4.

Flow towards horizontal wells

"Horizontal wells" are called those which continue along the reservoir in horizontal
direction. Horizontal wells usually have longer completion (zone) interval in comparison
with the vertical wells. This means more productive well. Moreover, horizontal wells are
placed in the most possible distance from the oil-water and gas-oil contacts. This makes
horizontal production wells less exposed to early water or gas breakthrough.
The advantages of horizontal wells are obvious and have been realized a long time ago.
The ability of drilling horizontal wells completed along the reservoir was first reached in
1990s. This significantly contributed to the good oil supply, such that in the last half of
the 1990s prices for oil were low.
Figure 4.1 illustrates a subsea field development. A relatively limited amount of wells are
drilled and completed, often through different reservoir layers

Figur 4.1: sgard field, surface and og subsea systems (Statoil 2009)
Figure 4.2 illustrates well Q5 completed in the Smrbukk reservoir on the Asgard . The
completed intervals are in the order of 1500 m, thus corresponding to several tens of vertical
wells. Well branches pass through several layers and reservoir segments separated by faults

Figur 4.2 Well Smrbukk Q-5 Y (Statoil 2009)

4.1 Flow towards long horizontal wells

4.1.2 Mathematical solution
We will assume that the well is located at the centre of the reservoir and so long that we
can ignore end effects. The reservoir is homogenous and has similar characteristics in
all directions (isotropic) and inflow to the wells is even along the completed interval.
Equation (4-1) below provides the complex potential applicable to fluid flow in porous
medium, electrical flow, heat transfer and other potential flows.
z

z
p i C ln e h e h

x: distance along the reservoir

y: distance perpendicular to the reservoir
z: the distance vector z = x + iy
p: pressure (hydrostatic potential)
: flow function (constant along the flow line)
h: height of layer
C: proportionality factor

(4-1)

Figure 4.3 shows calculated pressure curves (isobars) and the flow lines

Figure 4.3: Flow towards the horizontal well

To estimate the pressure drop towards the wells, it is sufficient to consider pressure
along the x-axis, in other words setting y = 0 in 4-1. This provides the following
relationship

p x pw C ln

e
e

x
h

xw
h

e
e

x
h

xw
h

h
C ln
xw
sinh

h
sinh

(4-2)

Figure 4.4 illustrates the relationship above. We see that near the wellbore area the
pressure changes by the radial influx (logarithmic). At the greater the distance from the
well, the pressure change is linear.

Figure 4.4 Pressure distribution along the x-axis (for: h = 10m and: r w = 0.1m)
To determine the proportionality constant: C, we consider flow distance from the well.
Figure 4.3 already indicates that when x>> h, the influx pressure loss is approximately
linear. When x>> h, the negative exponent in (4-2) is so small that it can be neglected:
p x pw C

x
x
C ln e h e h
h

From derivation, we get:

Q
k p
p

C ; Comparing with the linear flow:

A

x
x
h

If we assume as much influx from both sides: Q = q oBo / 2, from the relationships above
we get
C

qo Bo o
2kLw

The natural exponential may be expressed by series ezpansion

e 1

2
n
............
2!
n!

Providing the approximation

xw
h

x w
h

2xw 2 3 xw 2 5 xw

3 5
.....
h
h 3!
h 5!
3

When xw <<h, we are neglecting higher order part of the ranks above, and approaching
(4-2)
pw p x

h
qo Bo o
q B

x o o o ln
2khLw
2kLw 2xw

(4-3)

The first link in (4-3) can be interpreted as pressure by linear to flow toward the well
qo Bo o
xe
2 khLw
The second link in (4-3) represents the additional pressure because of radial
convergence. If we consider near wellbore area, we can set: x w = rw
h
q B

pr o o o ln
2kLw 2rw
p L

(4-4)

(4-5)

We shall soon see that these results of (4-4), (4-5) also are important in other contexts.
4.1.2 Skin
Near the well the influx in horizontal wells is, as for a vertical well. Therefore the skin will
correspond to the vertical wells. For vertical wells the skin pressure is associated with
the layer height, which usually corresponds to the completion length. For horizontal
wells, the skin pressure is associated with the completion length: L w

ps

qo Bo o
S
2kLw

(4-6)

The skin factor is related to the flow per meter, for both vertical and horizontal wells.
4.1.3 Steady-state productivity index for long, horizontal wells
The radial late convergence will only affect the pressure in a small area near the well
and therefore will only have marginal importance for the average pressure. From figure
4.3, we see that the average reservoir pressure corresponds to the reservoir pressure
which is between the well and the outer boundary: x e / 2. This pressure will be
expressed as
h
q B
q B
q B x
o o o e
p R pw o o o S o o o ln
2kLw
2kLw 2rw
2 khLw 2

This gives the steady-state productivity index

qo

pR pw

4 kh
x

h
h
o Bo e 2 ln
S
Lw 2rw

Lw

(4-7)

4.1.3 Pseudo-steady-state productivity index for long, horizontal wells

When the reservoir is finite, fluid flow at the outer boundary will be zero. When pressure
falls constantly with time, the influx between the outer boundary and well increases.
This can be expressed as

Q x

qo Bo
2

x
xe

(4-8)

Integration of darcys equation, (4-4) has given the pressure distribution for pseudosteady-state flow
x
x
qo o Bo
1 x2
x

1 dx
xe
2 kh Lw
2 xe
o
We can now get an average linear pressure loss between the wells and drainage
boundary

p L

qo o Bo
2 kh Lw

qo o Bo 1 xe
1 x2
q B
dx o o o xe
x
2 kh Lw xe o
2 xe
6 kh Lw
The average pressure will then be equal to: well pressure, plus skin pressure loss, plus
the inflow pressure loss because of radial convergence, plus the average linear
pressure loss
pL

p R pw

h
qo Bo o
q B
q B
o o o xe
S o o o ln
2kLw
2kLw 2rw
6 khLw

This provides the pseudo stationary productivity index equation

J

6 kh

x
h
h
o Bo e 3 ln
S
Lw
2rw

Lw

(4-9)

4.2 Shorter horizontal wells

4.2.1 Mathematical solution
Influx into a "long horizontal well" be perpendicular to the well. Thus, convergence
toward the beginning and end of the completed interval is neglected. This is correct if
the well is completed through the entire length of the reservoir, but an approach if the
well is shorter.
The formula of "short horizontal wells" is based on the mathematical solution for a line
source in two-dimensional space (4-10). It was originally used to calculate the outtake of
river water through layers of sand, illustrated Figure 4.5, to obtain usable water from
polluted rivers

Figure 4.5 Outtake of river water via sand layer (Muskat/1937/)

x iy

LF / 2

p i K cosh 1

(4-10)

LF: length of the fracture (line source)

x: direction along the cracks
y: the direction perpendicular to the crack
K: proportionality constant
The solution also describes inflow to a hydraulically fractured well, for the limiting
condition of negligible pressure loss along the fracture.
Pressure distribution over the reservoir area calculated by (4-10) is illustrated below

Figure 4.6: Pressure curves and flow lines

Solution gives elliptic pressure lines around the line source. The pressure along the xaxis follows from (4-10), by setting: y = 0. Hyperbolic inverse cosine (cosh-1) can be
expressed as equivalent below

x
x

K ln

L
/
2
L

F /2
F

p x p F K cos h 1

LF / 2

(4-11)

pF: pressure in the fractures

At sufficient distance from fractures: x>> LF, (4-11) gives the following approach
p( x ) pF K ln

x
LF / 4

(4-12)

Figure 4.7 compares the pressure profiles according to the fracture solution (4-11), and
the radial approach (4-12). We see that approach is acceptable when the distance from
the fracture is higher than the fracture length. In other words flow is almost radial.

Figure 4.7 Comparison of pressure profile along the fracture-axis

By comparing the equation (4-12) with radial to flow solution (2-3), we can easily
associate the proportionality constant to the flow variables
K

qo o Bo
2kh

From well fracture solution:

By adding to the pressure due to the skin and radial convergence to fracture solutions
(4-12), we can estimate the well pressure. We have already found the pressure loss due
to radial convergence for long wells (4-5). Using this we get the pressure profile
approximation
p r pw

h
qo o Bo
q B
q B
x
o o o S
ln
o o o ln
2kh
Lw / 4 2kLw 2rw
2kLw

(4-13)

4.2.2 Productivity index for short horizontal wells

For a reservoir area that can be approximated by an equivalent radius (A=re2), the
productivity index may be approximated by re-arranging the expression above

2 kh

r
h
h
o Bo ln e ln
S
Lw / 4 Lw 2 rw

(4-14)

The result above expresses the ratio: inflow rate/ pressure drop outer boundary to wellbore.
For pseudo steady state production and areal radial flow towards the horizontal well, eq. (4-14)
should ideally be modified by: -3/4, to account for the difference between pressure at outer
boundary and averaged reservoir pressure, as is done for radial flow towards vertical well. This
is appropriate for very short horizontal wells. However, using (4-14) as approximation for
somewhat longer wells, such an adjustment may cause serious errors and is therefore usually
omitted.

4.3 Productivity Index at various reservoir geometries

The figure below shows a relatively short well in an elongated drainage area. The influx
of this well conflict with the requirements for "well short" and "long well."

Figure 4.8 Well in rectangular drainage area

Babu & Odeh (1989) developed a method to predict the productivity index for wells of
different lengths in the drainage areas with different ratio of length/width. The method is
based on the productivity index formula for a vertical well and comprises a number of
correction factors can be estimated by correlations drawn from numerical calculations.
Productivity index can more easily be predicted based on Green's function for flow from
cracks presented by Grinarten et al (1974). By some further development the
productivity index can be expressed as
6 k H h

D

h
h
fa 3
S
ln
Lw 2 rw
2 Lw

o Bo

(4-15)

This corresponds to the formula for long wells (4-9), with the correction factor, fa. This
depends on two dimension-free parameters, the length/width ratio of drainage area:
L/D, and the ratio of length of well/reservoir-length Lw/L

L Lw
,
D L

fa

(4-16)

The correction factor as a function of these two variables is illustrated by the blue lines
in the figure below.

Figure 4.9 Correction factor, the numerical estimation of equation (4-16)

The dashed lines in the figure above illustrates the correlation (4-17) below
L
fa w
L

L
1 0.53

1.15

1 Lw L
L
0.164

0.45 Lw L
D

(4-17)

4.3 Anisotropy
So far, we have provided isotropic reservoir (the same in all directions). Actually
reservoirs are often multi-layered, so the properties are different across the layers. The
permeability measured along the layers will be greater than the permeability measured
across the layers.
Anisotropy will have little significance for the vertical wells: If the well is perpendicular to
the layer and completed over the reservoir height, the influx will be along the
stratification. However, if the well is tilted, or has completed over the parts of the
reservoir height, the influx must cross the layers, so that vertical permeability will be
important as well.
Sometimes flow to horizontal wells crosses some shale layers. This will change the flow
pattern, causing greater pressure loss and reduce productivity.
4.3.1 Calculation considering the anisotropy
Results so far have provided isotropy (equal permeability in all directions). This can be
scaled to include anisotropy. Physical scaling can be understood, since the greater
length provides greater pressure in the same way as less permeability. With increasing
length in the direction of permeability one can construct an equivalent isotropic system,
which behaves similar to an anisotropic. The exact scaling rules are derived in Appendix
3, and reproduced below.
Figure 4.7a illustrates the cross-section through a reservoir where the permeability in
the vertical direction is less than the one in the horizontal direction: k v <kh. It is assumed
that this is a major direction for the permeability (eigenvectors), in other words
permeability is not less or greater in other directions.

Figure 4.7a anisotropic reservoir

Figure 4.7b illustrates an isotropic reservoir. Pressure loss of constant flow will be equal
to anisotropic reservoir This is achieved with the following scale of the vertical direction
and geometric average permeability
y

kH
y
kV

(4-15)

k H kV

(4-16)

Figure 4.7b: Equivalent isotropic system

The system illustrated in Figure 4.7b is isotropic. Resolving this system and
transforming (4-15) and (4-16) will represent the original, anisotropic the system (figure
4.7a)
Example: Productivity index for a long horizontal well in the anisotropic reservoir
The pseudo-steady-state productivity index derived in (4-9) above assumes isotropic
reservoir. For clarity sake, we can highlight the possible direction dependent value with
the chin: ^. Productivity index in the equivalent isotropic system can then be expressed
as
J

6 kh

x
h
h
o Bo e 3 ln
S
L

2rw
Lw
w

We have not changed the scale neither along the x-axis nor along the well axis. Height
and permeability must be calculated using (4-15), (4-16), so that the productivity index
will be

6 kH h
x
h
h
o Bo e 3 ln
S
Lw 2rw

Lw

Anisotropy factor:

(4-17)

kH
kV

(4-18)

calculations.
w , and skin factor S
In the productivity index (4-17) remains well radius r
The round hole in the reservoir anisotropic: 4.7a, means the oval hole in the equivalent
isotropic: 4.7b. It has been proposed to calculated the well radius by the average of
ellipse axes in the equivalent isotropic reservoir, in other words,

rw

1
rw rw 1 rw
2
2

(4-19)

Equation (4-19) is not based on stringent derivation, but has been used in the petroleum
literature. Using (4-19), the geometric skin factor due to a circular bore hole in an
anisotropic reservoir may be expressed as
S r ln

1
2

(4-20)
Figure 4.8 shows that, if anisotropy is moderate, the skin factor is negligible for the
wellbore geometry.

Figure 4.8 Skin factor because of the borehole geometry

4.3.2 Pressure and flow in the anisotropic reservoir

Figure 4.8 indicates isobars and flow lines in an isotropic reservoir, according to (4-1).
Figure 4.9 can be regarded as the highlighting of pressure and the flow of the isotropic
system in 4.7b. (We look away from the hull geometry.)

Figure 4.9: Pressure and flow in the isotropic reservoir

In the isotropic reservoir (figure 4.9) flow lines are perpendicular to isobars. Near the
wellbore isobars are circular. This will be similar for all isotropic systems.
Figure 4.10 shows isobars and flow lines of vertical permeability than 11% of the
horizontal permeability. Anisotropy factor is = 3. Calculation of vertical axis: 1 / factor
will transform the isotropic system to an anisotropic system, in other words, figure from
4.9 to 4.10.

Figure 4.10: Pressure and flow in the anisotropic reservoir =

In the anisotropic the system flow lines are no longer perpendicular to the isobars
(figure 4.10). Flow stream will always search for the easiest way to flow. Permeability
direction depends on the easiest way, but not necessarily on the direction of greatest
pressure. Near the wellbore pressure lines are oval. Calculation also shows that the well
is oval. (Due to the drilling process and different horizontal and vertical formation
tension, an oval hole to be just as realistic as circular)

Literature
Muskat, M.: The flow of Homogenous Fluids through Porous Media
McGraw-Hill, Ann Arbor, Michigan 1937
Butler, R.: Horizontal Wells for the Recovery of Oil, Gas and Bitumen.
Calgary, 1994
Karcher, B., Gig, F.M., & Combe, J.:
"Some Practical Formula To Predict Horizontal Well Behaviour"
SPE 15430, 61. Annual Tech. Conf., New Orleans, Oct.5-8, 1986
Joshi, S.D. "Augmentation of Well Productivity With Slant and Horizontal Wells"
J. Pet. Tech., June 1988, 729
Babu, D.K. & Odeh, AS: "Productivity of a Horizontal Well"
SPE Reservoir Engineering, Nov. 1989, 417
Gringarten, A.,C.,Ramey, H.,J.,Raghavan, R.: Unsteady-State Pressure Distributions
Created by a Well With a Single Infinite-Conductivity Vertical Fracture SPEJ, August
1974, 347