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power systems
laboratory
Feifei Teng
Abstract
Traditional power flow analysis techniques such as the Newton-Raphson and
the Gauss-Seidel methods are widely used in analyzing power transmission
systems. However, they are inefficient and may diverge due to the different
network characteristics of power distribution systems such as radial and high
R/X ratio. Therefore, other techniques such as the voltage sweep algorithms
are developed for power distribution systems.
In this thesis, the forward and backward sweep algorithm is studied
and validated in Java. The sweep algorithm can deal with balanced networks which are radial or weakly meshed and contain distributed generators. Networks with different topologies are implemented to assess the
convergence behavior of the sweeping algorithm and comparisons with established methods in the open-source Java power flow package JPower (the
Newton-Raphson and Gauss-Seidel methods) are made.
Results show that the sweeping algorithm is more efficient in analyzing
power distribution systems: it has the least runtime among the three methods and the time-saving advantage is more obvious for networks with less
loops and PV nodes.
Acknowledgments
This semester project was conducted at the ETH spin-off Adaptricity since
09/2014. The full time project made me concentrate on my work and time
runs really fast for a 7-week project.
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr.
Stephan Koch for his support and guidance during this work. Thanks for
the opportunity he gave me to learn hands-on knowledge about Java programming and power flow analysis. I like especially the atmosphere in the
Adaptricity office where everyone is so nice.
Thanks my parents for their consistent encouragement. How lucky I am
to have such good parents! I also would like to thank all the friends around
me. Thanks for being someone in my life.
ii
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
vi
1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the project . . . .
1.2 Power flow analysis . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Newton-Raphson method
1.2.2 Gauss-Seidel Iteration . .
1.2.3 Differences between power
tion systems . . . . . . . .
1.3 Goal of the project . . . . . . . .
1.4 Structure of the thesis . . . . . .
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transmission and
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4 Implementation results
17
4.1 Assessment on the sweeping algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.1.1 Voltage mismatches after each iteration . . . . . . . . 17
iii
CONTENTS
4.2
iv
19
19
21
21
22
23
5 Conclusions
25
A Benchmark networks
26
Bibliography
29
List of Figures
1.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
13
4.1
4.2
4.3
18
18
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
. . . . . . . .
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loops and PV
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nodes 9
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9
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27
28
List of Tables
4.1
4.2
vi
22
22
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
1.2
There are basically four variables related to bus b, bus voltage magnitude
Ub , voltage angle b , active power Pb and reactive power Qb . Three basic
types of buses are defined depending on which of the four variables are given
[3]:
PQ bus: Pb and Qb are given; Ub and b are to be calculated, it
represents load buses without voltage control.
PV bus: Pb and Ub are given; Qb and b are to be calculated, it
represents generation buses with voltage control.
U bus: Ub and b are given; Pb and Qb are to be calculated, it is
also called slack bus and is used to balance load or generation and serves as
voltage angle reference.
After defining all the buses in the network, the unknown variables of
every bus are calculated using equality and inequality constraints of the
network. Therefore, power flow analysis is about solving a series of equations
with system parameters and get the result of the system states. A general
power flow equation can be written as Eq. (1.1).
f(x, u, p) = 0 ,
1
(1.1)
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2.1
Newton-Raphson method
f (x0 )
f (x1 )
x2
x1
x0
(v)
=x
(v)
+ x
(1.2)
(1.3)
f(x)
x
(1.4)
The N-R algorithm converges to the true value of x after several iterations.
For power system analysis, the state x which needs to be solved and the
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
x =
,
U
P(x)
f =
=0 ,
Q(x)
(1.5)
(1.6)
where P(x) and Q(x) are the differences between active and reactive
power with their specified value.
The solution of x is updated using Eq. (1.7):
(v)
J(x
where
P(x(v) )
(v)
)
+
=0 ,
U(v)
Q(x(v) )
(1.7)
P P
U
J =
(1.8)
Q Q .
U
Reference [1] gives detailed explanation of the N-R method application
in power system analysis.
1.2.2
Gauss-Seidel Iteration
Given the same system equation as Eq. (1.1), the Gauss-Seidel iteration
(G-S) is based on the iteration scheme of Eq. (1.9):
x(v+1) = f (x(v) ) .
(1.9)
1.2.3
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Topology: a transmission system is usually meshed whereas a distribution system typically has a radial or weakly meshed network.
Branch type: the transmission system is mainly composed of overhead
lines, which have a lower R/X ratio. For a distribution system, the structure
of both overhead lines and cables makes the R/X ratio higher.
The above mentioned algorithms N-R and G-S are particularly useful
in power transmission systems. That is because they are especially efficient
and have a good convergence characteristic in dealing with meshed networks
with low R/X ratios. However, in the case of a power distribution system,
convergence problems make it necessary to find new possibilities to solve the
power flow equations.
There are two main categories of distribution power systems analysis algorithms. One is based on modified traditional methods N-R and G-S as in
[5], [6], [7], [8]. The other way is the forward and backward sweep algorithm
using Kirchhoffs laws or bi-quadratic equations [9], [10].
The forward and backward sweep method makes use of the ladder structure of a radial network and solves the power flow equations step by step.
It avoids complex calculation of matrices and thus gets rid of convergence
problems caused by high R/X ratio but needs extra effort when dealing
with meshed networks. A detailed explanation of the sweeping algorithm is
presented in Chapter 2.
1.3
1.4
Chapter 2
Forward/Backward Sweep
Approaches
During the last few decades, a variety of different approaches based on the
forward/backward sweep algorithm are used by researchers to get good convergence and fast calculation speed of power distribution systems. By avoiding solving simultaneous equations and large dimension matrices, the sweeping algorithm has the advantages of less computation effort and calculation
time compared to the N-R and G-S methods. During the last several years,
multiple sweep based approaches are developed to adapt to different power
system network structures and load types.
This chapter explains the principle of the forward and backward sweep
algorithms.
2.1
Element ordering
An element ordering process must be carried out to determine the calculation sequence in the forward and backward sweep. Here the commonly used
branch and node oriented method is introduced [13]. Figure 2.1 is an example of an ordered network. As it shows, the network is divided into different
layers starting from the root bus. Each branch is ordered only after all the
branches in its upper layers have been ordered.
For the forward sweep, the calculation starts from the root bus to the
last ordered branch. For the backward sweep, the calculation is from the
last ordered bus back to the root bus.
2.2
According to the different power flow equations used in the sweeping process, there are power summation method, current summation method and
root bus
1
2
4
7
10
2.2.1
Pi0 + jQ0i
jXi
Ri
PrI + jQIr
PrF + jQFr
PrL
Pi + jQi
PsL +
yi
2
jQL
s
yi
2
jQL
r
Q0i
Vm2 yi /2
QL
r
QFr
QIr
(2.1)
,
(2.2)
where the superscripts L, F and I in P and Q stand for load, flow and
injection respectively. Load power PL is given before calculation. The active
Pi = Pi0 + Ri
(2.3)
Qi
(2.4)
If the network is radial, the power injections are assumed to be zero in every
iteration. For meshed networks, the calculation of power injection PI will
be explained in the meshed network part.
Eq. (2.1) (2.4) are calculated backward to get active and reactive power
flow for every branch.
Step 2: Forward sweep
With active and reactive power values available in the backward sweep, the
complex voltage can then be calculated in a forward sequence using Eq. (2.5).
Vr = Vs Ii Zi = Vk
Si00
(Ri + jXi )
Vk
Pi00 jQ00i
(Ri + jXi )
Vk
P 00 Ri + Q00i Xi
P 00 Xi Q00i Ri
= (Vk i
) j( i
)
Vk
Vk
= Vk
(2.5)
2.2.2
Ii
(k)
= (Si /Vi
(k1)
) yi Vi
, i = 1, 2, ..., n
(k)
(2.6)
Starting from the last ordered branch, current flow Jl in branch l is calculated
using Eq. (2.7):
X
(k)
Jl = Ilr +
Jlr , l = b, b 1, ..., 1
(2.7)
P
where Ilr is the current injection of node lr calculated from step 1,
Jlr is
the currents in branches emanating from node lr.
Step 3: Forward Sweep:
Starting from the root bus, the node voltages are updated using Eq. (2.8).
(k)
(k)
(k)
(2.8)
where ls and lr denote the sending and receiving end of branch l, Zl is the
series impedance of branch l.
The element ordering process is the same as in the power summation
method.
There are also other forward and backward sweep methods such as [14],
[16], [17]. Reference [14] proposed an admittance summation method which
is quite efficient for constant admittance loads. In [16], a simplified forward
and backward method is presented which has better performance than the
basic sweeping algorithm. Reference [17] gives a comprehensive review and
comparison of these sweep based approaches.
2.3
root bus
PV bus
l
l2
l1
Jj
2.4
With the development of renewable energy and smartgrids, distributed generators become rather common and should not be omitted in distribution
system analysis. They are classified as PQ or PV nodes thus different ways
of modeling distributed generators have been used. If modeled as a PQ
node, it is identical to a negative constant power load.
k k0
P, Q
P, Q
10
P, Q
Rest
of
the
network
Ps , Q
Rest
of
the
network
Ps , Q
j j0
Vs
2.5
Transformers modeling
Zt
Ip
Vs
Is
Ym
2.6
11
Convergence criteria
Different criteria are used to check the convergence of the sweeping algorithm [13], [18], [19]. Reference [13] compares maximum active and reactive power mismatch between successive iterations to convergence criterion.
Others such as [18] uses voltage differences in successive iterations to check
convergence, which is explained in Eq. (2.9):
|V k+1 V k | <
(2.9)
(2.10)
where j denotes a breakpoint and j1 and j2 are the two ends of the breakpoint.
For the breakpoint of a PV node, the difference between the node voltage
and its specified voltage magnitude is checked:
Vj = |Vj1 Vs | <
(2.11)
Chapter 3
Algorithm Implementation
In this project, the implemented algorithm is the compensation based voltage sweep approach described in [10], [15], [20]. It deals with balanced
distribution networks which are weakly meshed and contain distributed generators. Only one slack bus is assumed in the network. The branches are
modeled as model, thus shunt capacitance is considered. Constant power
loads are assumed in the calculation. The parameters that need to be known
before calculation are active and reactive power loads in PQ buses, slack bus
voltage magnitude and angle as well as specified voltage magnitude and active power in the distributed generators. The flow-chart of the proposed
method is shown in Figure 3.1.
The procedure of this algorithm is explained in several parts in this
chapter according to their implementation order.
3.1
Element ordering
The formation of a suitable model of the electrical network is the first step
of network analysis. Therefore, the element ordering process described in
Chapter 2 needs to be conducted before implementing the forward and backward sweep algorithm.
Before introducing the detailed process of the ordering process, some
basic terminologies must be explained.
In the network, line segments are called elements and their ends are
called nodes. A connected subgraph containing all nodes but without closed
path is called a tree. The elements of a tree are called branches. Other connecting elements which are not included in the tree are called links. Basic
loop is the loop path which contains only one link.
As in Reference [21], the network elements are separated into two subsets: branches and links. In the ordering process, every element is checked
in the following three cases,
a) none of the element nodes are in the list of ordered nodes;
12
Read in data
Element ordering
NO
Converged ?
YES
Print results
Figure 3.1: Flowchart of the proposed algorithm
13
14
3.2
This step is only necessary when there are loops or PV nodes in the network.
Since breakpoints are added in loops, current or power injections are needed
to compensate for the current flow in the breakpoints.
Power injection is calculated using the incremental changes of breakpoint
current Il and breakpoint voltage Vl . Therefore, in order to get the power
injections Pinj , loop impedance matrix Z must be constructed for every
breakpoint. The relation of breakpoint power injection, breakpoint current
and voltage are explained in Eq. (3.1)(3.3) .
Pinj
= Il Vl
ZIl = Vl
(3.1)
Vl = Vlr Vls
(3.2)
,
(3.3)
3.3
15
The power summation method is used in this step. The sending real and
reactive power is added to the receiving power using a backward sweep calculation. Based on the introduction of power summation method in Chapter
2, Eq. (2.1)(2.4) are used to do the backward calculation and Eq. (2.5) is
used in forward sweep. More precisely, Eq. (3.4)(3.9) are used to get the
real and imaginary part of complex voltage.
Ps jQs
,
V s
Ps Rsr + Qs Xsr
Qs Rsr Ps Xsr
= V s (1
+j
)
2
Vs
Vs2
V r = V s (Rsr + jXsr )
Vr
(3.4)
.
(3.5)
a = 1
b =
(3.6)
(3.7)
Then the real and imaginary part of receiving voltage can be calculated
using Eq. (3.8)(3.9),
Re{V r } = aRe{V s } bIm{V s }
3.4
(3.8)
(3.9)
After the sweeping process, complex voltages of each bus are known and the
breakpoints power injections can be calculated using the following equations,
V ms + V mr
(Cm jDm ) ,
2
= S mr .
S mr =
(3.10)
S ms
(3.11)
2
Vms
Re{V ms }
(3.12)
16
where R and X are the real and imaginary part of loop impedance matrix
Z, C and D are the real and imaginary part of incremental change of
complex breakpoint current, E and F are the real and imaginary part
of complex breakpoint voltage difference.
At breakpoint l, the breakpoint complex voltage difference is:
El + jF = V lr V ls
For the PV nodes,
El = (
Vlssp
1)Re{V ls }
Vls
(3.14)
(3.15)
3.5
Convergence criteria
In each iteration, the above mentioned steps are cycled until the results get
converged. For radial networks, the difference of successive voltage is used to
check convergence. For meshed networks as well as networks with PV Nodes,
the breakpoints voltage mismatches are used to check convergence. The
maximum successive voltage difference among all buses or maximum voltage
mismatch in breakpoints are compared to the pre-determined convergence
criterion. Once it is below the convergence criteria, the calculation stops.
Chapter 4
Implementation results
The algorithm introduced in Chapter 3 was implemented in Java. In this
chapter, the convergence behavior of the sweeping algorithm is assessed using
different network topologies. Besides, implementation results are compared
with the G-S and N-R methods in JPower.
First of all, an individual assessment on the sweeping algorithm is made
using a 29-bus network. The topology is given in Appendix A. As shown in
Figure A.2, there are in total 29 buses with 2 loops and 3 PV buses in the
network.
4.1
4.1.1
For radial networks, the successive voltage differences for each bus are usually used to check convergence of the sweeping algorithm. By removing the
loops and PV nodes in the 29-bus network, the convergence behavior of the
sweeping algorithm is assessed for a radial network. The successive voltage
differences for all buses are calculated and plotted in Figure 4.1.
As in Figure 4.1, the successive voltage differences in all buses are decreasing with each iteration. When the convergence criterion is set to 107 ,
the sweeping algorithm converges in 2 iterations.
Assessment of the sweeping algorithm with meshed networks is made using the original 29-bus network. The voltage mismatches in the five breakpoints are calculated for each iteration and plotted in Figure 4.2.
As in Figure 4.2, the voltage mismatches in the breakpoints are decreasing with each iteration. Once all the mismatches are within the convergence
criteria, the calculation stops. When the convergence criterion is set to 107 ,
the sweeping algorithm converges in 11 iterations.
17
18
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
10
-10
10
-11
10
-12
10
-13
10
Iteration number
-3
3.0x10
loop 1
-3
2.5x10
loop 2
-3
2.0x10
PV 1
PV 2
-3
1.5x10
PV 3
-3
1.0x10
-4
5.0x10
0.0
-4
-5.0x10
-3
-1.0x10
-3
-1.5x10
-3
-2.0x10
-3
-2.5x10
-3
-3.0x10
10
Iteration number
12
4.1.2
19
The convergence criteria determine how far the calculations are from the true
value. Therefore, the effect of different convergence criterion is analyzed using its influence on iteration number and runtime of the sweeping algorithm.
Figure 4.3 shows results of increasing runtime and iteration number of the
sweeping algorithm under decreasing convergence criteria.
-4
2.1x10
-4
Runtime (s)
2.0x10
-4
1.9x10
-4
1.8x10
-4
1.7x10
-4
1.6x10
-4
1.5x10
-4
1.4x10
-4
1.3x10
-4
1.2x10
Iteration number
16
14
12
10
8
6
1E-5
1E-6
1E-7
1E-8
Convergence criteria
Figure 4.3: Runtime and iteration number under different convergence criteria
4.1.3
Known from the principle of the sweeping algorithm in Chapter 2, loops and
PV nodes are treated as breakpoints and need extra treatment. Therefore,
the sweeping algorithm needs more effort dealing with more loops and PV
nodes. This is illustrated by the following process: by adding or subtracting
loops and PV nodes in the 29-bus network, the runtime and iteration number of the sweeping algorithm are calculated. Figure 4.4 shows increasing
runtime and iteration number with more PV nodes in the network. Figure
4.5 shows increasing runtime and iteration number with more loops in the
network.
Generally speaking, the iteration number and runtime of the sweeping
algorithm are increasing with more loops and PV node added since they
increase the complexity of the network. However, the relationship is not
necessarily a strictly positive correlation because the position of the loops
or PV nodes also count. This results from the element ordering process of
the sweeping algorithm. The network topology determines the calculation
20
-4
4.0x10
Runtime (s)
-4
3.5x10
-4
3.0x10
-4
2.5x10
-4
2.0x10
-4
1.5x10
Iteration number
30
25
20
15
10
Loop number
-4
2.8x10
-4
Runtime (s)
2.6x10
-4
2.4x10
-4
2.2x10
-4
2.0x10
-4
1.8x10
-4
1.6x10
-4
1.4x10
Iteration number
9
8
7
6
5
4
1
PV node number
21
sequence in the backward and forward sweeping process thus has an influence
on the final iteration number and runtime.
4.1.4
12
Iteration Number
10
8
6
4
2
0
10
15
20
25
30
PV node position
4.2
4.2.1
22
Runtime comparison
Each algorithm is run for 1000 times and Table 4.2 gives average runtime
for the three networks respectively. Figure 4.7 compares the runtime of the
three algorithms.
Table 4.1: Characteristics of the benchmark networks
Network
Bus number
Loops
PV nodes
Transformers
1
14
7
0
4
2
29
2
3
13
3
106
0
0
5
14-bus
1.58e-4 s
1.82e-4 s
7.92e-4 s
29-bus
6.86e-5 s
1.32e-4 s
3.89e-3 s
106-bus
8.76e-5 s
2.37e-3 s
3.26e-1 s
-1
3.50x10
Sweeping algorithm
N-R
-1
3.25x10
G-S
-4
Runtime (s)
2.5x10
-4
2.0x10
-4
1.5x10
-4
1.0x10
-5
5.0x10
0.0
14-bus
29-bus
106-bus
23
for networks with less loops and PV nodes. The reason of that is easy to
explain: for networks with more loops or PV nodes, more breakpoints are
added thus increasing effort is needed, which results in more runtime in the
calculation.
4.2.2
The voltage magnitude differences between the sweeping algorithm and the
G-S and the N-R methods are calculated under different convergence criteria.
For the following results, the convergence criteria of the three algorithms
are equally set. Figure 4.8 shows voltage magnitude differences between
the sweeping algorithm and the N-R method. Figure 4.9 shows voltage
magnitude differences between the sweeping algorithm and the G-S method.
The results show that the solutions of the three algorithms get closer with
smaller convergence criteria and the solution differences are mostly under
the convergence criteria.
10
10
-6
10
10
-8
-7
-6
-7
10
-8
10
-9
10
10
15
20
25
30
Bus number
24
10
-6
10
10
10
-8
-7
-6
-7
10
-8
10
-9
10
10
15
20
25
30
Bus number
Chapter 5
Conclusions
In the thesis, a backward and forward voltage sweep algorithm is implemented in Java. The algorithm is validated using different network examples
and comparisons with established power flow techniques (N-R and G-S) in
JPower were made.
The assessment of the sweeping algorithm using a 29-bus network shows
that the voltage differences between successive iterations and voltage mismatches in breakpoints are decreasing with the iteration process. It needs
more effort when dealing with an increasing number of loops and PV nodes
which can be demonstrated by its increasing iteration number and runtime.
Different convergence criteria and PV node position also have an influence
on the solution.
The comparison results show that the sweeping algorithm has faster
convergence speed than the N-R and the G-S methods. The time-saving
advantage is more obvious especially for networks with less loops or PV
nodes. Since power distribution systems are often radial or weakly meshed,
the sweeping algorithm shows its convergence efficiency in analyzing power
distribution systems compared to N-R and G-S.
25
Appendix A
Benchmark networks
26
27
28
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