Politics

For other uses, see Politics (disambiguation).

also derives; politika means aairs of the cities. The

book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the
mid-15th century as Polettiques";[2] it became politics
in Modern English. The singular politic rst attested in
English 1430 and comes from Middle French politique,
in turn from Latin politicus,[3] which is the Latinization
of the Greek (politikos), meaning amongst others of, for, or relating to citizens, civil, civic, belonging to the state,[4] in turn from (polites),
citizen[5] and that from (polis), city.[6]

Politics (from Greek: politikos, denition of,

for, or relating to citizens) is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More
narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions
of governance organized control over a human community, particularly a state. Furthermore, politics is the
study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community (a usually hierarchically organized population) as well as the interrelationship(s) between communities.

2 History of state politics

A variety of methods are deployed in politics, which

include promoting or forcing ones own political views
among people, negotiation with other political subjects,
making laws, and exercising force, including warfare
against adversaries. Politics is exercised on a wide range
of social levels, from clans and tribes of traditional societies, through modern local governments, companies
and institutions up to sovereign states, to the international
level.

The history of politics is reected in the origin, development, and economics of the institutions of government.

2.1 The state

Main article: State (polity)

It is very often said that politics is about power.[1] A

political system is a framework which denes acceptable
political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to early antiquity, with
seminal works such as Plato's Republic, Aristotle's Politics
and the works of Confucius.

The origin of the state is to be found in the development

of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all political
communities of the modern type owe their existence to
successful warfare.[7]
Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many
countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship
stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put
an end to the "divine right of kings". Nevertheless, the
monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria[8] to the 21st
century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through heredity.

Formal Politics refers to the operation of a constitutional

system of government and publicly dened institutions
and procedures.[1] Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign aairs would fall under
the category of Formal Politics.[1] Many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that
can still aect their daily lives.[1]
Informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular
ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything aecting ones daily life, such as the way an oce or household
is managed, or how one person or group exercises inuence over another.[1] Informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is
everywhere.[1]

The king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his

kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors,
a council without which he could not maintain power.
As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged,
which may be considered the germ of constitutional government. Long before the council became a bulwark of
democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of
kingship by:

Etymology

1. Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity.

The word comes from the same Greek word from which
the title of Aristotle's book Politics (, Politika)

2. Preserving the traditions of the social order.

1

2 HISTORY OF STATE POLITICS

3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal 2.1.2 The state and the justice system
authority.
As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned
with the allegiance of its subjects, viewing disloyalty and
4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge espionage as well as other sorts of conspiracies as detriand action than a single individual such as the king. mental to its national security. Thus arises the law of
treason. Criminal acts in general, breaking the peace and
treason make up the whole, or at least part of criminal
The greatest of the kings subordinates, the earls and law enforced by the State as distinguished from the law
dukes in England and Scotland, the dukes and counts in enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf
the Continent, always sat as a right on the council. A of private individuals. State justice has taken the place of
conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance clan, feudal, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its
or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts tribute. strength, skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence
One of the functions of the council is to keep the coers of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and
of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of military popular courts in the matter of ocial skill is the fact
service and the establishment of lordships by the king to that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts
alone kept written records of their proceedings. The trial
satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers.[9]
by jury was adopted by the Royal Courts, securing its
popularity and making it a bulwark of liberty. By the
time of the Protestant Reformation, with the separation
of
Church and State, in the most progressive countries,
2.1.1 The state and property
the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice.[11] Federalism shared power among
Property is the right vested on the individual or a group
states and federal government constituting a balance of
of people to enjoy the benets of an object, be it matepowers between the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial
rial or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public
branches.
trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is
opposed to public trust. Nevertheless, a right is really an
institution brought around by public trust, past, present
2.1.3 The state and legislation
or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes
knowledgeable of an object, be it physical or intellectual, The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies.
the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the
brought about the nal stage in the evolution of property Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in the
from wildlife to husbandry. In the presence of the State, Gentile cities of the West. This tribal law is the rudiman can hold landed property. The State began granting mentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the
lordships and ended up conferring property and with it patriarchal stage of society; it was custom or observance
came inheritance. With landed property came rent and sanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors.
in the exchange of goods, prot, so that in modern times,
The state of aairs which existed in the 10th century,
the lord of the land of long ago becomes the landlord. If
when every town had its own laws and nations like France,
it is, wrongly, assumed that the value of land is always the
Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law
same, then there is no evolution of property whatsoever.
until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end
However, the price of land goes up with every increase
by three great agencies that helped to create the modern
in something beneting the landlord. The landlordism of
system of law and legislation:
large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord
1. Records: From the early Middle Ages in Europe
is less important but in towns which have grown out of
there come what are called folk-laws and they apan industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enorpear exactly at the time when the patriarchal was bemous prot. Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages
coming the State. They are due almost universally
in Europe, both the State - the State would use the instruto one cause: the desire of the king to know the cusment of conscation for the rst time to satisfy a debt and the Church - the Church succeeded in acquiring imtom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the
mense quantities of land - were allied against the village
sense of law-making but statements or declarations
community to displace the small landlord and they were
of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the
successful to the extent that today, the village has become
custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes
the ideal of the individualist, a place in which every man
imperceptibly but not the written. It is always posdoes what he wills with his own. The State has been the
sible to point to the exact text and show what it says.
most important factor in the evolution of the institution
Nevertheless, the written text can change by addiof property be it public or private.[10]
tion with every new edition.

2.1

The state

2. Law Courts: By taking some general rule which

seemed to be common to all the communities and
ignoring the dierences, English common law was
modeled after such a practice so that the law became
common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common
law till centuries later is because the State in those
countries did not get hold of the administration of
justice when England did. One of the shrewdest
moves by which the English judges pushed their plan
of making a common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every case to questions of fact. At
rst the jury used to give answers both on law and
fact; and being a purely local body, they followed
local custom. A famous division came to pass: the
province of the judge and the province of the jury.
3. Fictions: Records and Law Courts were valuable in
helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly,
Fictions work because it is a well-known fact that
people will accept a change in the form of a ction
while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out
in the open.
Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation.
When progress and development is rapid, the faster
method of political representation is adopted. This
method does not originate in primitive society but in the
States need for money and its use of an assembly to raise
the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprang parliaments all
over Europe around the end of the 12th century, but not
entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility
and the clergy. The clergy had amassed a fortune in land,
about one-fth of all Christendom but at the time, in the
12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule of celibacy and cut
themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a
secular court; they refused to pay taxes to the State on the
grounds that they had already paid it to the Pope. Since
the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out
and so they came to Parliament. The Church did not like
it but in most cases they had to come.
The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants
and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly
because it meant taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the Crown were Parliaments maintained during
the rst century of their existence and the best proof of
this assertion lies in the fact that in those countries where
the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist. The
notion that parliaments were the result of a democratic
movement cannot be supported by historical facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely
concerned with money; representation in Parliament was
a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that

3
an institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to contribute with large
sums of money began to petition. Pretty soon, sessions
in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king
granting petitions in exchange for money. However, there
were two kinds of petitions, one private and the other
public and it was from this last that laws were adopted
or legislation originated. The king as head of State could
give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until
these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to
the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced
by the State.
In the early days of political representation, the majority
did not necessarily carry the day and there was very little
need for contested elections but by the beginning of the
15th century, a seat in Parliament was something to be
cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority, but the adoption of the
majority principle is also responsible for another institution of modern times: the party system. The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least
two political candidates against each other for the vote
of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation
interesting a large number of people in politics; it provides eective criticism of the government in power and
it aords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of
wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent
policy in a state.
These three institutions: political representation, majority
rule and the party system are the basic components of
modern political machinery; they are applicable to both
central and local governments and are becoming by their
adaptability ends in themselves rather than machinery to
achieve some purpose.[12]

2.1.4 The state and the executive system

The administration is one of the most dicult aspects of
government. In the enactment and enforcement of laws,
the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to
administration the reason being that it is easy to see the
advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but
not the administration of domestic, religious and business
aairs which should be kept to a minimum by government.
Originally, the state was a military institution. For many
years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court ocials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass
of people. Slowly, however, the people gained political
representation for none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the
direction of policy making. One of the basic functions

4
of the State in regards to administration is maintaining
peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means of communication. Historically, the kings highway was laid down and maintained
for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive
to commerce. In almost all countries, the State maintains
the control of the means of communication and special
freedoms such as those delineated in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution are rather limited.
The States original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to police administration
which is a branch of the dispensation of Justice but on its
preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character
of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial
work. In the curfew, the State shows early in history the
importance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to
maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with
the raising of revenue. It was then useful to the State to
establish a standard of weights and measures so that value
could be generally accepted and nally the State acquired
a monopoly of coinage. The regulation of labor by the
State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century,
when the Black Plague killed around half of the European
population.

THEMES

interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one
and the same, it is sometimes dicult to admit that State
administration is necessarily good. Finally, the modern
indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals
the fallacy that State ocials must necessarily prove more
eective in their action than private enterprise. Herein
lies the basic dierence between public and business administration; the rst deals with the public weal while the
second deals basically in prot, but both require a great
deal of education and ethical conduct to avoid the mishaps
inherent in the relationship not only relating to business
and labour but also the State and the people administrating its government.[13]

3 Themes
3.1 Forms of political organization

There are many forms of political organization, including

states, non-government organizations (NGOs) and international organizations such as the United Nations. States
are perhaps the predominant institutional form of political governance, where a state is understood as an instiThe invariable policy of the State has always been to tution and a government is understood as the regime in
break down all intermediate authorities and to deal di- power.
rectly with the individual. This was the policy until Adam
Smith's The Wealth of Nations was published promoting According to Aristotle, states are classied into
a strong public reaction against State interference. By its monarchies, aristocracies, timocracies, democracies,
own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the oligarchies, and tyrannies. Due to changes across the
State relief of the indigent. The State, of course, did not history of politics, this classication has been abandoned.
create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which Generally speaking, no form of government could be
dealt with it such as the village, the church and the guilds, considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the
it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor with- perfect form under all circumstances, for all people and
out exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Re- in all ways. As an institution created by human nature
port of 1834 showed that communism was widespread in to govern society, it is vulnerable to abuse by people for
the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries their own gain, no matter what form of government a
such as the colonies of the British Empire, the State has state utilizes, thus suggesting there is no 'best' form of
refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief government.
of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards All states are varieties of a single organizational form, the
State socialism.
sovereign state. All the great powers of the modern world
Taking into account the arguably signicant powers of the rule on the principle of sovereignty. Sovereign power
State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such may be vested on an individual as in an autocratic govas an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke ernment or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government. Constitutions are written documents
general State aid.
that specify and limit the powers of the dierent branches
Political representation has helped to shape State admin- of government. Although a constitution is a written docistration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, ument, there is also an unwritten constitution. The unthe danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly written constitution is continually being written by the
reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity legislative branch of government; this is just one of those
popular. There are no hard and fast rules to limit State cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines
administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State the form of government that is most appropriate. Engis the nation and what the State does is necessarily for land did set the fashion of written constitutions during
the good of the nation. In the rst place, even in modern the Civil War but after the Restoration abandoned them
times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even to be taken up later by the American Colonies after their
where universal surage prevails, the fact remains that emancipation and then France after the Revolution and
an extension of State administration means an increased the rest of Europe including the European colonies.

3.3

Political corruption

There are many forms of government. One form is a

Cosmopolitanism can be dened as a global
strong central government as in France and China. Anpolitics that, rstly, projects a sociality of comother form is local government, such as the ancient divimon political engagement among all human besions in England that are comparatively weaker but less
ings across the globe, and, secondly, suggests
bureaucratic. These two forms helped to shape the practhat this sociality should be either ethically or
tice of federal government, rst in Switzerland, then in
organizationally privileged over other forms of
the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Gersociality.[17]
many in 1871 and in 1901, Australia. Federal states introduced the new principle of agreement or contract. Compared to a federation, a confederation has a more dis- 3.3 Political corruption
persed system of judicial power. In the American Civil
War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State
Main article: Political corruption
could secede from the Union was untenable because of
the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the exWilliam Pitt the Elder, speaking before the British House
ecutive, legislative and judiciary branches.
of Lords, 9 January 1770, observed: Unlimited power
According to professor A. V. Dicey in An Introduction to
is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it.[18]
the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential feaThis was echoed more famously by John Dalberg-Acton
tures of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme
over a century later: Power tends to corrupt, and absoconstitution in order to prevent disputes between the julute power corrupts absolutely.[19]
risdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State govern- Political corruption is the use of legislated powers by
ments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to government ocials for illegitimate private gain. Misinterpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land use of government power for other purposes, such as
remaining independent of both the executive and legisla- repression of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption. Neither are
tive branches.[14]
illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly
involved with the government. An illegal act by an ofceholder constitutes political corruption only if the act
3.2 Global politics
is directly related to their ocial duties and/or power.
Main article: Global politics
Forms of corruption vary, but include corruption,
extortion, cronyism, nepotism, patronage, graft, and
embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate criminal
enterprise such as drug tracking, money laundering,
and tracking, it is not restricted to these activities. The
activities that constitute illegal corruption dier depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain
political funding practices that are legal in one place may
be illegal in another. In some cases, government ocials have broad or poorly dened powers, which make it
dicult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions.
Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1
trillion US dollars annually.[20] A state of unrestrained
Global politics also concerns the rise of global and interpolitical corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally
national organizations. The United Nations has served
meaning rule by thieves.
as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war,
The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made
war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political
ends.[15] Although an all-out nal nuclear holocaust is 3.4 Political parties
out of the question for man, "nuclear blackmail" comes
into question not only on the issue of world peace but Main article: political party
also on the issue of national sovereignty.[16] On a Sunday
in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war A political party is a political organization that typiduring the October Cuban Missile Crisis from the imple- cally seeks to attain and maintain political power within
mentation of U.S. vs U.S.S.R. nuclear blackmail policy. government, usually by participating in electoral camGlobal politics include dierent practices of political
globalization in relation to questions of social power:
from global patterns of governance to issues of globalizing conict. The 20th century witnessed the outcome of
two world wars and not only the rise and fall of the Third
Reich but also the rise and fall of communism. The development of the atomic bomb gave the United States a
more rapid end to its conict in Japan in World War II.
Later, the development of the hydrogen bomb became the
ultimate weapon of mass destruction.

According to political science professor Paul James,

global politics is aected by values: norms of human
rights, ideas of human development, and beliefs such as
cosmopolitanism about how we should relate to each:

paigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed ideology or vision bolstered by a written platform with specic goals, forming
a coalition among disparate interests.

3.5

4 POLITICAL VALUES

Politics as an academic discipline

from the French Revolution era, when those members of

the National Assembly who supported the republic, the
Political science, the study of politics, examines the ac- common people and a secular society sat on the left and
quisition and application of power.[21] Political scientist supporters of the monarchy, aristocratic privilege and the
Harold Lasswell dened politics as who gets what, when, Church sat on the right.[25]
and how.[22] Related areas of study include political phiThe meanings behind the labels have become more comlosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic
plicated over the years. A particularly inuential event
of public behaviour, political economy, which attempts to
was the publication of the Communist Manifesto by Karl
develop understandings of the relationships between polMarx and Frederick Engels in 1848. The Manifesto sugitics and the economy and the governance of the two, and
gested a course of action for a proletarian revolution to
public administration, which examines the practices of
overthrow the bourgeois society and abolish private propgovernance. The philosopher Charles Blattberg, who has
erty, in the belief that this would lead to a classless and
dened politics as responding to conict with dialogue,
stateless society.[26]
oers an account which distinguishes political philosoThe meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considphies from political ideologies.[23]
erably between dierent countries and at dierent times,
The rst academic chair devoted to politics in the United
but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing
States was the chair of history and political science at
often values tradition and social stratication while the
Columbia University, rst occupied by Prussian migr
left wing often values reform and egalitarianism, with the
Francis Lieber in 1857.[24]
center seeking a balance between the two such as with
social democracy or regulated capitalism.[27]

Political values

According to Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to
eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most
social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as
utopian or authoritarian.[28]
Some ideologies, notably Christian Democracy, claim to
combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the
views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within
a wider framework of moral and Christian principles.[29]
Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above
the left-right divide include Fascist Terza Posizione economic politics in Italy, Gaullism in France, Peronism in
Argentina, and National Action Party in Mexico.

4.2 Authoritarianlibertarian politics

Authoritarianism and libertarianism refer to the amount
of individual freedom each person possesses in that society relative to the state. One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where individual rights
and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and
Main article: Political spectrum
conformities,[30] while libertarians generally oppose the
state and hold the individual as sovereign. In their purest
Several dierent political spectrums have been proposed. form, libertarians are anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of political parties and of other
political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, the4.1 Leftright politics
oretically, totalitarians who support state control over all
[31]
Political analysts and politicians divide politics into left aspects of society.
wing and right wing politics, often also using the idea of For instance, classical liberalism (also known as laissezcenter politics as a middle path of policy between the right faire liberalism,[32] ) is a doctrine stressing individual
and left. This classication is comparatively recent (it was freedom and limited government. This includes the imnot used by Aristotle or Hobbes, for instance), and dates portance of human rationality, individual property rights,
Political views dier on average across nations. A recreation of
the InglehartWelzel Cultural Map of the World based on the
World Values Survey.

7
free markets, natural rights, the protection of civil liber- [7] Carneiro, Robert L. (21 August 1970). A Theory of the Origin of the State.
Science.
169
ties, constitutional limitation of government, and individ(3947):
7338.
Bibcode:1970Sci...169..733C.
ual freedom from restraint as exemplied in the writings
doi:10.1126/science.169.3947.733. PMID 17820299.
of John Locke, Adam Smith, David Hume, David Ricardo, Voltaire, Montesquieu and others. According to [8] Sumerian King List (PDF). Retrieved 7 April 2012.
the libertarian Institute for Humane Studies, the libertarian, or 'classical liberal,' perspective is that individual [9] Jenks, Edward. A history of politics. pp. 7396. The
origin of the State, or Political Society, is to be found in
well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered
the development of the art of military warfare.
by 'as much liberty as possible' and 'as little government
[33]
as necessary.'"
For anarchist political philosopher L. [10] Jenks, Edward. A history of politics. pp. 97111. No poSusan Brown Liberalism and anarchism are two politlitical institution is of greater importance, none has been
ical philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with
the subject of greater controversy, than the institution of
property.
individual freedom yet dier from one another in very
distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical
[11] Jenks, Edward. A history of politics. pp. 112124. We are
commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberso accustomed to look upon the administration of justice
alisms competitive property relations.[34]
as an inevitable duty of the State...

See also
Index of law articles
Index of politics articles - alphabetical list of political subjects
List of years in politics
Outline of law
Outline of political science - structured list of political topics, arranged by subject area
Political lists - lists of political topics
Politics of present-day states
Political organisation
List of political ideologies

[12] Jenks, Edward. A history of politics. pp. 124139. As we

have before stated (p. 41), the notion that law could be
made was unknown to primitive society.
[13] Jenks, Edward. A history of politics. pp. 140150. We
come now to the last, and by far the most dicult department of State activity.
[14] Jenks, Edward (1900). A history of politics. J. M. Dent &
Co. pp. 1164. Retrieved 2016-02-19.
[15] Rabinowitch, Eugene (June 1973). Bulletin of the Atomic
Scientists. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science,
Inc. p. 13. ISSN 0096-3402. ...the rationale of traditional
patterns of world politics.
[16] Dulles, Allen (2006). The Craft of Intelligence. Globe
Pequot. p. 224. ISBN 1599215772. ...using 'nuclear
blackmail' as a threat to intimidate other countries.
[17] James, Paul (2014). Globalization and Politics, Vol. 4:
Political Philosophies of the Global. London: Sage Publications. pp. x. Retrieved 2016-02-19.
[18] Sare, William, ed. (2008). Sares Political Dictionary.
Oxford University Press. p. 566.

Notes

[1] Painter, Joe; Jerey, Alex. Political Geography.

[2] The Diets and Sayings of the Philosophers (Early English
Text Society, Original Series No. 211, 1941; reprinted
1961), p. 154: the book of Etiques and of Polettiques.
[3] Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary.
Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2016-02-19.
[4] Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott.

A Greek-English Lexicon Check |url= value (help).

Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 2016-02-19.

[19] Dalberg-Acton, John (Lord Acton). Letter to Bishop

Mandell Creighton, April 5, 1887. Published in Historical Essays and Studies, edited by J. N. Figgis and R. V.
Laurence (London: Macmillan, 1907)
[20] BBC NEWS - Business - African corruption 'on the
wane'".
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