Professional Documents
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1 Forms of research
Scientic research is a systematic way of gathering data
and harnessing curiosity. This research provides scientic
information and theories for the explanation of the nature
and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientic research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations and by private
groups, including many companies. Scientic research
can be subdivided into dierent classications according
to their academic and application disciplines. Scientic
research is a widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic institution, such as business schools,
but some argue that such is an inaccurate assessment of
the institution, because the quality of research does not
tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate). [2]
Research in the humanities involves dierent methods
such as for example hermeneutics and semiotics. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead explore the issues
and details that surround it. Context is always important,
and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or
ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in historical method.
Basrelief sculpture Research holding the torch of knowledge Historians use primary sources and other evidence to sys(1896) by ervin coritana with mano pots. Library of Congress, tematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories
Thomas Jeerson Building, Washington, D.C.
in the form of accounts of the past.
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Etymology
a topic or issue. It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an
answer to the question.[6]
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary denes research in more detail as a studious inquiry or examination; especially investigation or experimentation aimed at
the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws.[4]
Verify data
Analyzing and interpreting the data
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as empirical research. The results of the data analysis in
conrming or failing to reject the Null hypothesis are then
reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may
discuss avenues for further research. However, some researchers advocate for the ip approach: starting with articulating ndings and discussion of them, moving up to
identication research problem that emerging in the ndings and literature review introducing the ndings. The
ip approach is justied by the transactional nature of the
research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and
so on are not fully known until the ndings fully emerged
and interpreted.
Rudolph Rummel says, "... no researcher should accept
any one or two tests as denitive. It is only when a
range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have condence in the
results.[12]
Plato in Meno talks about an inherent diculty, if not a
paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrase in the
following way, If you know what you're searching for,
why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found Scientic research equipment at MIT.
it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are
you searching for?!"[13]
on the topic to determine the gap in the literature
the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in
the chosen subject area is advisable. The research
5 Scientic research
will have to be justied by linking its importance to
already existing knowledge about the topic.
Main article: Scientic method
2. Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates
Generally, research is understood to follow a certain
the relationship between two or more variables.
3. Conceptual denition: Description of a concept by
relating it to other concepts.
4. Operational denition: Details in regards to dening the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.
5. Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information
from and/or about these samples by using specic
research instruments. The instruments used for data
collection must be valid and reliable.
Primary scientic research being carried out at the Microscopy
Laboratory of the Idaho National Laboratory.
structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following
steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic
and applied:
6. Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to draw conclusions
about it.
7. Data Interpretation: This can be represented
through tables, gures and pictures, and then described in words.
8. Test, revising of hypothesis
7 RESEARCH METHODS
7 Research methods
Historical method
The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This
process takes three main forms (although, as previously
discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure):
Exploratory research, which helps to identify and
dene a problem or question.
Constructive research, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.
Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical evidence.
There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to
investigate and the research questions they aim to answer:
German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886), considered
to be one of the founders of modern source-based history.
Qualitative research Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Askguidelines by which historians use historical sources and
ing a broad question and collecting data in the form
7.1
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sampling and structured data collection instruments that
t diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize. Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from
theory and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to dierent
treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study
can be considered a true experiment). If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for
their inuence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If
the intent is to generalize from the research participants
to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.[18]
In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data. Primary data is data collected specically for the research,
such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary
data is data that already exists, such as census data, which
can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research
practice to use secondary data wherever possible.[19]
Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and
secondary data, is becoming more common.[20]
Quantitative research Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and
their relationships. Asking a narrow question
and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing
statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or
descriptive).[17] Statistics derived from quantitative
research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. 7.1 Research method controversies
Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.
There have been many controversies about research
methods stemmed from a philosophical positivism
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random promise to distinguish the science from other prac-
8 PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
tices (especially religion) by its method. This promise elite Western-dominated journals.[26] Multilingual scholleads to methodological hegemony and methodology wars ars inuences from their native communicative styles can
where diverse researchers, often coming from opposing be assumed to be incompetence instead of dierence.[27]
paradigms, try to impose their own methodology on the
entire eld or even on the science practice in general as
the only legitimate one.
8.1.3 Publication
7.1.1
7.1.2
Anti-methodology
Problems in Research
Professionalisation
9.1
In Russia
(Leading
Research
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Publishing
of its factors in order to prevent the publication of unproven ndings.[32] Business models are dierent in the
electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has
been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is open access.[33]
There are two main forms of open access: open access
publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is
freely available from the time of publication, and selfarchiving, where the author makes a copy of their own
work freely available on the web.
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SEE ALSO
artistic practices, methods and criticality. Through prethe insights gained shall be placed
The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehen- sented documentation,
[42]
in
a
context.
Artistic
research aims to enhance knowlsive list of U.S. Government and private foundation fundedge
and
understanding
with
presentation of the arts.[43]
ing sources.
For a survey of the central problematics of todays Artistic Research, see Giaco Schiesser.[44]
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Original research
12.1
Dierent forms
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Artistic research
Undergraduate research
Internet research
List of countries by research and development
spending
Open research
Operations research
15
References
[1] OECD (2002) Frascati Manual: proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development, 6th edition. Retrieved 27 May 2012 from www.
oecd.org/sti/frascatimanual.
[2] J. Scott Armstrong & Tad Sperry (1994). Business
School Prestige: Research versus Teaching (PDF). Energy & Environment. 18 (2): 1343.
[3] "The Origins of Science". Scientic American Frontiers.
[4] Unattributed. ""Research in 'Dictionary' tab. Merriam
Webster (m-w.com). Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved
13 August 2011.
[5] Shuttleworth, Martyn (2008). Denition of Research.
Explorable. Explorable.com. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
[6] Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning,
conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
[7] Trochim, W.M.K, (2006). Research Methods Knowledge
Base.
[8] Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning,
conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2008 ISBN 0-13-613550-1 (pages 8-9)
[9] Shields, Patricia and Rangarjan, N. 2013. A Playbook for
Research Methods: Integrating Conceptual Frameworks
and Project Management. . Stillwater, OK: New Forums
Press.
[10] Gauch, Jr., H.G. (2003). Scientic method in practice.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 2003 ISBN
0-521-81689-0 (page 3)
[11] Rocco, T.S., Hatcher, T., & Creswell, J.W. (2011). The
handbook of scholarly writing and publishing. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons. 2011 ISBN 978-0-47039335-2
[12] Questions About Freedom, Democide, And War
[13] Plato, & Bluck, R. S. (1962). Meno. Cambridge, UK:
University Press.
[14] Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning,
Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Education,
Inc.
[15] Garraghan, Gilbert J. (1946). A Guide to Historical
Method. New York: Fordham University Press. p. 168.
ISBN 0-8371-7132-6.
[16] Sullivan P (2005-04-13). Maurice R. Hilleman dies; created vaccines. Washington Post.
[17] Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning,
Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research. Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Education,
Inc.
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EXTERNAL LINKS
16 Further reading
Cohen, N. & Arieli, T. (2011) Field research in conict environments: Methodological challenges and
snowball sampling. Journal of Peace Research 48
(4), pp. 423436.
Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. Handbook of Research Methods in
Military Studies New York: Routledge.
17 External links
The dictionary denition of research at Wiktionary
Quotations related to Research at Wikiquote
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18.1
18.2
Images
File:Alcator_C-Mod.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Alcator_C-Mod.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Dan Brunner, email Original artist: Dan Brunner
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18.3
Content license