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Automation
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Automation[1]orautomaticcontrol,istheuseofvariouscontrolsystemsforoperatingequipmentsuchas
machinery,processesinfactories,boilersandheattreatingovens,switchingontelephonenetworks,steeringand
stabilizationofships,aircraftandotherapplicationswithminimalorreducedhumanintervention.Someprocesses
havebeencompletelyautomated.
Thebiggestbenefitofautomationisthatitsaveslaborhowever,itisalsousedtosaveenergyandmaterialsandto
improvequality,accuracyandprecision.
Thetermautomation,inspiredbytheearlierwordautomatic(comingfromautomaton),wasnotwidelyused
before1947,whenFordestablishedanautomationdepartment.[1]Itwasduringthistimethatindustrywasrapidly
adoptingfeedbackcontrollers,whichwereintroducedinthe1930s.[2]
Automationhasbeenachievedbyvariousmeansincludingmechanical,hydraulic,pneumatic,electrical,electronic
devicesandcomputers,usuallyincombination.Complicatedsystems,suchasmodernfactories,airplanesand
shipstypicallyuseallthesecombinedtechniques.

Contents
1 TypesofAutomation
1.1 Discretecontrol(on/off)
1.2 Feedbackcontrol
1.3 Openandclosedloop
1.4 Sequentialcontrolandlogicalsequenceorsystemstatecontrol
1.5 Computercontrol
2 History
2.1 Significantapplications
3 Advantagesanddisadvantages
4 Lightsoutmanufacturing
5 Healthandenvironment
6 Convertibilityandturnaroundtime
7 Automationtools
7.1 Limitationstoautomation
7.2 Currentlimitations
7.2.1 ParadoxofAutomation
8 Recentandemergingapplications
8.1 Automatedretail
8.2 Automatedmining
8.3 Automatedvideosurveillance
8.4 Automatedhighwaysystems
8.5 Automatedwastemanagement
8.6 Homeautomation
8.7 Laboratoryautomation
8.8 Industrialautomation
8.8.1 Advantages
8.8.2 Disadvantages
8.8.3 IndustrialRobotics
8.8.4 ProgrammableLogicControllers
8.8.5 Agentassistedautomation
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8.8.5 Agentassistedautomation
9 Relationshiptounemployment
10 Seealso
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks

TypesofAutomation
Discretecontrol(on/off)
Oneofthesimplesttypesofcontrolisonoffcontrol.Anexampleisthethermostatusedonhouseholdappliances
whicheitheropensorclosesanelectricalcontact.(Thermostatswereoriginallydevelopedastruefeedbackcontrol
mechanismsratherthantheonoffcommonhouseholdappliancethermostat.)
Sequencecontrol,inwhichaprogrammedsequenceofdiscreteoperationsisperformed,oftenbasedonsystem
logicthatinvolvessystemstates.Anelevatorcontrolsystemisanexampleofsequencecontrol.

Feedbackcontrol
"AFeedbackControlSystemisasystemwhichtendstomaintainaprescribedrelationshipofonesystemvariable
toanotherbycomparingfunctionsofthesevariablesandusingthedifferenceasameansofcontrol.'"[3]
Theadvancedtypeofautomationthatrevolutionizedmanufacturing,aircraft,communicationsandotherindustries,
isfeedbackcontrol,whichisusuallycontinuousandinvolvestakingmeasurementsusingasensorandmaking
calculatedadjustmentstokeepthemeasuredvariablewithinasetrange.Moreover,itcanbeunderstoodasthe
relationoftwovariables,oneforthe"x"axisandasecondforthe"y"axis.Ifthevalueof"y"increases,thenthe
valueonthe"x"axiswillalsoincrease,andviceversa.[4]

Openandclosedloop
ThedefinitionofaclosedloopcontrolsystemaccordingtoBritishStandardInstitution:"Itdefinesthetermclosed
loopcontrolsystemas'acontrolsystempossessingmonitoringfeedback,thedeviationsignalformedasaresultof
thisfeedbackbeingusedtocontroltheactionofafinalcontrolelementinsuchawayastotendtoreducethe
deviationtozero.'"[5]
Loopcontrolisnormallyaccomplishedwithacontroller.Thetheoreticalbasisofopenandclosedloopautomation
iscontroltheory.

Sequentialcontrolandlogicalsequenceorsystemstatecontrol
Sequentialcontrolmaybeeithertoafixedsequenceortoalogicalonethat
willperformdifferentactionsdependingonvarioussystemstates.An
exampleofanadjustablebutotherwisefixedsequenceisatimeronalawn
sprinkler.

StateAbstraction

Statesrefertothevariousconditionsthatcanoccurinauseorsequence
scenarioofthesystem.Anexampleisanelevator,whichuseslogicbasedon
thesystemstatetoperformcertainactionsinresponsetoitsstateandoperator
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input.Forexample,iftheoperatorpressesthefloornbutton,thesystemwill
responddependingonwhethertheelevatorisstoppedormoving,goingupor
down,orifthedoorisopenorclosed,andotherconditions.[6]
Anearlydevelopmentofsequentialcontrolwasrelaylogic,bywhich
electricalrelaysengageelectricalcontactswhicheitherstartorinterrupt
powertoadevice.Relayswerefirstusedintelegraphnetworksbeforebeing
developedforcontrollingotherdevices,suchaswhenstartingandstopping
industrialsizedelectricmotorsoropeningandclosingsolenoidvalves.Using
relaysforcontrolpurposesallowedeventdrivencontrol,whereactionscould
betriggeredoutofsequence,inresponsetoexternalevents.Theseweremore
flexibleintheirresponsethantherigidsinglesequencecamtimers.More
complicatedexamplesinvolvedmaintainingsafesequencesfordevicessuch
asswingbridgecontrols,wherealockboltneededtobedisengagedbefore
thebridgecouldbemoved,andthelockboltcouldnotbereleaseduntilthe
safetygateshadalreadybeenclosed.

ThisstatediagramshowshowUML
canbeusedfordesigningadoor
systemthatcanonlybeopenedand
closed

Thetotalnumberofrelays,camtimersanddrumsequencerscannumberinto
thehundredsoreventhousandsinsomefactories.Earlyprogramming
techniquesandlanguageswereneededtomakesuchsystemsmanageable,
oneofthefirstbeingladderlogic,wherediagramsoftheinterconnected
relaysresembledtherungsofaladder.Specialcomputerscalled
programmablelogiccontrollerswerelaterdesignedtoreplacethesecollectionsofhardwarewithasingle,more
easilyreprogrammedunit.

Inatypicalhardwiredmotorstartandstopcircuit(calledacontrolcircuit)amotorisstartedbypushinga"Start"
or"Run"buttonthatactivatesapairofelectricalrelays.The"lockin"relaylocksincontactsthatkeepthecontrol
circuitenergizedwhenthepushbuttonisreleased.(Thestartbuttonisanormallyopencontactandthestopbutton
isnormallyclosedcontact.)Anotherrelayenergizesaswitchthatpowersthedevicethatthrowsthemotorstarter
switch(threesetsofcontactsforthreephaseindustrialpower)inthemainpowercircuit.Largemotorsusehigh
voltageandexperiencehighinrushcurrent,makingspeedimportantinmakingandbreakingcontact.Thiscanbe
dangerousforpersonnelandpropertywithmanualswitches.The"lockin"contactsinthestartcircuitandthemain
powercontactsforthemotorareheldengagedbytheirrespectiveelectromagnetsuntila"stop"or"off"buttonis
pressed,whichdeenergizesthelockinrelay.[7]
Commonlyinterlocksareaddedtoacontrolcircuit.Supposethatthemotorintheexampleispoweringmachinery
thathasacriticalneedforlubrication.Inthiscaseaninterlockcouldbeaddedtoinsurethattheoilpumpis
runningbeforethemotorstarts.Timers,limitswitchesandelectriceyesareothercommonelementsincontrol
circuits.
Solenoidvalvesarewidelyusedoncompressedairorhydraulicfluidforpoweringactuatorsonmechanical
components.Whilemotorsareusedtosupplycontinuousrotarymotion,actuatorsaretypicallyabetterchoicefor
intermittentlycreatingalimitedrangeofmovementforamechanicalcomponent,suchasmovingvarious
mechanicalarms,openingorclosingvalves,raisingheavypressrolls,applyingpressuretopresses.

Computercontrol
Computerscanperformbothsequentialcontrolandfeedbackcontrol,andtypicallyasinglecomputerwilldoboth
inanindustrialapplication.Programmablelogiccontrollers(PLCs)areatypeofspecialpurposemicroprocessor
thatreplacedmanyhardwarecomponentssuchastimersanddrumsequencersusedinrelaylogictypesystems.
Generalpurposeprocesscontrolcomputershaveincreasinglyreplacedstandalonecontrollers,withasingle
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computerabletoperformtheoperationsofhundredsofcontrollers.Processcontrolcomputerscanprocessdata
fromanetworkofPLCs,instrumentsandcontrollersinordertoimplementtypical(suchasPID)controlofmany
individualvariablesor,insomecases,toimplementcomplexcontrolalgorithmsusingmultipleinputsand
mathematicalmanipulations.Theycanalsoanalyzedataandcreaterealtimegraphicaldisplaysforoperatorsand
runreportsforoperators,engineersandmanagement.
Controlofanautomatedtellermachine(ATM)isanexampleofaninteractiveprocessinwhichacomputerwill
performalogicderivedresponsetoauserselectionbasedoninformationretrievedfromanetworkeddatabase.
TheATMprocesshassimilaritieswithotheronlinetransactionprocesses.Thedifferentlogicalresponsesare
calledscenarios.Suchprocessesaretypicallydesignedwiththeaidofusecasesandflowcharts,whichguidethe
writingofthesoftwarecode.

History
Theearliestfeedbackcontrolmechanismwasthethermostatinventedin1620bytheDutchscientistCornelius
Drebbel.(Note:Earlythermostatsweretemperatureregulatorsratherthantheonoffmechanismscommonin
householdappliances.)Anothercontrolmechanismwasusedtotentthesailsofwindmills.Itwaspatentedby
EdmundLeein1745.[8]Alsoin1745,JacquesdeVaucansoninventedthefirstautomatedloom.
In1771RichardArkwrightinventedthefirstfullyautomatedspinningmilldrivenbywaterpower,knownatthe
timeasthewaterframe.[9]
Thecentrifugalgovernor,whichwasinventedbyChristianHuygensintheseventeenthcentury,wasusedtoadjust
thegapbetweenmillstones.[10][11][12]Thecentrifugalgovernorwasalsousedintheautomaticflourmilldeveloped
byOliverEvansin1785,makingitthefirstcompletelyautomatedindustrialprocess.Thegovernorwasadoptedby
JamesWattforuseonasteamenginein1788afterWattspartnerBoultonsawoneataflourmillBoulton&Watt
werebuilding.[8]
Thegovernorcouldnotactuallyholdasetspeedtheenginewouldassumeanewconstantspeedinresponseto
loadchanges.Thegovernorwasabletohandlesmallervariationssuchasthosecausedbyfluctuatingheatloadto
theboiler.Also,therewasatendencyforoscillationwhenevertherewasaspeedchange.Asaconsequence,
enginesequippedwiththisgovernorwerenotsuitableforoperationsrequiringconstantspeed,suchascotton
spinning.[8]
Severalimprovementstothegovernor,plusimprovementstovalvecutofftimingonthesteamengine,madethe
enginesuitableformostindustrialusesbeforetheendofthe19thcentury.Advancesinthesteamenginestayed
wellaheadofscience,boththermodynamicsandcontroltheory.[8]
ThegovernorreceivedrelativelylittlescientificattentionuntilJamesClerkMaxwellpublishedapaperthat
establishedthebeginningofatheoreticalbasisforunderstandingcontroltheory.Developmentoftheelectronic
amplifierduringthe1920s,whichwasimportantforlongdistancetelephony,requiredahighersignaltonoise
ratio,whichwassolvedbynegativefeedbacknoisecancellation.Thisandothertelephonyapplicationscontributed
tocontroltheory.MilitaryapplicationsduringtheSecondWorldWarthatcontributedtoandbenefitedfromcontrol
theorywerefirecontrolsystemsandaircraftcontrols.Theword"automation"itselfwascoinedinthe1940sby
GeneralElectric.[13]Thesocalledclassicaltheoreticaltreatmentofcontroltheorydatestothe1940sand1950s.[4]
Relaylogicwasintroducedwithfactoryelectrification,whichunderwentrapidadaptionfrom1900thoughthe
1920s.Centralelectricpowerstationswerealsoundergoingrapidgrowthandoperationofnewhighpressure
boilers,steamturbinesandelectricalsubstationscreatedalargedemandforinstrumentsandcontrols.
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Centralcontrolroomsbecamecommoninthe1920s,butaslateastheearly1930s,mostprocesscontrolwason
off.Operatorstypicallymonitoredchartsdrawnbyrecordersthatplotteddatafrominstruments.Tomake
corrections,operatorsmanuallyopenedorclosedvalvesorturnedswitchesonoroff.Controlroomsalsoused
colorcodedlightstosendsignalstoworkersintheplanttomanuallymakecertainchanges.[14]
Controllers,whichwereabletomakecalculatedchangesinresponsetodeviationsfromasetpointratherthanon
offcontrol,beganbeingintroducedthe1930s.Controllersallowedmanufacturingtocontinueshowing
productivitygainstooffsetthedeclininginfluenceoffactoryelectrification.[15]
Factoryproductivitywasgreatlyincreasedbyelectrificationinthe1920s.Manufacturingproductivitygrowthfell
from5.2%/yr191929to2.76%/yr192941.Fieldnotesthatspendingonnonmedicalinstrumentsincreased
significantlyfrom192933andremainedstrongthereafter.
In1959TexacosPortArthurrefinerybecamethefirstchemicalplanttousedigitalcontrol.[16]Conversionof
factoriestodigitalcontrolbegantospreadrapidlyinthe1970sasthepriceofcomputerhardwarefell.

Significantapplications
Theautomatictelephoneswitchboardwasintroducedin1892alongwithdialtelephones.[17]By1929,31.9%of
theBellsystemwasautomatic.Automatictelephoneswitchingoriginallyusedvacuumtubeamplifiersandelectro
mechanicalswitches,whichconsumedalargeamountofelectricity.Callvolumeeventuallygrewsofastthatit
wasfearedthetelephonesystemwouldconsumeallelectricityproduction,promptingBellLabstobeginresearch
onthetransistor.[18]
Thelogicperformedbytelephoneswitchingrelayswastheinspirationforthedigitalcomputer.
Thefirstcommerciallysuccessfulglassbottleblowingmachinewasanautomaticmodelintroducedin1905.[19]
Themachine,operatedbyatwomancrewworking12hourshifts,couldproduce17,280bottlesin24hours,
comparedto2,880bottlesmadebyacrewofsixmenandboysworkinginashopforaday.Thecostofmaking
bottlesbymachinewas10to12centspergrosscomparedto$1.80pergrossbythemanualglassblowersand
helpers.
Sectionalelectricdrivesweredevelopedusingcontroltheory.Sectionalelectricdrivesareusedondifferent
sectionsofamachinewhereaprecisedifferentialmustbemaintainedbetweenthesections.Insteelrolling,the
metalelongatesasitpassesthroughpairsofrollers,whichmustrunatsuccessivelyfasterspeeds.Inpapermaking
thepapersheetshrinksasitpassesaroundsteamheateddryingarrangedingroups,whichmustrunatsuccessively
slowerspeeds.Thefirstapplicationofasectionalelectricdrivewasonapapermachinein1919.[20]Oneofthe
mostimportantdevelopmentsinthesteelindustryduringthe20thcenturywascontinuouswidestriprolling,
developedbyArmcoin1928.[21]
Beforeautomationmanychemicalsweremadeinbatches.In1930,withthewidespreaduseofinstrumentsandthe
emerginguseofcontrollers,thefounderofDowChemicalCo.wasadvocatingcontinuousproduction.[22]
Selfactingmachinetoolsthatdisplacedhanddexteritysotheycouldbeoperatedbyboysandunskilledlaborers
weredevelopedbyJamesNasmythinthe1840s.[23]MachinetoolswereautomatedwithNumericalcontrol(NC)
usingpunchedpapertapeinthe1950s.Thissoonevolvedintocomputerizednumericalcontrol(CNC).
Todayextensiveautomationispracticedinpracticallyeverytypeofmanufacturingandassemblyprocess.Someof
thelargerprocessesincludeelectricalpowergeneration,oilrefining,chemicals,steelmills,plastics,cementplants,
fertilizerplants,pulpandpapermills,automobileandtruckassembly,aircraftproduction,glassmanufacturing,
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naturalgasseparationplants,foodandbeverageprocessing,canningandbottlingandmanufactureofvariouskinds
ofparts.Robotsareespeciallyusefulinhazardousapplicationslikeautomobilespraypainting.Robotsarealso
usedtoassembleelectroniccircuitboards.Automotiveweldingisdonewithrobotsandautomaticweldersareused
inapplicationslikepipelines.

Advantagesanddisadvantages
Themainadvantagesofautomationare:
Increasedthroughputorproductivity.
Improvedqualityorincreasedpredictabilityofquality.
Improvedrobustness(consistency),ofprocessesorproduct.
Increasedconsistencyofoutput.
Reduceddirecthumanlaborcostsandexpenses.
Thefollowingmethodsareoftenemployedtoimproveproductivity,quality,orrobustness.
Installautomationinoperationstoreducecycletime.
Installautomationwhereahighdegreeofaccuracyisrequired.
Replacinghumanoperatorsintasksthatinvolvehardphysicalormonotonouswork.[24]
Replacinghumansintasksdoneindangerousenvironments(i.e.fire,space,volcanoes,nuclearfacilities,
underwater,etc.)
Performingtasksthatarebeyondhumancapabilitiesofsize,weight,speed,endurance,etc.
Reducesoperationtimeandworkhandlingtimesignificantly.
Freesupworkerstotakeonotherroles.
Provideshigherleveljobsinthedevelopment,deployment,maintenanceandrunningoftheautomated
processes.
Themaindisadvantagesofautomationare:
SecurityThreats/Vulnerability:Anautomatedsystemmayhavealimitedlevelofintelligence,andis
thereforemoresusceptibletocommittingerrorsoutsideofitsimmediatescopeofknowledge(e.g.,itis
typicallyunabletoapplytherulesofsimplelogictogeneralpropositions).
Unpredictable/excessivedevelopmentcosts:Theresearchanddevelopmentcostofautomatingaprocess
mayexceedthecostsavedbytheautomationitself.
Highinitialcost:Theautomationofanewproductorplanttypicallyrequiresaverylargeinitialinvestment
incomparisonwiththeunitcostoftheproduct,althoughthecostofautomationmaybespreadamongmany
productsandovertime.
Inmanufacturing,thepurposeofautomationhasshiftedtoissuesbroaderthanproductivity,cost,andtime.

Lightsoutmanufacturing
Lightsoutmanufacturingiswhenaproductionsystemis100%ornearto100%automated(nothiringany
workers).Inordertoeliminatetheneedforlaborcostsaltogether.

Healthandenvironment
Thecostsofautomationtotheenvironmentaredifferentdependingonthetechnology,productorengine
automated.ThereareautomatedenginesthatconsumemoreenergyresourcesfromtheEarthincomparisonwith
previousenginesandthosethatdotheoppositetoo.Hazardousoperations,suchasoilrefining,themanufacturing
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ofindustrialchemicals,andallformsofmetalworking,werealwaysearlycontendersforautomation.

Convertibilityandturnaroundtime
Anothermajorshiftinautomationistheincreaseddemandforflexibilityandconvertibilityinmanufacturing
processes.ManufacturersareincreasinglydemandingtheabilitytoeasilyswitchfrommanufacturingProductAto
manufacturingProductBwithouthavingtocompletelyrebuildtheproductionlines.Flexibilityanddistributed
processeshaveledtotheintroductionofAutomatedGuidedVehicleswithNaturalFeaturesNavigation.
Digitalelectronicshelpedtoo.Formeranaloguebasedinstrumentationwasreplacedbydigitalequivalentswhich
canbemoreaccurateandflexible,andoffergreaterscopeformoresophisticatedconfiguration,parametrization
andoperation.Thiswasaccompaniedbythefieldbusrevolutionwhichprovidedanetworked(i.e.asinglecable)
meansofcommunicatingbetweencontrolsystemsandfieldlevelinstrumentation,eliminatinghardwiring.
Discretemanufacturingplantsadoptedthesetechnologiesfast.Themoreconservativeprocessindustrieswiththeir
longerplantlifecycleshavebeenslowertoadoptandanaloguebasedmeasurementandcontrolstilldominates.
ThegrowinguseofIndustrialEthernetonthefactoryfloorispushingthesetrendsstillfurther,enabling
manufacturingplantstobeintegratedmoretightlywithintheenterprise,viatheinternetifnecessary.Global
competitionhasalsoincreaseddemandforReconfigurableManufacturingSystems.

Automationtools
Engineerscannowhavenumericalcontroloverautomateddevices.Theresulthasbeenarapidlyexpandingrange
ofapplicationsandhumanactivities.Computeraidedtechnologies(orCAx)nowserveasthebasisfor
mathematicalandorganizationaltoolsusedtocreatecomplexsystems.NotableexamplesofCAxinclude
Computeraideddesign(CADsoftware)andComputeraidedmanufacturing(CAMsoftware).Theimproved
design,analysis,andmanufactureofproductsenabledbyCAxhasbeenbeneficialforindustry.[25]
Informationtechnology,togetherwithindustrialmachineryandprocesses,canassistinthedesign,
implementation,andmonitoringofcontrolsystems.Oneexampleofanindustrialcontrolsystemisa
programmablelogiccontroller(PLC).PLCsarespecializedhardenedcomputerswhicharefrequentlyusedto
synchronizetheflowofinputsfrom(physical)sensorsandeventswiththeflowofoutputstoactuatorsand
events.[26]
Humanmachineinterfaces(HMI)orcomputerhumaninterfaces(CHI),formerlyknownasmanmachine
interfaces,areusuallyemployedtocommunicatewithPLCsandothercomputers.Servicepersonnelwhomonitor
andcontrolthroughHMIscanbecalledbydifferentnames.Inindustrialprocessandmanufacturingenvironments,
theyarecalledoperatorsorsomethingsimilar.Inboilerhousesandcentralutilitiesdepartmentstheyarecalled
stationaryengineers.[27]
Differenttypesofautomationtoolsexist:
ANNArtificialneuralnetwork
DCSDistributedControlSystem
HMIHumanMachineInterface
SCADASupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition
PLCProgrammableLogicController
Instrumentation
Motioncontrol
Robotics
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WhenitcomestoFactoryAutomation,HostSimulationSoftware(HSS)is
acommonlyusedtestingtoolthatisusedtotesttheequipmentsoftware.
HSSisusedtotestequipmentperformancewithrespecttoFactory
Automationstandards(timeouts,responsetime,processingtime).[28]

Limitationstoautomation
Currenttechnologyisunabletoautomateallthedesiredtasks.
Manyoperationsusingautomationhavelargeamountsofinvested
capitalandproducehighvolumesofproduct,makingmalfunctions
extremelycostlyandpotentiallyhazardous.Therefore,some
personnelareneededtoinsurethattheentiresystemfunctions
properlyandthatsafetyandproductqualityaremaintained.
Asaprocessbecomesincreasinglyautomated,thereislessandless
labortobesavedorqualityimprovementtobegained.Thisisan
exampleofbothdiminishingreturnsandthelogisticfunction.
Asmoreandmoreprocessesbecomeautomated,therearefewer
remainingnonautomatedprocesses.Thisisanexampleof
exhaustionofopportunities.Newtechnologicalparadigmsmay
howeversetnewlimitsthatsurpassthepreviouslimits.

Anautomatedonlineassistantona
website,withanavatarforenhanced
humancomputerinteraction.

Currentlimitations
Manyrolesforhumansinindustrialprocessespresentlyliebeyondthescopeofautomation.Humanlevelpattern
recognition,languagecomprehension,andlanguageproductionabilityarewellbeyondthecapabilitiesofmodern
mechanicalandcomputersystems(butseeWatson(computer)).Tasksrequiringsubjectiveassessmentorsynthesis
ofcomplexsensorydata,suchasscentsandsounds,aswellashighleveltaskssuchasstrategicplanning,currently
requirehumanexpertise.Inmanycases,theuseofhumansismorecosteffectivethanmechanicalapproacheseven
whereautomationofindustrialtasksispossible.Overcomingtheseobstaclesisatheorizedpathtopostscarcity
economics.
ParadoxofAutomation
TheParadoxofAutomationsaysthatthemoreefficienttheautomatedsystem,themorecrucialthehuman
contributionoftheoperators.Humansarelessinvolved,buttheirinvolvementbecomesmorecritical.
Ifanautomatedsystemhasanerror,itwillmultiplythaterroruntilitsfixedorshutdown.Thisiswherehuman
operatorscomein.[29]
AfatalexampleofthiswasAirFranceFlight447,whereafailureofautomationputthepilotsintoamanual
situationtheywerenotpreparedfor.[30]

Recentandemergingapplications
Automatedretail
Foodanddrink

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Thefoodretailindustryhasstartedtoapplyautomationtotheordering
processMcDonald'shasintroducedtouchscreenorderingandpayment
systemsinmanyofitsrestaurants,reducingtheneedforasmanycashier
employees.[31]TheUniversityofTexasatAustinhasintroducedfully
automatedcaferetaillocations.[32]SomeCafesandrestaurantshave
utilizedmobileandtablet"apps"tomaketheorderingprocessmore
efficientbycustomersorderingandpayingontheirdevice.[33][34]Some
restaurantshaveautomatedfooddeliverytocustomerstablesusinga
Conveyorbeltsystem.Theuseofrobotsissometimesemployedtoreplace
waitingstaff.[35]

KUKAindustrialrobotsbeingusedat
abakeryforfoodproduction

Stores
ManySupermarketsandevensmallerstoresarerapidlyintroducingSelfcheckoutsystemsreducingtheneedfor
employingcheckoutworkers.
Onlineshoppingcouldbeconsideredaformofautomatedretailasthepaymentandcheckoutarethroughan
automatedOnlinetransactionprocessingsystem.Otherformsofautomationcanalsobeanintegralpartofonline
shopping,forexamplethedeploymentofautomatedwarehouseroboticssuchasthatappliedbyAmazonusing
KivaSystems.

Automatedmining
Involvestheremovalofhumanlaborfromtheminingprocess.[36]Theminingindustryiscurrentlyinthetransition
towardsAutomation.Currentlyitcanstillrequirealargeamountofhumancapital,particularlyinthethirdworld
wherelaborcostsarelowsothereislessincentiveforincreasingefficiencythroughautomation.

Automatedvideosurveillance
TheDefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency(DARPA)startedtheresearchanddevelopmentofautomated
visualsurveillanceandmonitoring(VSAM)program,between1997and1999,andairbornevideosurveillance
(AVS)programs,from1998to2002.Currently,thereisamajoreffortunderwayinthevisioncommunityto
developafullyautomatedtrackingsurveillancesystem.Automatedvideosurveillancemonitorspeopleand
vehiclesinrealtimewithinabusyenvironment.Existingautomatedsurveillancesystemsarebasedonthe
environmenttheyareprimarilydesignedtoobserve,i.e.,indoor,outdoororairborne,theamountofsensorsthat
theautomatedsystemcanhandleandthemobilityofsensor,i.e.,stationarycameravs.mobilecamera.The
purposeofasurveillancesystemistorecordpropertiesandtrajectoriesofobjectsinagivenarea,generate
warningsornotifydesignatedauthorityincaseofoccurrenceofparticularevents.[37]

Automatedhighwaysystems
Asdemandsforsafetyandmobilityhavegrownandtechnologicalpossibilitieshavemultiplied,interestin
automationhasgrown.Seekingtoacceleratethedevelopmentandintroductionoffullyautomatedvehiclesand
highways,theUnitedStatesCongressauthorizedmorethan$650millionoversixyearsforintelligenttransport
systems(ITS)anddemonstrationprojectsinthe1991IntermodalSurfaceTransportationEfficiencyAct(ISTEA).
CongresslegislatedinISTEAthat"theSecretaryofTransportationshalldevelopanautomatedhighwayand
vehicleprototypefromwhichfuturefullyautomatedintelligentvehiclehighwaysystemscanbedeveloped.Such
developmentshallincluderesearchinhumanfactorstoensurethesuccessofthemanmachinerelationship.The

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goalofthisprogramistohavethefirstfullyautomatedhighwayroadwayoranautomatedtesttrackinoperation
by1997.Thissystemshallaccommodateinstallationofequipmentinnewandexistingmotorvehicles."[ISTEA
1991,partB,Section6054(b)].
Fullautomationcommonlydefinedasrequiringnocontrolorverylimitedcontrolbythedriversuchautomation
wouldbeaccomplishedthroughacombinationofsensor,computer,andcommunicationssystemsinvehiclesand
alongtheroadway.Fullyautomateddrivingwould,intheory,allowcloservehiclespacingandhigherspeeds,
whichcouldenhancetrafficcapacityinplaceswhereadditionalroadbuildingisphysicallyimpossible,politically
unacceptable,orprohibitivelyexpensive.Automatedcontrolsalsomightenhanceroadsafetybyreducingthe
opportunityfordrivererror,whichcausesalargeshareofmotorvehiclecrashes.Otherpotentialbenefitsinclude
improvedairquality(asaresultofmoreefficienttrafficflows),increasedfueleconomy,andspinofftechnologies
generatedduringresearchanddevelopmentrelatedtoautomatedhighwaysystems.[38]

Automatedwastemanagement
Automatedwastecollectiontruckspreventtheneedforasmanyworkersas
wellaseasingtheleveloflaborrequiredtoprovidetheservice.[39]

Homeautomation
Homeautomation(alsocalleddomotics)designatesanemergingpracticeof
increasedautomationofhouseholdappliancesandfeaturesinresidential
dwellings,particularlythroughelectronicmeansthatallowforthings
impracticable,overlyexpensiveorsimplynotpossibleinrecentpast
decades.

Automatedsideloaderoperation

Laboratoryautomation
Automationisessentialformanyscientificandclinicalapplications.Therefore,automationhasbeenextensively
employedinlaboratories.Fromasearlyas1980fullyautomatedlaboratorieshavealreadybeenworking.[40]
However,automationhasnotbecomewidespreadinlaboratoriesduetoitshighcost.Thismaychangewiththe
abilityofintegratinglowcostdeviceswithstandardlaboratoryequipment.[41][42]Autosamplersarecommon
devicesusedinlaboratoryautomation.

Industrialautomation
Industrialautomationdealsprimarilywiththeautomationofmanufacturing,qualitycontrolandmaterialhandling
processes.GeneralpurposecontrollersforindustrialprocessesincludeProgrammablelogiccontrollers,standalone
I/Omodules,andcomputers.Industrialautomationistoreplacethedecisionmakingofhumansandmanual
commandresponseactivitieswiththeuseofmechanizedequipmentandlogicalprogrammingcommands.One
trendisincreaseduseofMachinevisiontoprovideautomaticinspectionandrobotguidancefunctions,anotherisa
continuingincreaseintheuseofrobots.Industrialautomationissimplydoneattheindustriallevel.
Energyefficiencyinindustrialprocesseshasbecomeahigherpriority.SemiconductorcompanieslikeInfineon
Technologiesareoffering8bitmicrocontrollerapplicationsforexamplefoundinmotorcontrols,generalpurpose
pumps,fans,andebikestoreduceenergyconsumptionandthusincreaseefficiency.
Advantages
Replaceshardphysicalormonotonouswork[43]
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Tasksinhazardousenvironments,suchasextremetemperatures,oratmospheresthatareradioactiveortoxic
canbedonebymachines
Fasterproductionandcheaperlaborcosts
Automationcanbemaintainedwithsimplequalitychecks.
Canperformtasksbeyondhumancapabilities.
Disadvantages
Asofnow,notalltaskscanbeautomated
Sometasksaremoreexpensivetoautomate
Initialcostsarehigh
Failuretomaintainasystemcouldresultinthelossoftheproduct
IndustrialRobotics
Industrialroboticsisasubbranchintheindustrialautomationthataidsin
variousmanufacturingprocesses.Suchmanufacturingprocessesinclude
machining,welding,painting,assemblingandmaterialhandlingtonamea
few.[44]Industrialrobotsutilizesvariousmechanical,electricalaswellas
softwaresystemstoallowforhighprecision,accuracyandspeedthatfar
exceedsanyhumanperformance.Thebirthofindustrialrobotcameshortly
afterWorldWarIIasUnitedStatessawtheneedforaquickerwayto
produceindustrialandconsumergoods.[45]Servos,digitallogicandsolid
stateelectronicsallowedengineerstobuildbetterandfastersystemsand
overtimethesesystemswereimprovedandrevisedtothepointwherea
singlerobotiscapableofrunning24hoursadaywithlittleorno
maintenance.

Automatedmillingmachines

ProgrammableLogicControllers
Industrialautomationincorporatesprogrammablelogiccontrollersinthemanufacturingprocess.Programmable
logiccontrollers(PLCs)useaprocessingsystemwhichallowsforvariationofcontrolsofinputsandoutputsusing
simpleprogramming.PLCsmakeuseofprogrammablememory,storinginstructionsandfunctionslikelogic,
sequencing,timing,counting,etc.Usingalogicbasedlanguage,aPLCcanreceiveavarietyofinputsandreturna
varietyoflogicaloutputs,theinputdevicesbeingsensorsandoutputdevicesbeingmotors,valves,etc.PLCsare
similartocomputers,however,whilecomputersareoptimizedforcalculations,PLCsareoptimizedforcontrol
taskanduseinindustrialenvironments.Theyarebuiltsothatonlybasiclogicbasedprogrammingknowledgeis
neededandtohandlevibrations,hightemperatures,humidityandnoise.ThegreatestadvantagePLCsofferistheir
flexibility.Withthesamebasiccontrollers,aPLCcanoperatearangeofdifferentcontrolsystems.PLCsmakeit
unnecessarytorewireasystemtochangethecontrolsystem.Thisflexibilityleadstoacosteffectivesystemfor
complexandvariedcontrolsystems.[46]
Agentassistedautomation
Agentassistedautomationreferstoautomationusedbycallcenteragentstohandlecustomerinquiries.Thereare
twobasictypes:desktopautomationandautomatedvoicesolutions.Desktopautomationreferstosoftware
programmingthatmakesiteasierforthecallcenteragenttoworkacrossmultipledesktoptools.Theautomation
wouldtaketheinformationenteredintoonetoolandpopulateitacrosstheotherssoitdidnothavetobeentered
morethanonce,forexample.Automatedvoicesolutionsallowtheagentstoremainonthelinewhiledisclosures
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andotherimportantinformationisprovidedtocustomersintheformofprerecordedaudiofiles.Specialized
applicationsoftheseautomatedvoicesolutionsenabletheagentstoprocesscreditcardswithouteverseeingor
hearingthecreditcardnumbersorCVVcodes[47]
Thekeybenefitofagentassistedautomationiscomplianceanderrorproofing.Agentsaresometimesnotfully
trainedortheyforgetorignorekeystepsintheprocess.Theuseofautomationensuresthatwhatissupposedto
happenonthecallactuallydoes,everytime.

Relationshiptounemployment
ResearchbytheOxfordMartinSchoolshowedthatemployeesengagedin"tasksfollowingwelldefined
proceduresthatcaneasilybeperformedbysophisticatedalgorithms"areatriskofdisplacement.Thestudy,
publishedin2013,showsthatautomationcanaffectbothskilledandunskilledworkandbothhighandlowpaying
occupationshowever,lowpaidphysicaloccupationsaremostatrisk.[48]However,accordingtoastudypublished
inMcKinseyQuarterly[49]in2015theimpactofcomputerizationinmostcasesisnotreplacementofemployees
butautomationofportionsofthetaskstheyperform.[50]
BasedonaformulabyGillesSaintPaul,aneconomistatToulouse1University,thedemandforunskilledhuman
capitaldeclinesataslowerratethanthedemandforskilledhumancapitalincreases.[51]Inthelongrunandfor
societyasawholeithasledtocheaperproducts,loweraverageworkhours,andnewindustriesforming(I.e,
roboticsindustries,computerindustries,designindustries).Thesenewindustriesprovidemanyhighsalaryskill
basedjobstotheeconomy.

Seealso
Acceleratingchange
Artificialintelligenceautomatedthought
Automatedreasoning
AutomaticToolChanger
Automationprotocols
AutomationTechnician
BELBIC
Controller
Conveyor
Conveyorbelt
Cybernetics
EnOcean
FeedforwardControl
Hardwarearchitect
Hardwarearchitecture
Industrialengineering
InternationalSocietyofAutomation
MachinetoMachine
Mobilemanipulator
Multiagentsystem
OdoJ.Struger
OLEforprocesscontrol

OLEforprocesscontrol
OPCFoundation
Pharmacyautomation
Pneumaticsautomation
Processcontrol
Retraining
Robotics
Autonomousrobot
RunBookAutomation(RBA)
Sensorbasedsorting
Steppermotor
Supportautomation
Systemintegration
Systemsarchitect
Systemsarchitecture
Luddite
Mechatronics
mechanisation
deskilling

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Furtherreading
Bennett,S.(1993).AHistoryofControlEngineering19301955.London:PeterPeregrinusLtd.Onbehalf
oftheInstitutionofElectricalEngineers.ISBN0863412807.
Dunlop,JohnT.(ed.)(1962),AutomationandTechnologicalChange:ReportoftheTwentyfirstAmerican
Assembly,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ,USA:PrenticeHall.*Dunlop,JohnT.(ed.)(1962),Automationand
TechnologicalChange:ReportoftheTwentyfirstAmericanAssembly,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ,USA:
PrenticeHall.
Ouellette,Robert(1983),AutomationImpactsonIndustry,AnnArbor,MI,USA:AnnArborScience
Publishers,ISBN9780250406098.
Trevathan,VernonL.(ed.)(2006),AGuidetotheAutomationBodyofKnowledge(2nded.),Research
TrianglePark,NC,USA:InternationalSocietyofAutomation,ISBN9781556179846.
Frohm,Jorgen(2008),LevelsofAutomationinProductionSystems,ChalmersUniversityofTechnology,
ISBN9789173850551.

Externallinks
ISA(InternationalSocietyofAutomation)(http://www.isa.org)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automation&oldid=743071358"
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