is about 26 C/km (14F/1000 ft). Gradients measured in sedimentary basins around the world typically range
from lows of about 18 C/km to highs of 55 C/km.
A low geothermal gradient causes the first formation of oil to begin at fairly deep subsurface levels, but it also
causes the oil window to be quite broad (Figure 1).
In contrast, a high geothermal gradient enhances the early formation of oil at relatively shallow burial depths, but
it causes the depth range of the oil window to be quite narrow. Overall, however, the oil-forming process is more
efficient in young source rocks, where there is a high geothermal gradient and oil can form early at shallow
depths (Klemme, 1975).
The magnitude of a petroleum basin's geothermal gradient is most often directly related to the earth's heat flow;
it will be high where heat flow is high ( Heat Flow = Geothermal Gradient
Thermal Conductivity ).
Consequently, high geothermal gradients are often found in basins that are associated with active deformation,
sea floor spreading and mountain-building (tectonic) processes. Gradients will usually be low in basins
associated with old, stable interiors of the continents, the craton. Gradients will also tend to be low in areas
insulated by cool underlying rocks or thick, rapidly deposited sediments.
Locally, the geothermal gradient will be influenced by the subsurface rocks through which the earth's heat must
pass. The thermal conductivity of rocks, is inversely related to the geothermal gradient ( Heat Flow = Geothermal
Gradient Thermal Conductivity ). It varies both with the rock type or lithology, and the kinds and amounts of
pore-filling fluids. Thus, the geothermal gradient will normally vary vertically through a stratigraphic sequence (
Figure 2 ), and temperature will have a nonlinear relationship to burial depth.
The present-day geothermal gradient may be of less importance to maturation than paleogeothermal conditions,
particularly in areas that have undergone large-scale uplift and erosion. The chemical reactions completed at
higher temperatures are normally not reversible. It is therefore most important to be able to establish the highest
temperature attained at some time in the geological past. Various measurement methods, or
paleothermometers, have been devised to determine the maximum formation temperature of a source rock.
However, abnormally pressured rocks are sometimes encountered in drilling, often unexpectedly. This may
cause serious problems. If the rocks are overpressured (i.e. where a permeability barrier seals pore fluids off
from communication with the surface), the pressure exerted by the drilling mud may not be great enough to hold
back the fluids in the rock. This could cause a well to "blow out". Underpressured rocks are less common.
However, they too can cause problems, when high-pressure drilling muds enter the lower-pressured formation
causing loss of circulation and plugging up of pore spaces. This can lower the mud column in the well to such a
degree that even a normally pressured formation may blow out.
Although abnormally high pressures may be encountered in various sedimentary provinces, they are particularly
prevalent in rocks deposited in delta environments where sedimentation may be too rapid for deep shales to
thoroughly compact and dehydrate. In this case, some of the weight of the overlying sediment, which would
otherwise be taken up by grain-to-grain contacts in normally compacted rocks is taken up by the fluid in the pore
spaces.
One of the most important factors in determining whether an organic-rich rock will become a source rock is its
thermal maturity. However, some potential source rocks have never reached this thermal level. An example is oil
shales like the Green River Shale of the U.S. Rocky Mountain region, where instant maturation can be artificially
induced by heating the rocks to temperatures of about 500 C, a process called pyrolysis.
Tar sands, like the Athabasca tar sands of western Canada, have sometimes been regarded as immature source
rocks. However, the majority opinion is that they were once conventional oil reservoirs, in which the oil became
degraded from flushing by fresh meteoric waters and by bacterial action, these processes having converted
lighter oil into a viscous asphaltic tar.
Preservation of organic matter is usually harder to achieve than its production. On land, with the exception of
some lakes and coal swamps, most organic accumulations are rapidly destroyed through oxidation and
biological activity. More commonly organic matter is preserved in marine environments.
Rapid deposition is one way to avoid the destruction of organic matter and is characteristic of source rocks in
thick, prograding sediment wedges, such as deltas. Rapid deposition, however, leads to dilution of the organic
matter by sediment. Some shale source rocks found in rapidly prograding deltas have organic contents of only
1%. Shale usually requires a higher organic content than this to be an adequate source rock. However, deltas
often have excellent source/reservoir rock geometries, and structures are developed early in response to the
sediment load. In such cases, migration and accumulation of petroleum is probably more efficient than usual,
and even organic-poor shales make adequate source rocks.
In most cases, however, marine shales with organic contents high enough to be petroleum source rocks are
slowly deposited, under oxygen-free conditions that prevent organic destruction. This occurs most commonly in
restricted marine environments, where a basin is silled or otherwise prevented from easy communication with
the open ocean.
Exercise No. 1
When commercially important natural gas is found, its generation can usually be related to either one of two
factors. What are they?
The natural gas is either generated from land-derived organic matter, rich in debris of higher land plants (Type
III or coaly kerogen); or it is deeply buried and thermally generated (at temperatures generally exceeding
175C).
Exercise No. 2
As a general rule, how does the chemistry and density of deeply buried and/or old oil differ from that of young,
shallow oil?
Old or deeply buried oil is lighter and richer in paraffin hydrocarbons. Young or shallowly buried oil is heavy
and is the richest in aromatic and NSO-compounds.
Exercise No. 3
List three of the four common rock types that can be source rocks for petroleum.
1. shale,
2. marl,
3. carbonate,
4. coal.
Hydrocarbon Chemistry
Although hydrocarbon compounds
consist only of the two elements hydrogen and carbon,
there are a vast number of ways
in which the atoms can be arranged.
Hydrocarbon compounds can be grouped into series,
of which four are particularly important in petroleum:
the paraffins, naphthenes,
aromatics, and resins and asphaltenes.
Paraffins are usually one of the most abundant groups present
in natural gas and crude oil.
They form simple, chain-like structures
with the general formula C(n)H(2n+2).
In paraffins, n, which we call the carbon number,
can range to over 40.
Kerogen Types
Under the microscope,
kerogen appears as organic fragments
that belong to different biological groups.
Consequently, their chemical compositions also vary,
and they will yield differing types and amounts
of petroleum hydrocarbons.
Type I kerogen is derived mostly from the remains of algae,
either in marine environments or lakes.
When it matures, it yields mostly crude oil.
Type II Kerogen consists mostly of amorphous particles
derived from the bacterial and mechanical breakdown
of a mixture of marine one-celled plants and animals.
This kerogen is also oil prone,
but yields more natural gas than type I.
Type III kerogen is derived from the higher land plants,
the same types that form coals in swamps.
Coaly kerogen yields mostly natural gas
and has a rather low capacity to form oil.
Type IV kerogen consists mostly of inert particles
that have been highly oxidized, like charcoal.
It's extremely rare
and has practically no ability to generate either oil or gas.
Subsurface Pressure
The total overburden pressure
exerted at any point in a subsurface
is the sum of two forces:
the lithostatic pressure, or weight of the overlying rock,
and the fluid or pore pressure.
Normally, fluid pressure is the same as hydrostatic pressure
caused only by the weight of the overlying column of fluid.
This results from pore-to-pore communication
extending up to the Earth's surface.
The normal hydrostatic pressure gradients for a column of brine
is about .465 psi per foot
or .107 kilograms per centimeter squared per meter.
Both lithostatic and fluid pressure increase with depth,
so the total overburden pressure also rises as burial increases.
However, in a normally pressured well,
the fluid pressure is always slightly less
and the lithostatic pressure slightly more than half
of the total overburden pressure found at any depth.
This pattern doesn't hold for abnormally pressured rocks,
which can be either underpressured,
if fluid pressures drop below normal,
or can be overpressured,
as fluid pressure exceeds lithostatic pressure,
which is more common.
Overpressuring can develop
whenever a permeability barrier or seal prevents water
from being in communication with the surface.
There are actually many ways to get overpressuring,
but one of the most common ways, prevalent in deltas,
is where sedimentation is too fast for deep shales
to thoroughly compact and dewater.
In this case, some of the weight of the overlying sediment,
which is taken up by grain-to-grain contacts
in normally compacted rocks,
is taken up by the fluid in the pore spaces.
Examen
1 Which of the following are undesirable elements commonly found petroleum?
(A) Carbon and hydrogen
(B) Sulfur and nitrogen
(C) Carbon and oxygen
(D) Sulfur only
(E) Nitrogen only
3 Deep burial tends to make an oil ____ dense and ____ paraffinic.
(A) more; less
(B) less; more
(C) less; less
(D) more; more
4 Gasoline consists mostly of medium weight hydrocarbons with carbon numbers ranging from:
(A) 1 to 5
(B) 3 to 7
(C) 7 to 12
(D) 12 to 23
6 Land-derived, non-marine organic matter deposited near continental drainage areas forms
mostly _____ accumulations.
(A) gas
(B) light oil
(C) heavy oil
7 The alteration process of kerogen into petroleum requires temperatures greater than:
(A) 20 C
(B) 60 C
(C) 100 C
(D) 144 C
8 As depth and burial temperature increase, the oil that is generated tends to become
_______________________.
(A) heavier and richer in aromatic compounds
(B) lighter and more paraffinic
(C) heavier and more paraffinic
(B) 16 C/km
(C) 26 C/km
(D) 36 C/km
10 What types of settings are most likely to be associated with high geothermal gradients?
(A) Basins associated with old, stable interiors of the continents
(B) Basins associated with active deformation, sea floor spreading and mountain-building
(tectonic) processes.
(C) Areas insulated by thick, rapidly deposited sediments.
Subtopic Listing:
to
Complete:
Report Presentation
Reservoir Evaluation: Case Study
Waterflood Screening
Reinterpretation Based on Production History
Waterflood Surveillance and Monitoring
Waterflood Surveillance: Case Studies
Waterflood Surveillance: Emerging Trends
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Screening Guidelines
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Surfactant Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Polymer Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Alkaline Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Carbon Dioxide Flooding
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Thermal Processes
Enhanced Oil Recovery: Project Design
Nomenclature
References
Additional Reading
Exercise No. 1
Exercise No. 2
Exercise No. 3
Exercise No. 4
Exercise No. 5
Exercise No. 6
Exercise No. 7
Exercise No. 8
Exercise No. 9
Exercise No. 10
Exercise No. 11