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Automatic Under-Frequency
Load Shedding (AUFLS)
Rate of Change of Frequency
Testing & Recommendation
System Operator
20/07/2012
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Prepared by:
System Operator
Date
July 2012
This report and the appendices are available to download from the System
Operator website at www.systemoperator.co.nz
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
2
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
3
4
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6
5.4.1
The role of the frequency guard ...................................................................................... 22
BENCH TESTING RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 23
6.1
Logic ............................................................................................................................... 23
Stability ........................................................................................................................... 23
Uniformity and Response Time ...................................................................................... 24
Accuracy ......................................................................................................................... 25
INACCURACY FROM POWER SYSTEM OSCILLATIONS ..................................................................................... 26
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
8
9
7.4.1
The Frequency Guard..................................................................................................... 31
7.4.2
Increasing the RoCoF calculation time ........................................................................... 32
7.4.3
Low-Pass Filtering .......................................................................................................... 34
ROCOF RECOMMENDATION SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 37
SOUTH ISLAND BLOCK 2 INCREASE ............................................................................................................ 38
9.1
9.2
9.3
10
11
12
13
Background ..................................................................................................................... 38
Cost Benefit Analysis Methodology................................................................................. 39
Cost Benefit Analysis Results ......................................................................................... 41
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Executive Summary
Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) is vital to managing power
system security and acts as a safety net to prevent power system collapse and
blackout following large, rare system events.
New Zealands AUFLS scheme is made up of a minimum of two 16% blocks in
each island. This means that 32% of customer demand can be automatically
disconnected to restore stability to the power system. In 2009, the System
Operator determined that a technical review of these arrangements was required.
The results of the technical review concluded that the Reserve Management Tool
(RMT) and the under-frequency products available for use by the System
Operator should prevent system collapse from large defined risks (such as the
sudden disconnection of HVDC bi-pole) at all times1.
However, the results of the technical review demonstrated that the operation of
the current AUFLS scheme could result in over-frequency and potentially system
collapse from some of the defined risks. Further, the current AUFLS scheme
does not provide the System Operator with sufficient confidence that it will
prevent the system from collapsing following undefined larger risks.
The System Operator identified technically feasible options for improving the
performance of the AUFLS system and under took a cost-benefit analysis of
those options. One of the options proposed included the use of rate-of-changeof-frequency (RoCoF) relays. The analysis revealed the scheme, using RoCoF
elements, resulted in the largest benefit for North Island.
Following the cost-benefit analysis the System Operator conducted a literature
review which revealed the use of RoCoF relays for under-frequency load
shedding schemes is rare. In addition, some North Island distributors voiced
concern whether the RoCoF relays would increase risk of trip due to maloperation.
The System Operator tested several RoCoF relays to address the issue of relay
reliability and to identify the Code requirements to ensure the implementation of a
reliable AUFLS scheme. This report presents the findings and conclusions of the
RoCoF relay bench testing.
The testing process aimed to verify the logic, stability, uniformity, response time,
and accuracy of the relays to identify the requirements for reliable use of RoCoF
relays on the New Zealand power system.
Using RoCoF technology for the proposed AUFLS scheme requires a level of
logic to implement a frequency guard and backup under-frequency settings. All of
the relays tested had some form of logic programming that allowed users to
implement the required combinations of elements. Each manufacturer has a
different way of arranging and setting their logic elements and care is required to
ensure the desired result is achieved when programming and setting the various
relays.
The bench testing aimed primarily at ensuring the RoCoF relays remain stable
during a range of system disturbances that would not normally result in AUFLS
operation. The tests results indicate that the sample RoCoF relays were stable
under all of the disturbances to which they were subjected. The guard frequency
used in these tests likely plays a major role in preventing the undesired operation
of RoCoF.
This could require the transfer on the HVDC link to be limited to below its maximum capability under certain
system conditions to ensure power system security.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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2.
The maximum response time required for the RoCoF settings proposed so
that the various relays provide a degree of uniformity.
3.
A test regime to verify the logic elements of the installed relays meet the
performance requirements.
The System Operator requests that Industry reviews the tests results and
provides feedback on the level of confidence in the stability of the relays.
For the South Island, the System Operator believes it is prudent to hold off
proposing new AUFLS schemes until there is further clarity of the future of the
frequency band and AUFLS provision at the Tiwai grid exit point.
In the interim, the System Operator recommends the trip setting of the second
AUFLS block is increased to 46.5 Hz to improve the capability of the current
South Island AUFLS scheme.
The implementation cost for the change is assessed as low so a high level costbenefit analysis was undertaken to avoid costly studies. The cost-benefit analysis
suggests the setting increase will be economically beneficially.
The testing results and South Island benefit analysis were presented and
discussed with industry at System Operator workshops commencing on 9th July
2012. Following the workshops, the System Operator will consider industry
feedback before making recommendations to the Electricity Authority regarding
the future AUFLS arrangements in both islands.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
Introduction
2.1
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North Island
South Island
Block 1 Block 2 Block 1 Block 2
47.8
47.8
47.5
47.5
0.4
15
0.4
15
47.5
45.5
0.4
0.4
The obligations includes consumers connected directly to the grid, also known as direct connects
The technical report can be found at http://www.systemoperator.co.nz/n3210,521.html.
4
This could require the transfer on the HVDC link to be limited to below its maximum capability under certain
system conditions to ensure power system security.
3
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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analyses of those options. One of the options proposed included the use of rateof-change-of-frequency (RoCoF) relays.
The economic analysis revealed the scheme using RoCoF elements resulted in
the largest benefit range for North Island5. The results of the economic analysis
were presented to industry in August 2011 and industry feedback was received
on the proposed changes.
Any changes to the AUFLS scheme will require changes to the Electricity
Industry Participation 2010 Code (Code). In November 2011, the Electricity
Authority agreed that the System Operator would complete the RoCoF testing
work required to compile code change recommendations. The System Operator
finalised the scope of the project after collecting feedback from the Electricity
Authority and industry participants.
The purpose of RoCoF testing work is to determine the requirements that will
provide a reliable, secure, and efficient RoCoF AUFLS system to deliver greater
certainty on system integrity during major under-frequency events. To make the
code recommendations the RoCoF testing work aimed at the following:
evaluating the technical requirements for the reliable use of RoCoF relays;
outlining the required installation design outcomes to provide flexibility in
meeting the requirements;
and developing a proposed implementation plan to maintain system security
during rollout.
The work also included completing a high level cost-benefit analysis of proposed
South Island setting changes. The purpose of this report is to set out the System
Operators findings on the above6 and to seek industry and stakeholder views on
such findings. A high level overview will be presented here while a detailed
technical report is attached as Appendix B. Once the System Operator has
considered any comments received in respect of this reports findings, it expects
to make any code recommendations to the Electricity Authority.
5
6
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
2.1.1
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System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
2.2
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The discussions helped to shape the work being carried out in the AUFLS
programme. The views presented during these discussions were varied.
However, the commonly re-occurring themes were8:
1. The AUFLS testing process (current and future)
2. Cost recovery of required scheme changes
3. The reliable use and implementation of the RoCoF scheme
In light of the industry discussion and the present scope of work the System
Operator invited industry participants to participate in an advisory group. The
purpose of the advisory group was to provide additional input into the testing of
the RoCoF relays.
Participation in the advisory group included providing comment on the testing
methodology and discussing these comments via teleconferences9. The advisory
group had nine members from different distribution companies that provided
input into the initial testing process.
The System Operator would like to thank the participants for their input and cooperation with the development of the RoCoF relay bench testing process.
2.2.1
Due to availability and timing constraints the following parties were not surveyed; Centralines, Scanpower,
and Electra.
8
Other concerns included proper incentives for scheme development, .4s IL trip time proposal, and visibility of
load aggregation and AUFLS provision.
9
Minutes from the advisory group teleconferences can be found here http://www.systemoperator.co.nz/aufls
10
Schedule 8.3, Technical Code A, Appendix B, clause 6 and 7
11
Schedule 8.3, Technical Code A, Appendix B, clause 13(a),(b), and (c)
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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and clarity in managing GXP level AUFLS relays. The Grid Owner has been
notified and is establishing a person responsible for this coordination.
Further concern was expressed with the development of the testing process for
the proposed use of RoCoF elements. Many distributors suggested further work
is done to develop the testing process and to ensure the practicality of testing is
considered. The System Operator is considering the different technical
requirements and the testing process, and expects to publish guidelines with
code recommendations.
2.2.2
2.2.3
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
2.3
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Achieving the stated objected of the AUFLS scheme relies upon two key factors:
block discrimination and speed of operation.
2.3.1
12
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System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
2.3.3
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14
15
This ability requires discrimination from CE events. Previous recommendations suggest increasing the
speed of interruptible load to ensure greater difference between the speed of frequency fall for CE and
ECE/Other events.
Articles in the literature review outline that the initial rate of frequency fall after an event is an indicator of
the power system imbalance. If factors such as the system inertia can be calculated there is potential
future of AUFLS scheme to have an adaptable method to load shedding [1][2].
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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16
17
Other systems investigating or using RoCoF for under-frequency load shedding include Sri Lanka, Qatar,
and regions of India.
The information summarised comes from D. E. Clarke, Tasmanian experience with the use of df/dt
triggering of UFLSS. See reference [4] for further information.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
3.1.1
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The resulting design of the AUFLS scheme included six load shedding steps18.
RoCoF elements were utilised on the first two steps and were connected to major
industrial load, as their load profiles are relatively constant.
In 2003, the AUFLS scheme was reviewed for changes to the Tasmanian
frequency standards to incorporate modern gas turbines and wind generation.
The operating range of AUFLS was reduced from 2.2 Hz to 1.5 Hz.
Tasmania noted that the reduction was only achieved with acceptable
discrimination and acceptable over-shoot by using rate of change of frequency
settings to operate early and slow down the frequency decline for large
disturbances.
Further re-design of the AUFLS system took place with the installation of the
Basslink (HVDC connection to Australia). The review found that the Tasmanian
power system is prone to oscillations during large disturbances and the use of
average RoCoF was required. This concept will be discussed in more detail later
in this report.
Tasmania reported the benefit of using of RoCoF elements together with higher
under-frequency settings improved the minimum system frequency reached for
AUFLS events and resulted in at least one less block of load shed.
The review of the RoCoF scheme in 2008 reported that there have been no
recorded instances of the RoCoF elements of relays not operating correctly [4].
18
The load shedding steps are not a set percentage of load as in New Zealand. The size of load shed in each
step is different and appears to be organised around load type (major industrial and retail load) with the
majority of load provided by major industrials.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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4.1.1
Frequency Calculation
There are many methods to calculate the system frequency. A more detailed
analysis of calculation methods exists in Appendix C to illustrate the concept.
The following section will provide a very brief summary of a common method.
Most relays calculate the system frequency from the voltage waveform. The
method each relay uses to calculate frequency is often not specified. A simple
method is called the zero crossing method. The relays measure the time
between the points where the voltage sine wave transitions through the zero
value, as displayed in Figure 2.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
4.1.2
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Rate-of-Change-of-Frequency Calculation
The rate of change of frequency is generally calculated from the frequency value
rather than directly from the original voltage waveform. Similar to the frequency
measurement, relay manufacturers do not make it transparent how they calculate
the rate of change of frequency values.
The simplest form of RoCoF calculation is based on two successive frequency
calculations with a set time difference between the frequency calculations. The
difference between frequency calculations is divided by the time difference to
calculate the RoCoF. However, relay manufacturers do not make it clear how
they calculate RoCoF and it is unlikely any would rely on the crude method
describe above.
Frequency is calculated quantity so the RoCoF is derived from a calculated
quantity. Further, it is well known that differentiation is generally an unstable
operation, especially in the presence of noise. This can make the calculation of
RoCoF unstable and filtering is required for it to work well. The limitation of the
calculation method is outlined in greater detail in Section 7.1.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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The testing work is not seeking to approve the use of any particular relay but to
better understand what requirements need to be specified to ensure reliable
operation of RoCoF relays.
This section outlines the steps taken and assumptions made to complete the
RoCoF relay testing. The bench testing included the following steps:
1. Establish initial RoCoF performance requirements to create a sample relay
selection
2. Develop test equipment arrangement and process
3. Design test cases objectives and generate required files
4. Carry out bench testing
5. Review results and identify next steps
6. Complete additional testing iterations as required
5.1
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Minimum requirement
Purpose
Fixed f + t (81U)
element
Traditional RoCoF
Trip logic
Operating range
45 to 55 Hz
Accuracy (81U)
Accuracy (81R)
Repeatability
From the list of relay requirements a survey was done of major manufacturers.
The investigation resulted in the final sample set of relays provided in Table 3.
Table 3 Relays used in RoCoF Bench Testing
Manufacturer
Relay
model
Description
Target markets*
SEL
751
Transmission /
Distribution
SEL
351-7 PS
Transmission /
Distribution
GE
SR760
Transmission /
Distribution
Siemens
7SJ64
Transmission
Siemens
7SJ80
Feeder protection
Distribution
ABB
RED670
Transmission
ABB
REU615
Voltage protection
Distribution
These are all multifunctional numerical relays that can be programmed to provide
a range of different protection functions in addition to frequency protection.
Two additional relays were also provided for testing, namely a RMS 2H34-S
frequency relay and an Alstom P145 feeder protection relay. The RMS relay was
found to have a bug that prevented settings from being changed reliably, and the
Alstom relay arrived half way through the second round of testing. Neither of
these relays were tested as a result. However, the Alstom relay will likely be
tested at a later date since, unlike all the other relays tested, its averaging
window can be explicitly set.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
5.2
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19
The Omicron test set is used to convert data files into actual voltage waveforms injected into the relay.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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5.3
Test Cases
Several test cases were created specifically to understand each aspect of the
performance criteria (logic, stability, uniformity, response time, and accuracy).
Each test case required a voltage waveform and, depending on the objective of
the test, a waveform was either generated or taken from real system events.
A sample waveform used to test the logic of the relays can be seen in Figure 4.
The literature review gave particular focus to the effect of power system
oscillations effect on the accuracy of the RoCoF calculation. Multiple test cases
were developed to further investigate this potential issue.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
5.4
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Settings Used
The testing work utilised the AUFLS settings proposed in the last stage of the
AUFLS review20 for the majority of test conducted21. The settings are in Table 4.
Table 4 - Proposed NI AUFLS operation criterion
Accelerated element
Block 1
Block 2
Block 3
Block 4
5.4.1
Df/dtset
fguard
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
-0.8 Hz/s 48.5 Hz
-1.5 Hz/s 48.8 Hz
Td3
N/A
N/A
0.4s
0.4s
Under
frequency
element 1
fset1
Td1
47.8 Hz
0.3s
47.5 Hz
0.3s
47.3 Hz
0.3s
47.3 Hz
0.3s
Under
frequency
element 2
fset2
Td2
N/A
N/A
47.8 Hz
15s
47.5 Hz
15s
47.5 Hz
15s
Block
Size
8%
8%
8%
8%
RoCoF Calculation
AND
Guard frequency
and time delay
OR
Trip
Backup frequency
and time delay
20
21
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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6.1
6.1.1
Logic
The proposed AUFLS scheme using RoCoF requires a level of logic including a
frequency guard and backup under-frequency settings. The testing aimed to
ensure the relays are capable of operating the required logic.
All of the relays tested had some form of logic programming that allowed users to
implement various combinations of RoCoF, frequency, and time delay elements
to achieve a desired tripping response.
Each manufacturer has a different way of arranging and setting their logic
elements and care is required to ensure the desired result is achieved when
programming and setting the various relays. This was illustrated in test 3 where
the two of the relays exhibited an unexpected response to a simple logic test.
It is suspected that this could be addressed by adjusting the logic arrangements
used in these relays.
It is recommended that the Code specifies a test outcome to verify that the logic
elements of the installed relays meet the performance requirements.
6.1.2
Stability
A primary aim of the bench testing was to ensure the RoCoF relays remain
stable during a range of system disturbances that would not normally result in
AUFLS operation.
The tests results indicate that the sample RoCoF relays were stable under all of
the disturbances to which they were subjected. This indicates that the RoCoF
algorithms are designed to reject noise and fast transient events which will help
to avoid undesired operation of the RoCoF.
The guard frequency used in these tests is likely to play a major role in
preventing the undesired operation of RoCoF. The above stability tests were
carried out using the RoCoF settings that were available at the time of testing.
The results of these tests may change if different settings are used (i.e. if the
frequency guard is set to a higher frequency).
It is recommended that RoCoF relays are stable for use. It is suggested that
Industry reviews the tests results and provides feedback on the level of
confidence in the stability of the relays.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
6.1.3
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System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
6.1.4
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Accuracy
The ability to rely on RoCoF relays for load shedding requires the relay to be able
to accurately calculate the rate of system frequency decay when subjected to a
variety of grid conditions. The consequences of inaccuracy could result in the
relay mal-operating by tripping inappropriately or not tripping when needed.
As stated previously, frequency is a calculated value from which the RoCoF is
derived. The RoCoF is derived (differentiated) from a calculated value. It was
assumed that most relays would simply calculate the RoCoF from two
successive frequency calculations with a set time difference between the
frequency calculations. However, the testing revealed the calculation method
from most RoCoF relays are more complicated and it is difficult deduce the exact
method used.
The relays performed within the specified accuracy margins (0.05 Hz/s) for
clean frequency decays. However, the test results did verify that RoCoF relays
are susceptible to calculation inaccuracy due to system oscillations. The impact
of power system oscillations is dependent on the relays settings used.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
7.1
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Ideally, the frequency measured at each bus across the North Island system
would be identical. However, in practice this is unlikely to be the case. The
frequency measured at a specific bus may vary from the average system
frequency.
Part of the frequency variance is caused by the addition of several sine waves as
local and remote generators adjust for the varying load. Synchronous generators
will vary their speed up and down because of load variations. The turbines are
not always fast enough to maintain an exact frequency. When additional power is
needed, the energy may initially come from the stored energy of the rotating
mass of the generator and the turbine, which will decrease the speed of the
generator. The characteristics of each unit will respond differently to these load
variations and so units may rock back and forth with respect to each other due
to the distance to the load [5].
The additional sine waves created by the generators rocking modulate the
frequency measured on the bus, varying it from the average system frequency
[6]. These additional sine waves are known as oscillations. Other spinning
devices synchronised to the system, such as synchronous condensers, will also
contribute to frequency oscillations.
Studies conducted elsewhere have shown that remote buses, further away from
the core system, are more susceptible to oscillations [1]. Other work has
suggested that the introduction of variable renewable energy resources, i.e. wind
energy, may also lead to further frequency deviation and add oscillations [2].
Larger oscillations can also be expected if the system is stressed, e.g. with many
lines out of service.
Studies completed on the Tasmanian power system found that their system is
prone to oscillations during large system disturbances [4]. Further work was
completed to understand the impact of oscillations on the calculation of rate-ofchange-of-frequency during large system disturbances that would be expected to
cause AUFLS response.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
7.2
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Figure 8 Simple illustration of the impact of oscillations and calculation time on accuracy
The relay trips when the RoCoF frequency exceeds the set value; so in general,
only the maximum positive error in the RoCoF is of any consequence. That is,
the oscillations can cause false tripping, but will not prevent the relay from
operating.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Testing work was completed to verify the relays susceptibility to power system
oscillations. Test case 15 simulated a frequency decay of .35 Hz/s with a
superimposed noise of 1.5 Hz at an amplitude 2 degrees peak-to-peak. Figure 9
shows the result when the relay was armed with a set point of .4 Hz/s.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
7.3
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Figure 10 Haywards RoCoF calculated following Pole 2 trip on 9th December 2011
Figure 1023 shows the calculated frequency at the Haywards 220kV bus during
an under-frequency event following the tripping of HVDC Pole 2 on 9 December
2011. The impact of the oscillations can be seen in the large spikes of the RoCoF
(df/dt) calculation. The initial magnitude of the oscillations decreases as the
system responds to the frequency decay, which helps to reduce the inaccuracy.
These same oscillations were not present at the Huntly 220kV bus as shown in
Figure 11.
22
23
The investigation relied upon frequency and RoCoF data calculated by the PMUs installed at different
buses.
The df/dt averaging window from Figure 11 is assumed to be around .2s. Further information and more
events are analysed in Appendix C.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Figure 11 RoCoF measured at Huntly following Pole 2 tripping on 9th December 2011
The investigation indicated that at specific buses, the calculated RoCoF may be
considerably different from the average system RoCoF24. In the North Island it is
considered reasonable for an oscillation to occur with a frequency in the range of
0.5 Hz to 2.5 Hz25.
In practice, it appears that the duration and magnitude of the oscillations does
not occur continuously during the frequency decay. Over time the systems
response to the disturbance appears to dampen the initial oscillation. However,
not enough detail is known about the system to estimate the magnitude or
likelihood of oscillations occurring during an AUFLS events.
In light of the uncertainty and exposure to inaccuracy the System Operator
believes it prudent to mitigate against oscillations, as the consequences of maloperation could be significant.
24
The effects of installing the RoCoF relays in the zone substations may increase the susceptibility to
oscillation however this has not been analysed.
25
Work done in Tasmania found that at some buses they experienced oscillation frequency around 2.2 Hz.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
7.4
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7.4.1
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Moving the frequency guard limit to 48 Hz and below may provide the RoCoF
scheme discrimination against single contingent events but it wont mitigate the
inaccuracy which oscillations cause on the RoCoF calculation. The inaccuracy
may result in RoCoF tripping improperly in response to the average system
frequency. This minimizes the benefit to be gained by using RoCoF to improve
better matching of load shed to generation loss.
While the frequency guard improves the performance of RoCoF calculation it
alone will not provide a robust deterrent to the effects of oscillation on the RoCoF
calculation.
7.4.2
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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The relay will continuously calculate the RoCoF and once the frequency guard
level has been maintained for the time delay, the trip signal is sent and the relay
will operate (Figure 14). So long as the time taken for the frequency to fall from
50Hz is longer than the calculation time, no additional delay as a result of the
calculation time will be introduced.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
7.4.3
Page 34 of 43
Low-Pass Filtering
RoCoF relays use low pass filters to manage the impact of power oscillations on
the RoCoF calculation. Ideally, the low pass filters would attenuate the noise and
oscillations while leaving the slower-changing underlying RoCoF relatively
unaffected.
In practice, it can be difficult to distinguish between the low-frequency power
oscillations and the underlying signal. The error in the RoCoF calculation is
proportional to the square of the oscillation frequency; the higher the oscillation
frequency, the higher the calculation error. The relay filters were originally
designed for islanding applications rather than as a general AUFLS scheme.
Therefore, their cut-off frequencies tend to be too high i.e. not enough filtering.
The test using the 13 December event demonstrates the functionality of the low
pass filters. When the event waveform was injected though the sample relays
during testing, some of the relays operated once the average system frequency
was increasing (Figure 15). The blue line in Figure 15 is the trip signal sent by
the relay.
Figure 15 Frequency and trip plot trace from Test Case 2 Relay G.
During the event an oscillation initially occurred at a frequency of 7 Hz while the
average system frequency decayed at about 0.5 Hz/s. As the oscillation
frequency began to decrease, the relay filter started to pass through some of the
oscillation, which in turn began to affect the RoCoF calculation.
The frequency of the oscillation eventually decreased to a level where the
filtering allows a sufficient magnitude to affect the RoCoF calculation, causing the
relay to operate on a downward swing of the oscillation, even though the
underlying frequency is increasing.
While the AUFLS scheme is not designed to cover transient instability events, the
test provided useful information into how the filters operate.
The majority of the sample relays sufficiently filter out the high frequency
oscillation to prevent the relays from operating. However, as the frequency
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
Page 35 of 43
decreases, the filtering used by the relay becomes important and some filtering,
such as the relay in Figure 15, was insufficient to prevent operation.
Test case 14 in Appendix B specifically sought to investigate the low pass filters
associated with the RoCoF calculation. The test confirmed that low frequency
oscillations will be passed through the RoCoF filters and therefore affect the
RoCoF calculated by the relay.
Figure 16 displays the filtering response of one the sample relays when set to trip
at RoCoF greater than or equal to 0.4 Hz/s.
Figure 16 Filtering response of the Relay F with RoCoF elements set to .4 Hz/s
The gain values of Figure 16 display how much of the oscillations RoCoF will be
scaled down, or attenuated, before affecting the overall RoCoF calculation.
For example, if a steady frequency decline of 0.1 Hz/s were to occur with an
oscillation of 1.6 Hz present at the point of measurement26. The maximum
expected RoCoF from the oscillation would be attenuated by the filtering of the
sample relay from Figure 16 by approximately 0.67 before being added onto the
calculated RoCoF value.
The maximum expected rate of change of frequency from the oscillation depends
on the oscillation magnitude and frequency. For example, if the oscillations
maximum RoCoF was 0.56 Hz/s this would be multiplied by 0.67 to result in
0.38Hz/s that would be added to the calculated system frequency RoCoF.
This means that although the system frequency is falling at 0.1Hz/s the relay,
because of the oscillation, calculates the decay as 0.48 Hz/s.
If the oscillation frequency was greater than 4 Hz the relay will filter out the
oscillation preventing it from having an impact on the overall RoCoF calculation.
The amount of pass through for unfiltered oscillation frequencies changes
depending on the relay and the RoCoF settings.
26
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Gain
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
3
Frequency (Hz)
27
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System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
9.1
Background
Page 38 of 43
28
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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Interim Proposal
In light of the variables previously stated, the System Operator believes it is
prudent to refrain from further analysing AUFLS scheme options until there is
greater clarity of the future of AUFLS provision at the Tiwai GXP and frequency
requirements.
In the interim, the System Operator has identified that increasing the trip setting
of the second AUFLS block to 46.5 Hz will improve the current South Island
AUFLS scheme. The second AUFLS block is currently set to trip at 45.5 Hz
which is close to the 45 Hz standard.
An increase in the trip setting would raise the minimum frequency reached
following most of the AUFLS events studied and so provide additional protection
against larger events. Further information can be found in the technical review
report.
To increase the second block trip setting in the Code requires a cost benefit
analysis be completed to ensure the change is for the long term benefit for New
Zealand consumers.
The objective of this section of the report is to summarise the results of the costbenefit analysis completed on the proposals to raise block 2 of AUFLS in the
South Island. A high level summary will be provided here while the work
completed by Concept Consulting can be seen in Appendix D.
9.2
The System Operator has estimated that the cost of sending individuals to the
various GXPs to manually change the relay settings could be of the order of
$9,00029.
In light of the low implementation cost a high level cost-benefit evaluation was
completed to demonstrate the proposal would deliver a present net benefit.
The high level analysis enabled the System Operator to analyse the scheme
without having to undertake lengthy studies which would likely be more costly
than the implementation.
The approach aims to consider what benefit would need to be seen to justify the
cost.
Any event where the scheme using the 46.5 Hz trip setting prevents system
collapse and the current scheme does not, the avoided cost can be attributed as
a benefit.
The benefit is scaled by the return period or the likelihood of the event. The
annual benefit is estimated by the cost of system collapse multiplied by the
likelihood of the event in years.
It is considered impossible to accurately estimate the likelihood of such an event.
However, it is considered possible to estimate the threshold or the probability of
29
The cost is variable depending on if the initiative was spread out over a longer period, such that technicians
made changes when they were anyway due to visit a sub-station for another reason.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
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the event for where it would no longer be beneficial to spend the implementation
cost.
For the proposal, to be considered beneficial the proposed settings must protect
against an event which occurs more regularly than the threshold and that would
result in system collapse with the current settings.
The following assumptions are crucial to the methodology:
1. Increasing the second block trip setting will not result in any material risk of
system collapse due to over-frequency following operation of the AUFLS
scheme. This assumption is based on the wide frequency range of the South
Island (up to 55 Hz).
2. Increasing the second block trip settings will not result increase risk of
unnecessary load shedding. There is still 1 Hz difference between the first
(47.5 Hz) and second (46.5 Hz) blocks. The System Operator believes this
will provide significant discrimination when needed to not increase the risk of
unneeded shedding.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
9.3
Page 41 of 43
Implementation cost
$9,000
$50,000
1 in 380,000 years
1 in 70,000 years
1 in 100,000 years
1 in 19,000 years
As stated previously, the South Island frequency band may change in the future
to adjust for the increasing number of non-compliant generators. To analyse the
benefit of implementing the proposed changes if the South Island scheme
requires redesigning in two years, the 2 year net present threshold was
calculated.
The 2 year net present value indicates the proposed scheme would need to at
least increase protection against events more likely than a 1 in 19,000 year event
to be beneficial.
The previous studies conducted in the South Island gives the System Operator
confidence the proposed block settings will give the scheme resilience to events
which could occur measured in tens rather than thousands of years.
The System Operator believes increasing the second block of AUFLS to 46.5 Hz
demonstrates a net economic benefit.
30
The actual restoration duration is variable depending on several factors including awareness of cause. The
restoration of load occurs progressively and estimation does not attempt to account for this. Previous
work has estimated minimum restoration time following system collapse to be 12 hours, this is
considered to be optimistic so 18 hours was used.
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
10
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Next Steps
The System Operator will be engaging with industry participants to ensure the
findings from this paper are well understood and that industry feedback has been
thoroughly considered. Once the System Operator has analysed feedback, it will
finalise recommendations and present them to the Electricity Authority.
In parallel, the System Operator will be conducting further work in the following
areas:
11
System Operator Report: Automatic Under-Frequency Load Shedding (AUFLS) RoCoF Testing
12
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Acknowledgements
The System Operator wishes to acknowledge and express appreciation to Victor
Lo, Daniel Mulholland, Robert Derks, and Simon Coates for their significant input
to the material included in this report.
13
References
[1] IEEE Std C37.117-2007, IEEE Guide for the Application of Protective Relays
Used for Abnormal Frequency Load Shedding and Restoration, 2007.
[2] H. Bervani, et al., On the Use of df/dt in Power System Emergency Control,
In Proc. Of IEEE Power Systems Conference & Exposition, Seattle, Washington,
USA, 2009
[3] B.W. Leyland, et al., A New Rate of Change of Frequency Relay, 1997
[4] D. E. Clarke, Tasmanian experience with the use of df/dt triggering of
UFLSS, Final Report, Transend Networks PTY LTD, No. D08/22185, 2008.
[5] M. Hemmingsson, Power System Oscillations Detection Estimation &
Control, Lund University, 2003
[6] D.J. Finley, et al., Load Shedding for Utility and Industrial Power System
Reliability, Basler Electric Company