Solid Mechanics-1

Introduction and course content

1. Introduction
Matter can be divided into two broad categories based on its flow behaviour.
(a) Solid: material which does not flow.
(b) Fluid (liquid/gas): material that flows.
In solids, not only the intermolecular distances are fixed, but the relative locations of the
molecules are also ordered in the form of crystal lattice. A solid therefore retain its shape in
space. It also moves as a body (in integral entity). In liquids, although the intermolecular
distances are fixed, the relative location of the molecules can change freely. This allows
internal motion of molecules, which manifests as flow. Also, liquid takes the shape of the vessel
in which it is poured, although it occupies a definite volume. In gases, both the intermolecular
distances and relative location of the molecules can change freely. Hence, gas not only flows,
but can also expand and contract to occupy the entire volume of the container.
Although, we say that the intermolecular distances as well as the relative locations of the
molecules are fixed in solid, it is not true in rigorous sense. In true sense all solids are
deformable. For example, a solid bar can be lengthened by pulling it equally at both ends. In
this case, the intermolecular distances along the direction of the pull increases. This effect is
also accompanied by some contraction in the direction normal to the direction of the pull. This
contraction is necessary in order to minimize the strain energy.

There is overall increase in the volume of the bar as a result of the pull. Another type of
deformation is shear, where, the solid can changes its shape, without change in the volume.
Here, the relative locations of the molecules shift, but the interlayer distance remains constant.
In actual practice, in most cases, both shear and tensile/compressive deformations
simultaneously occur in a body subjected to forces. For example, bending of a plate involves
tensile stress, compressive stress and shear stress.

We can further categorise a solid as elastic, plastic or viscoelastic. An elastic solid is the
one which regains its original shape and size once the stress deforming it is removed. A plastic
solid is the one which retains, either partly or wholly, its original deformation even after
removal of the stress which deforms it. Tendency to regain the original shape and size is natural
for a solid since molecules in its crystal lattice are at equilibrium state which is the lowest free
energy state. Any applied stress disturbs this equilibrium leading to increase in the free energy.
Once the stress is removed, the molecules have tendency to regain their original equilibrium
state of the lowest energy. When the applied force is sufficiently large, molecules rearrange
into a new state. In some cases, although this new state of deformation has higher free energy
than the original state, the transition states through which this new state is reached have higher
energy than this final state. Hence, the reversal requires crossing an energy barrier and is not
possible to achieve spontaneously. We then say that the solid is yielded to the applied force.

In the case of metals, yielding is usually accompanied by necking. In such cases, the elastic
stress actually decreases with increase in the strain.
Every elastic solid becomes plastic when the yield stress is exceeded. This is exemplified
in rolling of metal into thin sheet.

On the other hand, every plastic solid is elastic when applied stress is below the value
needed to yield it. For example, common name plastics refers to polymers such as polyethylene,
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polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride or polyethylene terephthalate. In reality, they are elastic at

room temperature. They become plastic somewhere between the glass transition temperature
and the melting point. In the plastic state they can be thermoformed.

Viscoelastic material acts as both solid as well as fluid. At high strain rates, it behaves as
an elastic solid, whereas at low strain rates it flows. Example of a viscoelastic material is silly
putty, which is made of poly-siloxane polymer. It bounces like a ball, but flows slowly when
rested.

Silly Putty: Bounces as elastic solid, but flows under gravity

In the present course, we shall mainly confine ourselves to elastic solids, subjected to
stresses well below the yield stress. This forms the subject matter of elasticity. Problems of
elasticity are classified into two types i.e. elastostatics and elastodynamics. In elastostatics, we
study bodies which are in static equilibrium, whereas in elastodynamics, we study the bodies
which are in motion. Stresses in rotating bodies and vibration of a body due to periodic forces
acting on it form the most important parts of elastodynamics. In this course, we shall confine
ourselves to elastostatics.
In elastostatics, we are interested in different types of problems. In one of them, we are
given a body in static equilibrium with a set of forces acting on it. Body can be simple body or
a composite body. We are required to determine the distribution of stresses in the body. We are
also required to find the locations where stress has maximum values and find the corresponding
values of the stresses. We may or may not need to find deformation in these situations. In some
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cases, we need to find stresses when deformation is known. In some cases, external forces and
deformation are coupled with each other and both have to be simultaneously determined.

Consider a composite bar of circular cross section, in which the core is brass and the outer
shell is steel. The coefficient of thermal expansion of brass is much higher than that of steel.
At low temperature, the bar looks alike that shown in the top figure. If there is a slip between
the shell and the core, the situation shown in the middle figure will happen. Small amounts of
stresses will develop in both metals due to lateral expansion. On the other hand, if there is no
slip between the core and the shell, both will expand to the same extent. The core will be under
compressive stress and the shell under tensile stress. Here the deformations and stresses are
coupled.
We shall also learn about simple problems of stability analysis. Figure below shows
bucking of a cylindrical rod under the application of compressive stress. We shall learn to find
the conditions under which this happens.