IN THE SP OTLIGHT

Sports Car
Powertrains
No Greater
CO2 Challenge

High-performance drives installed

in sports cars pose some of the greatest challenges for engine developers.
Following the widespread transition
from aspirated to turbo engines, CO2
limit values set to become even more
stringent from 2020 represent the next
hurdle. While independent makers of
limited edition sports cars have leave
to seek derogations from the European
Commission, groups of companies
are finding their entire model policy
coming under pressure.

STRINGENT REGULATIONS
CAUSE PROBLEMS

Ever more stringent laws governing CO2

emissions of passenger vehicles represent
an upheaval for vehicle and drive developers. The gradual decrease in the average limit value by 2015 to 120 g/km
for new cars registered in Europe has
already forced many manufacturers to
reconfigure their model planning accordingly. When the figure of 95 g/km applies
from 2020, another vehicle category is set
to be hard hit besides SUVs: the sports
car. The CO2 target is particularly critical
in this case, since it depends on the mass
of the vehicle itself. Namely, each unit of
100 kg by which the weight of a passenger vehicle exceeds the EU average will
equate to 3.33 g of additional CO2 emissions from 2020 [1]. For sports cars, however, a high vehicle mass is directly at
odds with the aim of minimising the
power/weight ratio.

Daimler

SEVERE PENALT Y PAYMENTS

FOR EXCESS CO 2

11I2016Volume 77

According to Article 9 of EC Regulation

443/2009 of the European Parliament and
Council of 23 April 2009, each manufacturer exceeding the average specific
emissions must pay a penalty of 95 euros
for each additional g of CO2 per km multiplied by the number of its newly registered passenger vehicles from 2019
onwards [2]. While to date a sliding scale

IN THE SP OTLIGHT

The hybrid powertrain of the Honda NSX featuring a 3.5-l V6 turbo

engine as well as three e-motors ( Honda)

applied depending on the extent of any

transgression, looming penalties will not
only become far costlier, they are also set
to become far more rigorous.
Even though the Federal Republic of
Germany has negotiated for only 95 %
of new cars having to comply with
these values by 2020, the limits will
apply across the board from 2021 [3].
This upcoming watershed and previous
legislation are already having tangible
technological impacts on the drivetrain
concepts for new sports cars and those
currently available on the market. The
most striking is the departure from the
classical concept of a sports engine,
which has been fostered for years. The
realisable performance of aspirated
engines was defined by displacement
volume, number of cylinders and high
engine speeds.
TURBO RATHER THAN
ASPIRATED ENGINES

In contrast, the already established trend

towards downsizing in the volume segments is now extending to high-performance engines. One stand-out example is
the current generation of Porsche six-cylinder boxer engines, which came onto the
market last year. While supercharging had
previously been limited to the flagship 911

10

Turbo model, mainly reflecting the

dual aim of achieving high performanceand low weight, this was the
first time the approach had been transposed to less powerful models in the
range. In basic and S-series models,
turbo engines with 3.0 l displacement
volume and 272 or 309kW have superseded aspirated engines, which had
displacement volumes of 3.4 and 3.8 l
respectively. The key to this step, however, was ensuring the change would
still allow the vehicle to deliver all the
drive performance the brand is famed
for not least the swift response synonymous with the aspirated engine solution.
Authors Markus Baumann, Thomas
Brandl, Jrg Kerner and Thomas Wasserbch described the situation thus in a special publication included in MTZ 11/2015:
The way the charge cycle transition for
the six-cylinder boxer engine was designed
paved the way to optimising turbocharger
dimensioning to deliver outstanding
responsiveness. The configuration meant
that, as well as allowing increased torque
at low engine speeds and boosting maximum output, the high rev range synonymous with the sports car experience and
in the order of up to 7500rpm can be used
to underpin the emotive driving experience. The drop in performance from nominal to maximum speed amounts to just

5%. Moreover, add the authors, there

is no turbo lag the response you get is
comparable to that of an aspirated engine.
Helping ensure this, alongside an optimised wastegate regulator, is an application accelerating the turbocharger in the
overrun cutoff as well as allowing a flushing charge cycle with a camshaft timer
on the exhaust side.
The achievements made include boosting nominal performance by 14.7 kW
and maximum torque by 60 Nm in comparison to aspirated engines. At the
same time, fuel consumption in the
NEDC was reduced by up to 14 %, while
the best value in terms of CO2 emissions
in the basic model with a dual clutch
transmission was 169 g /km [4]. Even
if this figure is comparatively low given
the driving performance, it still underlines the fact that currently applicable
vehicle fleet averages and, above all,
figures stipulated for the future would
be unattainable for the range of models
offered by a pure sports car maker if
conventional drive systems were used.
BALANCING THE FIGURES
IN POOLS

If the manufacturer is already part of a

group, European Commission legislation
already stipulates mandatory compliance

with the specified values in an emissions

pool arrangement together with the fleets
of other related brands. For example,
Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, grouped
with Audi AG, Audi Hungaria Motor Kft.,
Bentley Motors Ltd., Bugatti Automobiles
S.A.S., Lamborghini SpA, Quattro GmbH,
Seat S.A., Skoda Auto A.S. and Volkswagen AG is part of the Volkswagen pool.
Likewise, BMW M GmbH and Bayerische
Motoren Werke AG or Daimler AG and
Mercedes-AMG GmbH are, respectively,
part of one of a total of 13 pools [5].
Within a pool, there is scope to do
more than improve the average CO2 footprint, which is achieved by deploying
less powerful vehicles in the high-volume segments. A crucial helping hand
available from 2020 will once again be
so-called supercredits, according to
which vehicles with CO2 emissions of
under 50 g/100 km can be credited
towards the fleet with a factor of greater
than one. Key levers here also include
plug-in hybrids and electric vehicles,
since the latter are classed as having
zero CO2 emissions regardless of the
CO2 footprint of the power mix in the
countries of registration concerned [6].
SELF-IMPOSED TARGETS
FOR LOW VOLUMES

The European Union is also willing to

grant derogations to any sports car
which, in accordance with Article 11

aragraphs 3 and 4 of EC Regulation

P
443/2009, is produced by a low-volume
manufacturer or niche manufacturer.
There is scope to request this derogation
if fewer than 10,000 new passenger vehicles of the manufacturer in question have
been registered within the EU in a calendar year. However, this is more difficult
for a manufacturer within a group. Here,
the entire group must account for no
more than 10,000 newly registered passenger vehicles. Alternatively, the manufacturer must provide evidence that
despite belonging to a group of affiliated
manufacturers, it runs its own production facilities and its own construction
centre. In this case, it can agree on its
own target with the Commission as part
of an approach that takes into account
the special features of the market for the
vehicle types being made.
As recently as 2015, Ferrari SpA was
provided with an exemption for 2068
EU-registered vehicles as a low-volume
manufacturer. This also occurred outside the existing pool of Fiat Group Automobiles SpA which also includes Maserati SpA. Here the relevant target figure
for Ferrari in terms of specific emissions
is 303 g CO2 per km [5]. Even so, the
Italian manufacturer has still opted to
reconfigure its eight-cylinder vehicles
like the 488 GTB from an aspirated
engine to a turbo model with reduced
displacement volume. However, Vittorio
Dini, Head of Powertrain, intends to

retain the aspirated engine for as long

as possible for the twelve-cylinder models. In future, the aim is to focus on 48-V
technologies [7].
HONDA ADOPTS A HYBRID
CONCEPT FOR THE NSX

The new Honda NSX generation, rolled

out earlier this year, exemplifies how a
hybrid powertrain solution installed in a
supercar can transcend the main goals
of reducing fuel consumption and CO2
emissions and open up new avenues of
freedom in terms of driving dynamics.
Hirokazu Toyoshima has more in MTZ
worldwide 6/2016: The newly developed
3.5-l V6 engine with turbocharging and
combined direct and port injection has
a high power output of 373 kW. [] A
direct drive motor has been positioned at
the rear of the vehicle, and a twin motor
unit is located at the front. Turbo lag
represents an issue for turbocharged
engines, but the provision of assist by
the three electric motors has enabled a
major increase in the responsiveness of
the powertrain.
The Chief Engineer at Integrated Control System Development Division, part
of the R&D centre in the Japanese town
of Haga, elaborates on this: Depending
on driving conditions, the three motors
can be independently controlled to provide drive or regenerate energy. In addition to drive force, yaw moment can

2 QUESTIONS FOR
MTZ _ Which efficiency technologies do you

consider expedient for realising powertrains

for future Audi Sport models?

Audi

WINKELMANN _ We are working intensively

Stephan Winkelmann
Managing Director Quattro GmbH

11I2016Volume 77

at developing our Audi Sport line-up and

will be offering engines to match each
vehicle concept and state-of-the-art technology. We are particularly interested in
high-performance concepts irrespective of
the drive-train technology. Our focal point
is on getting the total vehicle concept right.
The powertrain concept has to fit the
respective model and the needs of time.
Is being bundled together with the Group in
respect of emissions a blessing or a curse for
Quattro GmbH?

In principle, the focus of our Audi

Sport models is on performance and
driving dynamics. Nonetheless, for
the very same reason we are pursuingthe aim to continually increase
efficiencywhen developing our
high-performancecars. A good
exampleofthis is the new TT RS:
thanksto theextensive lightweight
constructionmeasures, the completely
revampedfive-cylinder aluminium
engine clocks up 26 kg less than its
predecessor. Despite an extra 60 hp
inperformance the new TT RS consumesjust 8.2 l/100 km, some 0.3 l
less than the first generation.

11

IN THE SP OTLIGHT

Overview of sports car makers within pools as well as those benefiting from derogations ( MTZ | European Commission [5])
Manufacturer

Pool

Together with

Current
CO2 targets [g/km]

Alpina Burkard Bovensiepen GmbH

und Co. KG

Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd.

313.000

Automobili Lamborghini SpA

Audi AG, Audi Hungaria Motor Kft., Bentley Motors Ltd.,

Bugatti Automobiles SAS, Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG,
Quattro GmbH, Seat SA, Skoda Auto AS, Volkswagen AG

**

Bentley Motors Ltd.

Audi AG, Audi Hungaria Motor Kft., Automobili Lamborghini SpA,

Bugatti Automobiles SAS, Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG,
Quattro GmbH, Seat SA, Skoda Auto AS, Volkswagen AG

**

BMW M GmbH

Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Ltd.

147.426

Bugatti Automobiles SAS.

Audi AG, Audi Hungaria Motor Kft., Automobili Lamborghini SpA,

Bentley Motors Ltd., Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, Quattro GmbH,
Seat SA, Skoda Auto AS, Volkswagen AG

**

Caterham Cars Ltd.

Chevrolet Italia SpA

Adam Opel AG, General Motors Company, GM Korea Company

118.182

Donkervoort Automobilen BV

Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG

Audi AG, Audi Hungaria Motor Kft., Bentley Motors Ltd,

Automobili Lamborghini SpA, Bugatti Automobiles SAS,
Quattro GmbH, Seat SA, Skoda Auto AS, Volkswagen AG

**

Ferrari SpA

303.000

Fisker Automotive Inc.

181.778

Ford Motor Company

CNG-Technik GmbH, Ford-Werke GmbH

134.118

Honda Motor Co. Ltd.

Honda Automobile China Co. Ltd., Honda of the UK Manufacturing Ltd.,

Honda Turkiye AS

131.824

Jaguar Land Rover Ltd.

Tata Motors Ltd.

178.025

KTM-Sportmotorcyle AG

Lotus Cars Ltd.

Maserati SpA

Chrysler Group LLC, Fiat Group Automobiles SpA

157.313

McLaren Automotive Ltd.

280.000

Mercedes-AMG GmbH

Daimler AG

145.494

Morgan Motor Co. Ltd.

Nissan International SA

129.031

Pagani Automobili SpA

PGO Automobiles

Quattro GmbH

Audi AG, Audi Hungaria Motor Kft., Bentley Motors Ltd.; Automobili
Lamborghini SpA, Bugatti Automobiles SAS, Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche
AG, Seat SA, Skoda Auto AS, Volkswagen AG

**

Tesla Motors Ltd.

166.629

Toyota Motor Europe NV/SA

127.146

Wiesmann GmbH

Legend: * De minimis exception, no target / ** Volkswagen pool pending

also be controlled. In combination with

the newly developed engine, these
motors have made it possible to realise
a high level of power performance and
dynamic performance. The overall system performance of the V6 turbo engine,
including the three electric motors,
delivers 427 kW. However, the Honda
NSX, which features a combined consumption of 10.0 l, is homologated in

12

accordance with 1999/94/EC, corresponding to a CO2 emission volume

of 234 g/km [8].
HIGH-PERFORMANCE VERSUS
VOLUME MODELS

Sports cars under brands or labels such

as AMG, M and RS from the three major
German volume producers, Audi, BMW,

and Mercedes are now also exclusively

powered by turbo engines. Only the
5.2l V10 unit in the Audi R8 retains an
aspirated engine. All of which means
that the lions share of sports cars produced by these manufacturers have
already had to make their contribution
to their respective emissions pool. The
ATZ/MTZ editorial team was lucky
enough to get a test drive of a third-

WHAT DO WE THINK?

Back to
Lightweight

Despite a performance boost of 19 kW, the current Audi RS6 Avant Performance emits 100 g less CO2
per km than its predecessor ( Martin Westerhoff)

generation Audi RS6 Avant Performance

model. Depending on the load and driving mode, the engine control on the
445-kW output 4.0 l V8 bi-turbo deactivates four of the cylinders. This helps
the vehicle, which weighs in at 2025 kg
and features four-wheel drive, to achieve
a combined fuel consumption figure of
9.6 l, corresponding to 223 g CO2 per
100 km [9]. During real-world d riving,
aconsumption figure of 11.6 l proved
more than feasible, despite stepping
onthe pedal. Compared to its prede
cessor, the second-generation RS6
witha V10 turbo engine, Audi was able
to overcome the unchanged displacement volume and vehicle weight plus
the 19 kW extra output and reduce CO2
by 100 g/km.
However, the challenges facing those
developing new sports cars with 2020 in
mind go beyond powertrain efficiency
alone. Unless the European Union raises
CO2 limits accordingly with the introduction of the significantly more dynamic
WLTP cycle, the model policy adopted
within a pool is bound to hinder efforts
to develop future high-performance
models. It will make it virtually impos
sible to justify the costs and effort of
including a high-performance sports car
in the range, given that its CO2 emissions
will have to be offset by cars in the
high-volume segment.
Martin Westerhoff

11I2016Volume 77

REFERENCES
[1] CO 2-Emissionsreduktion bei Pkw und leichten
Nutzfahrzeugen. Online: https://www.bmwi.de/
BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/Publikationen/co2emissionsreduktion-bei-pkw-und-leichtennutzfahrzeugen-nach-2020-abschlussbericht,
property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,
rwb=true.pdf, accessed on 26.09.2016
[2] Regulation (EC) No 443/2009 of the
European Parliament and of the Council.
Online: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
EN/TXT/?qid=1474822819812&uri=CELEX:
32009R0443, accessed on 26.09.2016
[3] Position of the Federal Republic of Germany
on the discussion paper NEDC/WLTP correlationmethodology forwarded by the Commission
in preparation of the CO 2 Expert Group meeting
on 7.5.2015. Online: https://www.vcd.org/filea dmin/
user_upload/Redaktion/Themen/Auto_Umwelt/
CO 2-Grenzwert/20150430_German_Position-
correlation.pdf, accessed on 26.09.2016
[4] Kerner, J.; Wasserbch, T.; Brandl, T.;
B aumann, M.: Die neue Generation der Porsche
Sechszylinder-Boxermotoren. In: MTZ 76 (2015),
No. 11, Special Section
[5] Commission Implementing Decision (EU)
2015/2251. Online: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-c ontent/EN/TXT/?qid=1474823627678&
uri=C ELEX:32015D2251, accessed on 26.09.2016
[6] EU setzt Vorgaben fr Pkw. Online: https://
www.vcd.org/themen/auto-umwelt/co2-grenzwert/,
accessed on 26.09.2016
[7] Reisen statt Rasen. Online: http://www.spiegel.
de/auto/fahrberichte/ferrari-gtc-4-lusso-vier-tuerenvier-sitze-und-690-ps-a-1101178.html, accessed
on 26.09.2016
[8] Toyoshima, Hirokazu: Hybrid Powertrain
for the New Super Sports Car Honda NSX.
In: MTZworldwide (2016), No. 6, pp. 42-47
[9] Ihr RS 6 Avant performance. Online:
http://www.audi.de/de/brand/de/neuwagen/a6/
rs-6-avant-performance.html#page=/de/brand/
de/neuwagen/a6/rs-6-avant-performance/
summ ary.techdata.4gdrra_0.html, accessed
on 26.09.2016

Sports car perfor

mancehas increased
constantly. They have
also become more
comfortable and
heavier. Future CO2
legislation will put
the norms we are
used to under threat.
As well as more effi
cient drive systems,
this may result in a
comeback for mini
malist and lightweight
vehicle concepts. Not
least because a low
power-to-weight ratio
cannot necessarily
be realised via an
improved drive alone.

Dipl.-Journ. (FH) Martin Westerhoff

is Deputy Editor in Chief of MTZ.

13