Australia Felix Permaculture

Sustainable
Property
Design
Education
Project
Development

KEYLINE DESIGN COURSE

Soil, Water & Carbon for Every Farm
Building Soils, Harvesting Rainwater, Storing Carbon

Darren J. Doherty

Dip. Pc. Des. (1995)

Cert. Whole Farm Planning (1995)

AUSTRALIA FELIX PERMACULTURE

103 Casey St. Bendigo East, Victoria, Australia 3550

EMAIL darren@permaculture.biz
WEB www.permaculture.biz
ABN 65 110 845 209

ALL YOUR LAND NEEDS

KEYLINE DESIGN COURSE PROGRAM

Introduction
We anticipate that targeted participants will primarily be those people working in the Broadacre Agriculture industries that have an
interest in or are working in sustainable project development. Urban fringe and rural landholders wanting to buffer themselves and
their properties against the vagaries of climate change and on-going land degradation through drought-proofing, soil renovation, crop
diversification and social renewal. Urban participants wishing to understand, design and develop the application of Keyline Design
concepts in cityscapes are also targeted, as are students, teachers, professionals and activists wishing to broaden their minds and
vocational horizons for the betterment of earth systems and the habitats of humans.
There is no minimum age limit to attend a KDC and children are most welcome to attend, provided that they are able to cope with the
intense load of information and participation that is endured throughout a KDC. Some of our best students have been in the 12-18
year old mark and they have gone on to quite active roles in their respective locales.
There are no minimum education requirements to attend a KDC, though some previous reading or knowledge, traditional or
scholastic, is an advantage.
Outcomes
Our foremost intention is to enable participants to broaden and strengthen their business opportunities by adding rural design and
development services. Our pioneering business model has been very successful and identified as such by many a luminary.
Participants attending the proposed Keyline Design Course will gain the following outcomes:
Basic understanding of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) applications in developing Keyline Design Plans
Provision of Microsoft Excel-based Worksheet package for Client & Project Management, Development and Management
processes
Complete digital photo library catalogued according to Permaculture: A Designers Manual (Mollison, 1988) chapters & more
Base understanding of design and development principles involved with Broadacre Permaculture & Keyline Design applications
including:

Whole Farm Planning/Property Management Planning

Land Component identification and classification

Earthworks & Soil Renovation techniques and machinery applications

Use and development of land system-based standard designs
Farm Forestry & Tree Crop ground preparation, management & processing techniques
Water Harvesting & Drought-proofing methods and applications
Holistic Management Principles & Techniques

KEYLINE DESIGN Course Outline

Education Modules 3 Day Workshop
Session Times
Session Name
A
Break
B
Lunch
C
Break
D

Time
0900 1030
1030 1100
1100 1230
1230 1330
1330 1500
1500 1530
1530 1700

Date

Session

Lecture

Indoor/Outdoor

DAY 1

Registration/Housekeeping

Indoor

Presentation of Course Kit

Indoor

Keyline Design Applications

Indoor

B-D

Keyline Design Applications

Indoor

Travel to Oaks Organics Farm

Outdoor

Oak Farm Tour

Outdoor

DAY 2

Land Component Analysis

Travel to Elizabeth MacArthur

Outdoor

Agricultural Institute
Low-Medium Tech Survey Equipment

Outdoor

& Applications for Keyline Design

D

Keyline Soil Renovation & Pattern

Outdoor

& Pattern Cultivation

DAY 3

Keyline Water Harvesting Earthworks

Indoor

Design & Construction

B

Intro to GPS/GIS Applications

Indoor

Keyline Forestry Systems

Indoor

& Establishment
D

Open Discussion Q&A

Outdoor

How to build new topsoil (from Dr. Christine Jones of Amazing Carbon)

5 Ingredients of Soil Formation (Main Photo: The Land Institute)

The most meaningful indicator for the health of the land, and the long-term wealth of a nation, is whether soil is being formed or lost.
If soil is being lost, so too is the economic and ecological foundation on which production and conservation are based. Healthy
topsoil consists of minerals plus air, water and living things such as plant roots, microorganisms, insects and worms and the organic
materials they produce. It is through the re-instatement of the missing components that new topsoil is formed.
For soil to form, it needs to be living
To be living, soil needs to be covered
To be covered with healthy plants and decomposing plant litter, soil needs to be managed with appropriate disturbance
regimes
There is little information available as to how to increase the levels of air, water and organic materials in soil. For this reason,
components 4 and 5 of the soil building checklist tend to be overlooked. That may explain why many people believe that new topsoil
cannot be formed.

To turn things around, we need to encourage soil building processes every day in our land management.
In practice:
No excuses. If you are a grazier who wants to be a soilbuilder, you will need to plan your grazing. Holistic Management Planned
Grazing currently sets the standard

Basic Principles of Keyline Soilbuilding

Graze pasture when root development is at its maximum, i.e. prior to flowering, or at boot stage.
Subsoil Plow. The soil should not be too wet, nor too dry. The air temperature should be warm, and moisture should be
expected soon.
Repeat. Ideally, twice or more a year for three years. Every time you graze the pasture, a convergence of ideal conditions for soil
aerobes will be realized. You will have managed for climaxes.
Subsoil a few inches below the existing topsoil profile each time. The ideal first cultivation with a Keyline Plow is around 8:
just below the hard plan. This will have the effect of yeasting the subsoil with microbes from the topsoil. The injection of liquid
compost tea & biofertiliser whilst Keyline plowing only increases soil development.
Biological Monitoring is key to success.
Ruminations on Soil from Allan Yeomans
Notes
The basic worth of soil, for agricultural purposes, can be determined by the mineral make-up and the amount of humic acids, or
humus, present.
Humic Acids are not really acidsthey are enormous carbon-based molecules that are stable in the soil for hundreds or
thousands of years. Humic acids can be thought of as supermarket shelves, stocked with nutrients available to plants. AKA Cation
Exchange Capacity.
Active soil carbon contributes actively to soil life by providing energy and ammonia (nitrogen).
Biological activity in the soil produces carbon dioxide. When C02 mixes with water, carbonic acid is formed. Carbonic acid
and other acids formed by soil life dissolve subsoil particles. The elements that comprised the subsoil particle then stick to humic
acid molecules, where they are available for plant growth.
Combining Holistic Management Land Planning with Keyline Planning:
Steps:
1. Form a Holistic Goal, including detailed land/ecosystem process description in the Future Resource Base.
2. Get Topographical Maps. Analyze landscape using Keyline insights. Identify Keypoints, Keylines, ideal water storage
areas, water diversion lines, possible irrigable areas, road layouts, tree lines, etc.
3. Gather all pertinent information, study and prepare maps and overlays. Take a year or two.
4. Brainstorm many possible layouts for the planned developments.
5. Create the ideal plan based on the best ideas.
6. Develop the plan gradually through Holistic Management Financial Planning so that each investment makes rather than
costs money.
7. Holistic Management Planned Grazing and Keyline Soilbuilding go hand in hand. The growing season grazing plan gives
you a structured, holistic framework to plan the use of tools (grazing animal impact, subsoiler plow) in the soilbuilding
project.
Urban design.
The Keyline Scale of Permanence can be applied to urban design in a way that insures that water supply is clean and
perpetual, transport uses minimal energy, as roads are located on or close to contours, wastewater is used to irrigate city forests.
Most useful in the design of new cities.
Dams are located with water lines at Keyline.
Roads are laid out in relation to water control lines.
Cities are designed from the crest of main ridges downward.
Trees are planted/ left in relation to water control lines.
City Forests provide cleansing and valuable construction materials.

Yobarnie 1968 (from Water for Every Farm P.A.Yeomans)

Carbon Farming Futures:

In November 2008 whilst consulting to government & private industry groups in Marin & Sanoma Countys California, I came up with
the idea of having carbon farming funded by the communities closest to it so as get the loop closer to home. Following are some of
the scenarios that I generated that have now led to several well-funded research and development projects
Go to: http://www.marincarbonproject.org/ & http://www.marinclimateinitiative.org/

SeqC
Regional
Carbon/PES
Exchange
Rainwater
for
Every Farm
GOAL:
Healthy,
Regenerativ
e&
Prosperous
Region
National/
Global
Carbon/PES
Exchanges

Holistically
Managed
Carbon
Pastures,
Forests &
Rangelands

SeqC
Regional
Production
Certification
Holistically
Designed &
Developed
Agricultural
Landscapes

The Keyline Plan:

A comprehensive design strategy for agricultural and urban development based on fundamental, repeating land shapes
that have been created by water
Abe Collins (founder Carbon Farmers of America)
Key components:
Rapid development of biologically active, fertile soil within a systematically designed landscape. During an average threeyear conversion phase, four to six inches of new topsoil are typically formed each year. This new topsoil stores large
quantities of water in the landscape.
Design for the harvest, storage and distribution of water on the landscape forms the foundation of the Keyline Plan.
Run-off water is stored in dams. This water is later released for rapid, gravity-powered flood-irrigation.
Roads, forests buildings and fencing follow primary water layout and fit together within the lay of the land.
The Keyline landscape is a permanent landscape in which every infrastructure component helps ensure the maintenance
and renewal of the topsoil within it.
The hallmarks on the properties of successful Keyline farmers are lakes with water birds, contour and ridge line roads and
contoured strip forests, dark fertile soil, luxuriant healthy green crops and feed.
Ken Yeomans
New Topsoil Can Be Created Quickly
Factors that determine soil fertility:
The mineralogical and structural framework
The prevailing climate
The soils biotic associations
Soil has a life and environment of its own. The biotic association can be modified through modification of the soil
microclimate.

Soil life responds dramatically to ideal air, moisture, food and temperature conditions. These conditions are
simple to create with grazing, subsoiling and dependable rainfall or irrigation. Life begets Life. Plants, their roots and
attendant exudates are the solar harvesters and the raw food of soil life. Grazing animals are biological accelerators they
are the most effective tool we can use to speed mineral cycling, and graziers affect enough land to make a large impact.
Graziers can build topsoil more quickly than anyone else on earth!

Keyline Planning is based on permanence, beginning with the two most permanent features of the landscape:
1. Climate, which has moulded and created the topography
Of the dominant climatic factors, temperature, wind, annual distribution of humidity, rainfall. Water is the easiest to work with
(control) and gain benefit from.
2. Existing Land Shape and Form (Topography) including underlying geology
Water Control is Paramount!
Water and rainfall determine land development. We have to get water right to get everything else right - design follows water.
New, artificial water linesdiversions, dam walls, channels - become permanent land features. Other infrastructure
components follow.
Direct rainfall and irrigation water are spread evenly on the land by a unique cultivation pattern, which is an artificial water
lineKeyline Cultivation.
Natural water lines:
Water flowing over land has a pattern of flow and predictable path lines of movement.
The contour linethe edge of a lake is a true contour line. Flow is perpendicular to the contour, forming shallow S-curves
from the ridge to the valley.
Water drainage lines- streams
Water divide lines watersheds, main ridge crests
Artificial water lines:
Human earthworks that influence flow of water and store water.
Diversions, irrigation channels, dams, Keyline Cultivation pattern, swales. (Also, drainage ditches, which are not central to Keyline.)
Artificial water lines in Keyline are designed for the most efficient water resource development.
Proper design of farms and cities must fit with the existing design in the natural landscape.
The Geography of Landscape
Three water lines, three land shapes & one special pattern.
#1 LANDSCAPE DESIGN LINE
The Contour Water Line
The shore of a lake. A level line running across the landscape, a set vertical distance from the next contour line. Water will always
run perpendicular to the contour.
#2 LANDSCAPE DESIGN LINE
The Water Drainage Line
The centre of watercourses: streams, rivers drainage lines of the land. Dendritic (branching) patterns.
#3 THE WATER DIVIDE LINE
The Crests of Main & Primary Ridges
Vegetation slows the movement of water over and through the land. Vegetation, its variety and/or its absence, and soil organisms
stabilize soil and land shapes.
In a stabilized landscape, there are three land shapes we consider in relation to Keyline development:
1. The main ridge
2. The primary valley
3. The primary ridge
The main ridge is the first land shape. It begins at the convergence of two water drainage lines. Look aroundit is the horizon.
The crest of a ridge is synonymous with a water divide line. The crest of a ridge is usually less steep than the sides of the ridge.
Main ridges are a reverse image of the dendritic branching of water drainage lines (streams/rivers). You could follow main ridges
around the world, except where they go in circles around lakes. The interplay of main ridges and water drainage lines are the
anatomy of the landscape.
Primary Valleys form in (erode into) the sides of Main Ridges. Primary Valleys are divided by Primary Ridges.
A primary valley has a primary ridge on either side, so there is always one more primary ridge than primary valleys in a main ridge
system.

Primary Valleys are the first place water flows in a rainstorm.

Primary valleys are the smallest of the three land shapes. They are the only true valley shapes in the landscape. (Big valleys are
actually watersheds.)
The centreline of a primary valley is usually less steep than the sides of the valley.
Where a primary valley intrudes far into a main ridge, you have:
A SADDLE. Roads usually cross over main ridge crests across saddles.
Next to a SADDLE is a HILL.
SADDL
E

LAKES and PONDS are located in depressions in the landscape.

Walk up from the end of a main ridge, (above the confluence of two streams) and it eventually runs into another ridgeyou can go
left or right on a main ridge. This pattern repeats endlessly. It almost seems designed to shed water. It is primarily the result of the
underlying geological skeleton, the urge of water to get back to the sea (water flows downhill) and the moderating influence of
vegetation and soil life.
Fragments Between:
Tidal Areas
Flood Plains

10

The Keypoint.
Every primary valley has a KEYPOINT. It is the point at which the primary valley gets suddenly steeper. The steepest slopes in the
landscape usually occur in the centre of the valley above the Keypoint.between the Keypoint and the top of the main ridge.

Identifying the Keypoint, and attendant Keyline, is the starting point for Keyline design.
The Keyline is a contour line carried in both directions from the Keypoint, in the valley shape, but not extending out onto the
ridges. Below the Keyline, the accompanying (next-door) primary ridge centre is steeper than the primary valley centre.
Above the Keyline, the primary valley centre is steeper than the primary ridge centre. Keypoints are also to be found in the saddles
of main ridges. A Keyline extends from this Keypoint and in very humid landscapes where landforms are particularly smooth the
saddle is an excellent position for a catchment dam with feeder drains from the adjacent crests.
Cultivate parallel to the Keyline both above and below the keypoint in the valleys. Cultivate parallel and upward from any
selected contour line on the ridges. When there is no Keyline to work from (lower in the valleys, or on ridges) use contour
guidelines to cultivate parallel to (upward from on ridges, downward from in valleys.) This is Keyline pattern cultivation.
Water will drift from the valley shapes toward the ridges.

The Main Ridge

Main ridges occupy the most land in the landscape.
They are not level, but slope. This creates a rising relationship in the Keypoints of adjacent primary valleys. This rise also relates to
water flow direction.

11

CONTOUR MAPS ARE BASIC TO UNDERSTANDING KEYLINE.

Contour maps show the above land features clearly.
Contours are level lines, a set vertical distance from each other.
Close lines indicate steep land, more widely spaced lines indicate less steep land.
With a good contour map and the farmer to provide details, we can design a landscape which will include:
Water diversion, storage, irrigation channels, irrigable land and water control structures
Catchment size
Slope Indices
Size of dam walls.
Areas to leave, plant, cut trees.
Sites for farm buildings
Location of subdivision fences, stock watering points, paddock layout.
Contour maps from Government sources, especially of rural landscapes, only provide contour intervals of 10-20+m. Surveyorproduced contour maps are more expensive but are very accurate and provide contour intervals of between 100mm (very flat
landscapes) and 1-2m for more undulating or steep landscapes.
Overlaying contours onto an Aerial Photo provides an advanced base to design a landscape with. Using Geographic Information
System (GIS) and Computer Aided Design (CAD) software can really enhance the design and development potential of a landscape
and form a base from which to easily create a Bill of Quantities for all aspects of the landscape and its development.

CATEGORIES OF WATER AVAILABLE TO A FARM

Absorbed Rainfall high quality, low price. Good soil holds great quantities of water. Developing topsoil is probably the
most cost-effective way to enhance the water cycle and store water on the farm.
Run off from rain falling on the farm. Rainfall has exceeded the field capacity of the soil, and runs off. Poor design will
accelerate this.
External Sources of Surface Water. Water flowing onto the farm.
Ground Water- Pumped or spring fed.

Source: www.amazingcarbon.com
12

Designing for the environment:

Understand the basic land shapes and design in accordance with enhancement of the water cycle by primarily slowing the
movement of water over the land. (That is what life does, too.) Start as high as possible, by increasing the fertility and water holding
capacity of the primary valleys and ridges. Maintain or develop productive or revegetation forests along the ridges and creek lines for
landscape protection and to optimise nutrient or energy cycling, flows and utilisation.
Introduce artificial water lines: the diversion channel, the dam wall, the irrigation channel. Again incorporate productive or
revegetation forest strips and plantings with these features.
Contours / Keylines
The Keyline is the contour line drawn through the keypoint.
Remember! Keylines do not wrap continuously from one primary valley to the next. They have a rising (or falling) relationship as
one moves from one primary ridge to another.
On a contour map, the Keypoint is apparent, because the contour lines are closer together above it, and further apart below it. On a
primary ridge, the centre of the ridge is typically flatter than the sides of the ridge, closer to the valley. (Contour lines are further apart
in the centre, closer on the sides.) As the contour lines change direction and head into the valley, the lines will diverge if they are
below the Keyline and converge if they are above the Keyline.
Water always flows perpendicular to the contour. This can be understood when we observe the heavier flow in the valleys, and the
drier ridges.
KEYLINE PATTERN CULTIVATION:
Causes water to drift away from valley centres and toward ridge crests, where it is held until it soaks in. Rainfall and
irrigation water are spread evenly over undulating land.
The simplest way to accomplish this, with your internal gyroscope, or just a good feel for slope, is to plough slightly downhill
from a given point in a valley centre out onto the accompanying ridge.
In primary valleys, we cultivate parallel to the Keyline above it and below it. Above it, it is often too steep for ploughing, but not
always. The point at which we shift from valley pattern to ridge pattern cultivation, below the Keyline, is located where the valley floor
becomes the ridge wall, or where the contour line shifts direction, in going from primary valley to primary ridge shape. This ploughing
pattern will quickly become quite steep/angular, at which point a new contour line should be marked and ploughed parallel to and
downward.
Anywhere lower in the primary valley, we cultivate parallel and below a contour guideline.

On primary ridges, we cultivate parallel and upwards from any contour guideline. Its good to stake a number of guidelines, i.e., not
plough mindlessly too far from a guideline.
In practice, one would lay out the Keyline across the primary valley, then carry that contour line out onto and around both ridges,
then cultivate upward from that in long plough passes. You would then plough downward from that line, restricting yourself to the
valley shape. (The ridges would be ploughed parallel and upward from a lower contour guideline. In tighter valleys, there are tricks
for simplifying difficult ploughing. However, the basic principles must be stuck by, or water will flow the wrong way, concentrating in
the wrong places.

13

The Keyline Scale of Permanence:

1. Climate
2. Land Shape
3. Water
4. Roads
5. Trees
6. Buildings
7. Subdivision
8. Soil
#3 Water for storage and later use
The two costs of water
Cost in money: cost of improving soils, building dams and irrigation layout, irrigation operation.
Cost in Water itself: i.e., it is expensive to always have water available. More cost effective to have water to bring you
through dry times.
Stored Water, a 2nd Savings Account: Water in a dam can be traded for, say, a crop of pasture. A full dam, and dry fields in a
drought is a sign of failure. Use water in dams for irrigation whenever necessary. Dams can and should be designed to be
interlinked so as to be able to move water where it is needed during prolonged dry periods.
Farm Dams
Keyline dams always have a large pipe with baffle plates and a valve, through the bottom, for irrigation and control purposes.
Good sites for valley dams generally have:
A flatter valley floor slope, backing water up further with less wall.
A short wall site.
Width of valley behind the dam wall
Suitable location for spillway
Suitable soils (will hold water)
Suitable foundation material
Highest site for a storage dam wall in a primary valley is below the Keypoint. This is called a Keypoint Dam. The Keyline is the top
water level of the dam.
Water levels of dams can be connected by a diversion, falling at 1:400+. Or, water from the lockpipe of one dam can be carried by a
diversion to the Keyline of another Keypoint Dam. Sometimes, a dam lower than at the Keypoint is desirable for a whole range of
factors.

14

Water Channels
When developing the water resources of a farm, there are two primary water channels:
1. First, for diverting run off, stream flow or pumped water into a dam. Called a diversion or catchment drain and generally
slopes at 1:400+
2. Second, for carrying water for irrigation purposes
a. on hilly land, dug into ground, slopes at 1:400+
b. on flat land, generally flat, built above land with two banks, called the Flood-flow irrigation channel
c. The Irrigation Channel is an important artificial water line. Above it is rain pasture, below it is irrigated pasture.
d. related water control lines are steering banks, perpendicular to contour
3. Drainage ditches are also water channels, but they are not central to Keyline
The Keypoints of successive primary valleys will often have a rising/falling relationship.
Keypoint dams can be connected by diversion channels. If the fall of the diversion is less than the fall of the water drainage line
(stream) an increasingly large area of land will be irrigable between the dams and the water drainage line. We design accordingly.

IRRIGATION
Hillside Irrigation: Keyline Pattern Irrigation. Flood irrigation of hilly land made possible by Keyline Cultivation Pattern. Water is
stored in large dams, released through large pipes in the base of the dams, and is moved in irrigation channels dug into the ground.
These channels have to have a fall of at least 1:300. Flags are positioned in the ditches, and spill water onto the land below the
irrigation channel.
Pattern Ploughing optimises the spread of water over the irrigated and Dryland landscape alike
Irrigation can be at rates of up eight acres per hour, with one person control.
Re-ploughing may be necessary where paddocks becomes compacted from inversion plowing or grazing during wet
conditions
Flat Land Keyline Flood-flow irrigation. Water is stored in even larger dams, which tend to be shallower. Water is released
through large (2) pipes in the base of the dam. Water is moved in channels which are located above the surface of the land. The
channel is generally level. Gates in the channels are opened, and water spreads in a wide sheet across the land in irrigation bays.
Irrigation bays are bounded by steering banks, which run perpendicular to contour.
Water can be applied at 20-50 acres/hour.
Cultivation need only happen during the soil-building conversion period of three years.
Traditional Irrigation:
Border Check Irrigationsimilar to flood flow, but slow.
Contour Bay IrrigationRice Paddies.
Furrow Irrigationcommon for vegetables and orchards.
Spray Irrigationcommon, expensive, lots of machinery.
Drip tapevegetables. Not a broad-acre strategy. Lots of plastic.
Slow irrigation drowns soil aerobes. Slow irrigation is not generally sustainable.
No conventionally irrigated civilization has ever survived.

15

ROADS
#4 in the Keyline Scale of Permanence
Roads on contour require less energy to travel. They do not erode easily or concentrate run-off.
Roads are built in relation to water control lines.
Possible locations of roads.
1. Along boundary lines. Generally not on contour, often difficult to maintain, tend to self-destruct. Useful for fence
maintenance. I wouldnt invest much in these roads, if at all. Use a flail mower to maintain.
2. On ridge crests (watershed lines, main ridge centres). High, dry, easy to maintain. Good site for a main road.
3. Located by water channels: diversion channels, irrigation channels, irrigation areas.
a. Below diversionsdry, cross dams that cross valleys.
b. Above irrigation channels in hilly countrybridges are often necessary.
c. Below Flood-flow irrigation channels.
d. At low end of irrigation area.
e. Along streams.

TREES
#5 In the Keyline Scale of Permanence (They usually outlive buildings, for instance.)
Tree locations fall into place when the first four factors have been considered. Clearing of trees and planting of trees should be
considered in light of the four first landscape design considerations.
Contour Strip Forests.generally follow the patterns of water harvesting/distribution channels, as well as the roads. Trees usually
border roads, and are located above irrigation channels. It is good to plant trees along riparian corridors and around lakes and
ponds. Pasture and crop land are separated by contoured tree lines. In the long run, trees do not interfere with productive crop land,
they enhance it.
Trees act as mineral pumps
Trees reduce the effects of wind
Trees give edge effect
Trees can be designed to provide browse
Trees provide wildlife habitat
Shelter

Contoured timber belts in hill country are generally spaced so that the top of the mature trees will be level with the base of the next
higher belt of trees.
Keyline soil development on pastureland prior to tree establishment will accelerate tree growth. Build soil fertility first.

16

FARM BUILDINGS
#6 In the Keyline Scale of Permanence.
Building should be placed to optimise the potential energy flows eg.
a. Not too exposed. The best view is a often a costly one from an energy consumption perspective
b. Good solar access to enable energy efficient house and building design
c. Topographic protection from prevailing wind direction
d. Build your shed higher than the house so as to use the shed water tank for gravity-fed water to the house
e. On a slope to allow good air & water drainage, gain gravity potential & out of danger from floods
FENCES
#7 In the Keyline Scale of Permanence
Follows all of the other infrastructure layout. Many paddocks are good. Temporary fence offers flexibility. Fences are built
according to natural and artificial water lines. My rule of thumb is to build fences:
a. Along creeks, drainage lines and main ridge crests so as to create drainage line protection and to connect allow
flows of wildlife from the bottom to the top of landscapes
b. Lightweight electric internal fencing according to stock type for planned or management intensive grazing
c. All dams and open water bodies to remove stock access
d. Along shelterbelts, strip forests, forest plantations & revegetation forests or areas of natural significance that need
protection
SOIL
#8 in the Keyline Scale of Permanence
Subsoil can be quickly turned into topsoil. Development & Maintenance of Soil fertility is a product of management.
Good grazing gives the greatest return for the least energy input in increasing soil fertility. The subsoiler greatly accelerates normal
topsoil formation under pasture. Conversion of subsoil to topsoil involves creating repeated biological climaxes. Soil life requires air,
moisture, warmth, space & plenty of high energy, high protein food. Create these conditions, & soil life will respond, transforming
some portion (often about 10%) of plant exudates & sloughed grass roots into humus. Create these conditions repeatedly, and
subsoil will be permanently transformed into topsoil.

17

Source: W.L. Silver et. al. UC Berkeley/Davis, CA, USA

Key Resources:
Information on Keyline
Keyline Designs Ken B. Yeomans www.keyline.com.au
Yeomans Keyline Plows Allan J. Yeomans www.yeomansplows.com.au
Broadacre Permaculture Design & Development Darren J. Doherty www.permaculture.biz
On line Books Soil & Health Library www.soilandhealth.org
Carbon Farming
Carbon Farmers of America Abe Collins www.carbonfarmersofamerica.com
Amazing Carbon Dr. Christine Jones www.amazingcarbon.com.au
Carbon Coalition Michael & Louisa Kiely www.carboncoalition.com.au
Soil Food Web Institute www.soilfoodweb.org
Holistic Management
Publisher of In Practice newsletter, Holistic Management Resources & Certified Educator Program Holistic Management
International www.holisticmanagement.org
Holistic Management Australia www.holisticmanagement.org.au
Interesting!
Publisher of Stipa newsletter Australian Native Grass Association Inc www.stipa.com.au
Peter Andrews work - Natural Sequence Farming - www.nsfarming.com
International Permaculture Courses & Forum - Permaculture Research Institute www.permaculture.org.au
Integrated value-added family farm operation - Polyface Farm Joel Salatin & Family www.polyface.com
Great grass farming newspaper - The Stockman Grass Farmer www.stockmangrassfarmer.com
Farm Development & Education Providers Milkwood Permaculture www.milkwood.net

18

Earth Dam Design V1

The cheapest way of storing large volumes of water is in a water storage dam or pond. The potential functionality and aesthetics of a
dam is brought through good design, thorough planning and investigation and appropriate construction techniques. This article hopes
to address these outcomes by outlining the process that we go through when designing and constructing a dam or series of dams on
a clients property. A civil engineer should be definitely be involved where the dam wall is higher than 5 metres, where dam failure
could result in loss of life or serious damage to property, or where the developers expertise is limited. As a guide however the
following information will act to inform the designer/developer on the issues to be considered in designing and construction an
earthen water storage dam.
Fig. 1 METRIC CONVERSIONS (some useful approximate metric/imperial conversions are given below)

Length

25 millimetres (mm) = 1 inch

3 metres (m) = 10 feet
1.6 kilometres = 1 mile

Area

5 square metres (m2) = 6 square yards

4 hectares (ha) = 10 acres
(1 ha = 10 000 m2 or 100m x 100m)

Volume

4.5 litres (l) = 1 gallon

1.25 megalitres (Ml) = 1 acre foot
1000 litres = 1 cubic metre (m3)
1 cubic metres = 0.75 cubic yards

Discharge

1 cubic metre per second (cumec) = 35 cubic feet per second

Nomenclature

Dam = Pond

WHY BUILD A DAM?

The sight of water storage dams is a common sight in the Australian rural farming landscapes. Dams construction allows us to store
large volumes of water for a multiplicity of integrated uses such. Dams can be used for as broad uses as aquaculture, erosion
control, gravity irrigation, stock and domestic water storage, solar passive effects, wildlife habitat, aesthetics and recreation and can
be used for these things all at once!
Until relatively recently the low cost, ease of construction and lack of regulation in dam construction has meant that their
permanence, effectiveness and aesthetic appeal has often been limited. P.A. Yeomans was the first to capture the true potential of
dams on rural landscapes through his integrated Keyline farm design system which he and his sons developed in the post war years
in South Eastern Australia. Keyline has of course been adopted by the Permaculture Designer as the best technique for broader
landscape layout design which starts with the use of the Keyline Scale of Permanence (Fig 2) in conjunction with Permaculture
Design Ethic and Principles. The key current reference for the Yeomans Keyline System is through the book Water for Every Farm
which is available through Keyline Designs Website www.keyline.com.au.
Fig 2. Keyline Scale of Permanence
1. Climate
2. Land Shape
3. Water
4. Roads
5. Trees
6. Buildings
7. Subdivision
8. Soil

19

If you need to store anything less than around 100 000 litres of water or if potable water is needed then a water storage tank is
possibly a cheaper and better option. Tanks are construction of various materials and are available and they can also be used
around the property as a source of effective gravity storage in conjunction with a lower level dam, stream or ground water source. If
the site design process indicates that a high-level tank or hillside dam construction inefficient and therefore uneconomic then a tank
is also a better option.
LEGAL PLANNING REQUIREMENTS
The first part of the process in the construction of a dam is to address the appropriate government regulations controlling dam
construction and the use of the water stored in the proposed storage (s).
The purpose of any regulations is to protect the community from poorly constructed dams and to ensure that regional water
resources are not unfairly distributed. Contact your local state or local government authority to obtain the necessary legal and permit
advice and they may also be a source of useful regional and general information. Getting in touch with a local civil engineer
experienced with dam construction is very useful and may be a requirement of a planning or building permit being issued.
DAM SITE IDENTIFICATION
Dam site identification should be a result of going through a holistic property planning process using Permaculture Design Principles
with an emphasis on the use of the Keyline Scale of Permanence. For the purposes of this article however we will go through some
of the perimeters in assessing the potential siting of dams in the landscape.
The first issues to address is what are the water resources available to the property, how they flow, how can they be captured, what
is the most cost effective way of storing them and how much is actually needed to be stored?
We always start with a catchment analysis, which identifies just how much water flows through a property. Understanding the land
patterns represented by topographical maps is crucial for the effective calculation of catchments. This is achieved by recognizing the
contours for their definition of ridges, saddles and valleys/gullies. Define the water divide lines (or centre lines) on the ridges of a
particular catchment area as the boundaries of that catchment. Once this is achieved then use a grid paper transparency (grid paper
photocopied onto clear transparency) to generate an area statement. If youre lucky like us then youll have a GIS (Geographic
Information System e.g. MapInfo, ArcView) software that makes the area statement just a click away. Once youve worked out a
figure then use the following tables (Tables 1 & 2) to generate the total average run-off figures for a whole or given catchment. An
engineer would also ascertain this as part of their investigation.
Table 1 - RUNOFF FROM CATCHMENTSi
Runoff as a % of average annual rainfall (Y)

Average
annual
rainfall
(R)
(mm)
> 1100

Total
annual
evaporatio
n
(mm)

901 to
1100
501 to 900

less than
1300
1300 to
1800

401 to 500

1300 to
1800

250 to 400

<1800
>1800

Reliability
(years out
of 10)

Shallow
sand or
loam soils
(%)

Sandy
clays
(%)

Elastic
clays
(%)

8
9
8

10 to 15
6.5 to 10
10 to 12.5

10 to 15
6.5 to 10
10 to 15

15 to 20
10 to 13
12.5 to 20

Clay pans,
inelastic
clays or
shales
(%)
15 to 25
10 to 16.5
15 to 20

9
8

6.5 to 8
7.5 to 10

6.5 to 10
7.5 to 15

8 to 13
7.5 to 15

10 to 13
10 to 15

9
8

5 to 6.5
5 to 7.5

5 to 10
5 to 12.5

5 to 10
5 to 10

6.5 to 10
10 to 15

9
8

3 to 5
2.5 to 5

3 to 8
5 to 10

3 to 6.5
2.5 to 5 7

6.5 to 10
7.5 to 12.5

9
8
9
8
9

1.5 to 3
0 to 2.5
0 to 1.5
0
0

3 to 6.5
0 to 5
0 to 3
0 to 2.5
0 to 1.5

1.5 to 3
0 to 2.5
0 to 1.5
0
0

5 to 8
2.5 to 7.5
1.5 to 5
2.5 to 5
1.5 to 3

Elastic clays when dry develop pronounced surface cracking, which reduces runoff.
Inelastic clays are identified, when dry, by a fine dust cover; this dust prevents seepage into the ground and so increases runoff.
For irrigation schemes a reliability of 8 years out of 10 is acceptable, for domestic and stock schemes the aim is 9 years.

20

Table 2 - ESTIMATED ANNUAL RUNOFF FORMULA

Catchment runoff = 100 x A x R x Y litres
where: A is the catchment area in hectares (ha)
R is the average annual rainfall in millimetres (mm)
Y is the runoff as a percentage of annual rainfall
eg.
A small catchment of 100 hectares is forested and the soil is sandy clay. It receives an average annual rainfall of 750 mm and has an
annual evaporation of 1000 mm. What would the estimated yield be for an irrigation scheme?
A = 100 ha
R = 750 mm
Y = 7.5 % (reliability of 8 in Table 2)
Therefore runoff = 100 x 100 x 750 x 7.5
= 56 250 000 litres
= 56.25 megalitres (Ml)
A strong component of the engineering design of a dam is to design the overflow or spillway of a dam so that it can cope with the 1 in
100 chance of the highest possible flood volume passing through the dam site. Consulting with your local water authority or engineer
will enable you to calculate the amount of flood flow in cubic metres per second and design a spillway and or trickle pipe set up to
cope with these potentially hazardous occurrences. An engineer will calculate the flood flow using a methodology that considers the
rainfall intensity, catchment characteristics and size, average slope of the watercourse and the length from the head of the catchment
source to the dam site.
Several different methods are available to increase the amount of available catchment to a dam where the catchment of a hillside or
offstream storage for example may be too small for the amount of storage youre after. One way is to design and develop a system of
earthen drains that intercept overland runoff and divert water to a water storage we call these diversion drains. These are cheaply
constructed using a grader or even better with a rotary drainer. These drains can also be integrated with road drains as we often use
dam wall as an all weather access across wet gullies and drainage depressions. Drains can be placed so that they link two or more
of a chain of dams by running overflow water from a higher dam the next dam of a lower elevation and so on. Water reuse drains can
also catch excess flood irrigation water and divert it to a storage. Drains need to be designed and constructed considering similar
flood flow volumes to those used in designing the dam itself. Again the use of an experienced engineer will assist in this element of
the design.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
An important aspect of the design process is to complete a borehole investigation of the proposed site. We use the services of
localised Geotechnical Engineers complete this task. These engineers come out to the site and using a drilling rig take core samples
to some depth and then perform several different laboratory tests. These tests determine the suitability of the site material for the
construction of a dam and also what the soil profile consists of i.e. Depth of topsoil, clay/sand/silt composition, depth to water
table/rock etc. From this the engineer will then make recommendations as to how the dam should be constructed, and whether or not
some amending/sealing material such as bentonite or gypsum is required.

21

The most important tests a geotechnical engineer would undertake would include:
Emerson Test
The Emerson test determines the behavior of clays in contact with water and to what extent they break down in that contact. This test
impacts heavily on the suitability of the site material for dam construction.
Soil Dispersivity testing uses the Emerson Soil Dispersivity Method (AS1289, C8.1, 1980) of analysis and classification:
Class 1 exhibits complete slaking in water. Class 2 only some slaking. Class 3 is registered after re-forming the sample, then after
immersion and shaking disperses. Class 4 after shaking for ten minutes and left for 24hrs then disperses; Class 5 does not disperse
after 24 hrs but does with the addition of Calcium sulphate (gypsum). Class 6 does not disperse after the addition of gypsum but
displays some moderate slaking; Class 7 disperses after subsequent shaking. Class 8 completely flocculates after shaking.
Profile Texture
Determines the proportion of Clay, Silt, Sand and Gravel through the soil profile of the test. Once tested you can get an idea of how
much suitable/unsuitable material is in the proposed site.
Atterberg Limits
Two tests - The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content at which soil begins to behave as a plastic material. A plastic material
can be molded into a shape and the material will retain that shape. If the moisture content is below the plastic limit, it is considered to
behave as a solid, or a nonplastic material. As the moisture content increases past the plastic limit, the liquid limit will be approached.
The liquid limit is defined as the moisture content at which the soil behaves like a liquid.
Sieve Analysis
Soil is put through a #200 sieve to wash away clays and silts attached to sands and gravels to determine accurately the 15 Group
Unified Soil Classification (USC) which describes the proportions of Gravels G, Sands S, Silts M, Clays C, Organic Soils O and
Peats Pt. When formally classified this provides the engineer/designer with the basis for designing the dam wall.
Permeability Test
This tests the moisture holding capacity of the soil. The laboratory test determines the rate of permeability of moisture per centimetre
per minute. This is at once the most useful and the most expensive of the geotechnical tests. Another field/home test called the
bottle test is as follows:
1. Cut the bottom of a 750ml soft drink bottle
2. Invert the bottle and 1/3 fill with the soil to be tested
3. Fill the bottle with water.
4. If no water seeps through the soil within 24 hours then the soil has good water holding properties.
We use the following soil log for our own field analysis in conjunction with other tests taken by others.
Table 3 - SOIL ANALYSIS CHART
AUSTRALIA FELIX
PERMACULTURE
Name
Date
Conditions
Site Ref.
Profile
Description
Horizon
Dimensions mm
Texture
Colour
Pedality
pH
Emerson
Salinity
Depth to Rock
Depth to Pan
Hole
Hole Depth

A1
0-50
Sand
Loam
Brown
/Black
nil
5.0
E1

FIELD SOIL ANALYSIS CHART

CURRY
20/9/97
SUNNY OVERCAST LIGHT BREEZE
BOREHOLE 1
A2
AB
B1
50100
Sand
Loam
Brown
nil
5.0
E1

100400400
750+
Medium
Heavy
Clay
Clay
Light
Mottled
Brown
Orange
med
med
5.0
5.0
E1
E1
Nil
Nil
Nil
250mm
750mm

22

BANK SATURATION
When the dam is full of water, a significant proportion of the dam wall is saturated. It is important to realise that no dam is completely
watertight, as some seepage will always occur. To reduce the potential of failure as a result of this phenomenon the dam must have
flat slopes (or batters) and by ensuring that the soils are adequately compacted.
Dry Soil
Water Level
Seepage
Line

Saturated Soil

Figure 1 Division/Cross Section

between dry and saturated soil in a
typical earth dam

TYPES OF DAM WALLS (EMBANKMENT)

There are three types of dam walls in use on farms: homogenous, zoned and diaphragm.

A Homogenous Dam is built of a single material and generally is made up of 20-30 % clay, with the balance made up of silt,
sand and some gravel. This is also the simplest dam to construct. The height of the wall of a homogenous dam should not
exceed 5-6m. Where the clays prove to be dispersive then the application of gypsum or bentonite may be required to provide
additional sealing.
Figure 2 Homogenous Dam Cross Section
Selected Clay Material

A Zoned Dam is the most stable of the farm dams, where the required materials are available. A selected high quality clay core
is constructed in the centre of the embankment with the outer and inner slopes constructed of lesser material. As a rule of thumb
the bottom width of the clay core should be no less than the height of the wall and should be joined to an impervious core trench.

Figure 3 Zoned Dam Cross Section

Selected
Clay
Core

Shell of Pervious
Material i.e.
Gravels, Sands,
Silts, Clays

23

A Diaphragm Dam is used where suitable dam construction material is limited. A layer of the most suitable clay found is used on
the internal batter to act as an impervious section in the wall and again must be connected to the core trench. Again the
application of gypsum or bentonite may be required.

Figure 4. Diaphragm Dam Cross Section

Clay Shell of
available better
quality material

Pervious
material

Core Trench
Excavation

CORE TRENCH AND FOUNDATIONS

The construction of an adequate embankment foundation is vital to the success of the storage. The dam wall must support the
weight of water and wall itself without substantial settlement and be relatively impervious to excess seepage. Sites that have
landslips, and to a lesser extent springs and soaks need to be avoided due to inherent soil instability. Professional site investigation
and advice will be required in these areas.
The construction core trench (syn. Dam Key/Cutoff Excavation) is used to prevent excessive seepage under the dam wall over the
natural land surface. They are constructed to a dimension relative to the size and width of the wall should extend beyond the
excavated bank to prevent outwards seepage. The core trench is only effective where it is cut into relatively impervious material.
deep layers of sand or gravel exist it may be necessary to use a horizontal blanket of 35m + in length from the base of the
embankment and 600m thick up the base of the reservoir. This treatment is often very costly and causes some sites to be unviable.
Most farm dams of less will only need a core trench of relatively small dimensions in comparison with the wall base width. We
generally only make it a bulldozer blades width (2.5m+) and around 600mm-1 metre deep.
TYPES OF DAMS
There are several types of dams, the design and placement of which depends largely on the topography of the property and how the
water stored is to be used. As a result of the whole farm plan exercise, one should be able to answer the questions of what goes
where and where supportive elements need to be placed. The storage ratio of different dams types and sites differs and must come
into question as this is what determines the economy of each site in terms of the volume of excavation versus the volume of storage.
E.g. A hillside dam on a slope or a gully in a steep gully (i.e. above a keypoint) will have poor storage ratios, whereas a tank dam or
lower drainage depression gully dam will have much greater capacity for every cubic metre of earth moved during construction.
The type and dimensions of the dam will also depend upon the climate and the amount of average evaporation losses. In semi arid
and arid zones the amount of evaporation will be quite large in comparison with cooler climates with higher rainfall and less rainfall.
Dams in the hotter zones need to be deep in order to overcome annual evaporation losses, which are a significant threat to stored
capacity in prolonged droughts. In cold climate where soil freezing occurs an engineers involvement will be a requirement due to the
effects of seasonal freezing/thawing on the banks structure and stability.
The effects of sedimentation are significant in potentially causing a dam failure through lost capacity. Some small sedimentation will
always occur particularly after construction and this can be beneficial in forming a often watertight seal on the base of the reservoir.
The timing of construction and optimization of local rainfall patterns will reduce the risk of the dam filling too quickly, bringing with it
increase sediment loads. The construction of small sediment pond (s) above the storage or at ends of diversion drains will act to
reduce flow velocities, catch sediment and nutrients and can where creatively designed act as a wetland for riparian vegetation and
wildlife.

24

Table 4 Storage Periods for Various Rainfalls

Average Annual Rainfall (mm)
>650
451 650
250 - 450
<250

Duration of storage period required (months)

12
18
24
30 - 36

Gully (embankment) Dams

These are the commonest of all dams constructed as they traverse a gully or drainage depression where water is most likely to flow
which makes them the easiest storage option. Gully dams have a good storage ration where they are not positioned above the
keypoint (where the gully slope section changes from a concave to convex profile) and are normally constructed with a bulldozer
and/or scraper. Trickle pipes relative in diameter according to catchment flood flow volumes are usually required to reduce the
amount of pressure on the spillway. Lockpipes through the base of the wall can make large volumes of water available for gravity
irrigation supply (E.g. Keyline system).

Valley Dam

Hillside/Contour Dams
These dams are built on the side of hills and usually have a three sided or curved bank. Diversion or overflow drains are the primary
source of water for this style of storage. They have a relatively poor storage ratio and are therefore expensive to build compared with
gully or tank dams. They do have a clear advantage in providing gravity storage. Bulldozers and/or scrapers are the preferred
construction machinery.

Saddle Dam

Contour Dam

25

Ring Tanks/Turkeys Nest Dams

These dams are quite similar and fairly limited in their application. Typically constructed with excavators, their low storage ratio
makes them expensive for the amount of water stored. Their best application is as an earthen stock trough fill by pumps or through
windmills with underground water. This type of dam has the highest evaporation losses. I have seen one very functional turkeys nest
(see below) where it was built on a small flat topped ridge for flood irrigation. It had very low walls and filled by gravity via a Keyline
irrigation system, and overflowed when filled to irrigate the about 300 degrees of the ridge providing supplementary summer fodder
in a winter rainfall district.

Ring Dam

Aerial View of Dam on left

Tank Dams
This type of dam is usually a square or rectangular excavation cut below the natural surface. This is the next commonest type of dam
as it has the highest storage ratio of any of the dam types and is well suited to areas with flatter and gently undulating topography.
We have constructed several of these on the plains country in Western and Northern Victoria and achieved significant water volumes
for the relative cost of construction. We built one such dam that will be extended when the clients budget allows it in a few years,
which is displays a valuable feature of tank dams they can be extended without much trouble. Their only downside is in areas
where gravel or sand seams render them leaky or where shallow groundwater tables may create a salinity problem.

Tank Dam (note aspect of bank)

Newly filled Tank Dam

One of the best features of a Tank Dam is that you can plant the embankments with valuable shelter trees as they are not structural,
unlike barrier-type dams where under no circumstances should trees or deep-rooted shrubs be allowed to establish on the banks.

26

Crossing Dams
Commonly trafficked, seasonally wet valleys usually call for some kind of crossing: the most common being a 30cm diameter RC
pipe with soil built up to both sides and over the top. In some cases, RC endwalls are secured to both ends of the pipe. This has
proved to be an expensive way to make a crossing. I have developed an alternative that is about a quarter the cost and provides
habitat and hydrological benefits as well. Using a small bulldozer (D4-5) we remove & stockpile the topsoil from the site and then
push up a low wall (only 1m) with gentle & wide spillways on either side.

Newly filled Tank Dam (2006)

Same storage now a permanent wetland (2009)

27

SPILLWAYS/OVERFLOWS/FREEBOARD
The first guiding consideration with overflows is that no more than 2.5 cubic metres per second (2500 litres/second) should flow
through a well grassed spillway or the risk of erosion is likely. Calculation of the 1:100 flood flow volume is the key to designing a
spillway capable of taking overflow water through the spillway with the lowest risk to the embankment. Inlet and outlet widths vary
according to the flow volumes available (see Table 5).
As the spillway determines the ultimate water level in a dam, it is important to match its level so that there is adequate freeboard
(distance from top of the bank to the water level). Freeboard depth is determined by the amount of fetch (longest exposed water
surface on the storage) and should be at least 750mm 1m for dams where the fetch is under 600m. Otherwise erosive wave action
and overtopping (water going over the embankment) may occur causing dam failure and potential damage to life and property. Give
consideration to the amount of settlement on the dam wall after its consolidation by increasing the construction height of the wall
above the design by around 5%. This is particularly important if the wall is to be used as an access.
A trickle pipe is often used to reduce the likely movement of lower level flood flows through the overflow. This is often a requirement
as you should never allow even small flows to go through a spillway beyond several days as this can cause more erosion than short
term higher volume flows. We install High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) trickle pipes of between 150mm and 300mm diameter to just
below the maximum water level. Inlet and outlets consist of either prefabricated cement collars or endwalls, or using 1m diameter
pipe upturned, buried to expose the top with the trickle pipe inserted and sealed through the side. If well sealed the volume of water
flowing though the pipe will be quite substantial. A collar or baffle plate will need to be placed around the pipe in the middle of the
wall to restrict moisture seepage along the pipe which could lead to tunnel erosion and wall failure. A mesh cover should be placed
over the inlet to remove the risk of blockages in the trickle pipe which are sometimes difficult to clear effectively.
Table 5 Spillway Inlet/Outlet Widths
Flood Flow (cumecs)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

Inlet Width (m)

5.5
7.5
9.0
11.0
12.5
14.5
16.5
18.5
20.0
22.0
23.5
25.5
27.5

Outlet width @ 24% (m)

20
27
34
40
47
54
60
67
74
80
87
94
100

Outlet width @ 14% (m)

13
18
22
27
31
36
40
45
49
54
58
62
67

Outlet width @ 4% (m)

6
8
10
12
14
16
17
19
22
24
26
28
30

Nb. Outlet slopes calculated for return slopes of 24%, 14%, and 4% - Seek references or professional advice for further information on
different slopes.

Topsoil coverage and seeding of the spillway immediately after construction with grasses such as kikuyu, couch or para grass or
others similar will provide a smooth flow of flood waters through the spillway. Mechanical finishing or smoothing of the all excavated
surfaces can be completed using a 4WD bike/car, or tractor dragging a section of reinforcing mesh weighed down with old tyres will
provide an excellent smooth finish to the dam and assist in the preparation of a seedbed for sowing and regrowth. Further hand
finishing of the dam using a shovel and rake is used around the tighter areas particularly around the overflow. This extra effort is
always worthwhile and you will thank yourself for doing it in the years to come such is the effect.

Broad grassed Overflow at Yobarnie (Photo: Dr. Neville Yeomans)

28

OUTLET PIPES
Outlet pipes are installed for the following purposes:

Gravity supply of water for downstream/downslope uses

Suction pipe water supply for pumping
To empty the dam for repairs, including silt removal and leak location
Allow environmental flows in sensitive catchments or where required by local authorities.

Outlet pipes present some difficulties in the construction phase and are expensive to install. The application however makes them
such a useful item that they should be considered where possible.
Collars or baffles are required along the length of the pipe to prevent seepage along the length of the pipe. Generally made of steel
plate, each of around 75cm to 1.2m square, at least 3 are needed for pipe lengths of up to 20m. 25m pipes will need 4 baffles, 40m
needs 7 and 50m will need 8. The HDPE, rubber jointed concrete or galvanised iron pipe are installed by hand placed into a
prepared trench. Soil is compacted around the pipe and then covered carefully with the machinery available (traxcavator, backhoe,
or dozer best) and then carefully built up and track rolled. We place star pickets around the inlet and outlets and put an upturned 44
gallon oil drum over them to protect them from damage for the remainder of the construction process. Again a mesh cover is
recommended to cover the inlet with both the inlet and outlet secured in an anchor block relative in volume to the diameter of the
pipe. The Keyline Designs website (www.keyline.com.au) and books has some excellent picture of pipe baffles, and inlet mesh
guards.

100mm PVC & 400mm sq PVC Baffle Plates

200mm PE Pipe & Cast Iron Gate Valve

Outlets have gate valves installed to effectively control the amount of flow out of the dam. Valves are place either downstream or
upstream of the wall. Downstream valves are more popular although they are likely to leak more due to constant pressure applied to
them and as a result are more difficult to repair. Upstream valves are more difficult to access, as they are submerged, and a remote
winding spindle will be need to operate it. They however dont have the same pressures on them and make it easier to repair the
pipe where necessary.
Siphons are another way of piping water out of dams are quite common. Prefabricated HDPE siphons are now available and they
remove some of the natural difficulties faced by many who have made siphons themselves. Compared to outlet pipes however the
volume of water able to discharge is very small using equivalent diameter pipes and this often makes their potential uses limited.
Where applicable a small siphon can be a cheap and effective means of discharging small volumes of stored water.

29

EARTHWORK VOLUMES AND STORAGE CAPACITIES

A significant part of the design process is the calculation of earthworks volumes and storage capacities. We need to calculate these
respective volumes to ascertain the cost of earthworks and the efficiency of the storage. The ultimate volume will depend upon the
height of the wall, the shape of the gully/slope cross section, and the of the storage reservoir upstream of the embankment.
The most accurate method of estimating earthworks and storage volumes is to get a high quality electronic field survey completed
and then have the dam designed using the appropriate civil engineering CAD software. This is what we use with our team and it
makes our lives a lot easier as we can build the dam on the screen, see how much it will cost, and see if it is an efficient storage or
not. To do that takes about 0.5-2 hours per dam.
For calculating regular shapes the prismoidal formula can be used to estimate both storage and embankment volumes and is useful
in all earthworks. It is generally written as follows
Another accurate method in calculating gully embankment volumes uses the horizontal slice method. This requires a plot of the dam
wall onto a survey plan of the site. For higher accuracy you can then divide the dam and storage into a series of 0.5m slices, then
with the aid of a planimeter the volume of each of the slices can then be calculated, with the total volume the sum total of all of the
slices. You can also use the grid paper transparency over the survey plan and count the amount of squares for a similar, less
accurate result.
The Queensland Water Resources Commission developed the following method which involves the identification of the shape of the
gully cross section and then selecting a corresponding shape from a list each of which has its own coefficient which have values
between 0.5 and 1.6.
Table 6 Gully Dam Volume Formulae
EMBANKMENT VOLUME FORMULA
V = 1.05 x W x H x (H+1) x K
Where
V = volume of earth (m3)
H = height of embankment (m)
W = length of the dam wall along crest (m)
K= appropriate coefficient for gully shape

WATER STORAGE VOLUME FORMULA

V = 0.22 x W x D x L x K
Where
V = volume of water stored (m3)
L = longest length of water surface (m)
W = width of water across the dam wall (m)
D = water depth at the base of the embankment (m)
K = appropriate coefficient for gully shape

Figure 7 Gully Cross Section Coefficients

K = 0.5

K = 0.8

K = 1.0

K = 1.2

K = 1.6

30

Gully Storage and Embankment Volume Estimation Example

Figure 8 Embankment Dam Dimensions
W=50m

H = 4m

K = 0.5

Embankment Volume (V) = 1.05 x 0.5 (K) x 50 (W) x 4 (H) x 5 (H+1) = 525 m3
Figure 9 Water Storage/Reservoir Dimensions

L = 100m
Depth (D) = 3.5m

W=30m

Water Storage Volume (V) = 0.22 x 0.5 (K) x 30 (W) x 3.5 (D) x 100 (L) = 1155 m3 (1.155Ml)
Table 7 Storage Ratio Calculation & Gully Storage Economy
Total Storage

= 525 (Figure 8) + 1155 (Figure 9)

= 1680 m3

Storage Ratio

1680/525 = 3.2
Storage Ratio
<2
24
46
>6

Rating
Poor
Moderate
High
Very High

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Rectangular Tank Dam Volumes

For excavated tank dams the following formula is can be used for manual calculations of storage volumes:
TANK DAM WATER STORAGE VOLUME FORMULA (refer to Figure 10)
V = (A+B+C) x D/6000
Where
V = volume of water stored (m3)
A = height of embankment (L1 x B1 in)
B = length of the dam wall along crest (L1 x B1)
C = appropriate coefficient for gully shape (L1 x B1) x (L1 x B1)
D = depth of the tank

Figure 10 Volume of Regular Shape Excavated Tank Dam

B1
L1

D
L2

B2

RING DAM WATER STORAGE VOLUME FORMULA (refer to Figure 11)

V = D (A1 + 4Am +A2)
6
Where
V = volume of water stored (m3)
D = distance between end faces
A1 = area of one end face
A2 = area of opposite end face
Am = area of cross section running parallel to faces, a mid point

Figure 11 Volume of Circular Shape Excavated Ring/Tank Dam

W1
D
W2

Top Area A1
=
Mid Area Am
=
Bottom Area, A2 =

/4 x W1
/8 x (W1 + W2)
/4 x W2

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DAM PLANNING & DESIGN CHECKLIST

1. PERMACULTURE FARM PLAN Gather map resources and develop a holistic diagnosis and design planning approach to
assess the integrated need for water storages per se, the catchments available, where dams fit into the overall landscape.
2. WHY DO I NEED A DAM? Is it the most appropriate water storage choice?
3. LEGAL PLANNING REQUIREMENTS Contact local/state authorities, experienced consulting civil engineers
4. SOIL CLASSIFICATION Take soil samples best to use Geotechnical Engineers where possible to ensure safest, best
outcome
5. DAM DESIGN Use climate/soil/catchment/site analysis to assess the best options. Again professional consultation wise if the
experience or knowledge base is low. May be legally required anyway.
6. OUTLET SYSTEMS Do I need them? Does the cost warrant the installation? Look for suppliers etc.
7. EARTHWORK AND STORAGE VOLUMES Calculate them to assess the cost/benefit ratio.
8. CONTACT LOCAL EARTHMOVERS Whats their experience? Check out references and view examples of their work. Find
out how much they cost per hour or per cubic metre equivalent. How much earth can they move per hour/day. Get set price
quotations and quality guarantees.
9. CONSTRUCTION Finalize construction timetables, Markout, and your personal finances.
REFERENCES:

Design and Construction of Small Earth Dams, K.D Nelson, Inkata Press, Melbourne, 1991
Farm Water Supplies, Neil Southorn, Inkata Press, Melbourne, 1995
Surveying for Construction, William Irvine, McGraw Hill, UK, 1980
Water for Every Farm Yeomans Keyline Plan, P.A. Yeomans, K.B. Yeomans ed., Keyline Designs, Queensland, 1993
www.keyline.com.au Keyline Designs Website (Ken Yeomans)

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