GROUP 1: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT

A. THE PRINCIPLES AND FOUNDATION OF CHILD GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Although each child is unique, the basic patterns, or principles, of growth and development are universal, predictable, and orderly.
Through careful observation and interaction with children, researchers and those who work with children understand the
characteristics of the principles that follows:
Development tends to proceeds from the head downward. This called the CEPHALOCAUDAL PRINCIPLE. According to this
principle, the child first gains control of the head, then the arms, then the legs. Infants gain control of head and face movements within
the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they are able to lift themselves up using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age,
infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk.
Development also proceeds from the center of the body outward according to the PROXIMODISTAL PRINCIPLE. Accordingly, the
spinal cord develops before other parts of the body. The childs arms develop before the hands, and the hands and feet develop before
the fingers and toes. Fingers and toes are the last to develop
Development also depends on maturation. MATURATION refers to the sequence of biological changes in children. These orderly
changes give children new abilities. Much of the maturation depends on changes in the brain and the nervous system. These changes
assist children to improve their thinking abilities and motor skills. A rich learning environment helps children develop to their
potential.
It is important to consider at this point; the role environment plays in the hereditary influence to development. Nature and nurture
combine to promote developmental changes i.e. the same hereditary predisposition may lead into several outcomes depending on the
environment to which the child id exposed. The following are some principles which illustrate this point:
CANALIZATION PRINCIPLE- refers to cases where operation of genes tends to limit/restrict development to a small number of
outcomes. A characteristic that is strongly canalized is relatively difficult to modify such as eye color, blood type, Downs syndrome,
babbling. Less canalized characteristics may be intelligence, height, temperament sine these characteristics can be modified in any of
several ways because of variety in life experience.
Many years ago, CONRAD WADDINGTON (1966) used the term canalization to refer to cases where genes limit or restrict
development to a small number of outcomes.
3 points:
Genes restrict the extent to which the environment can influence the phenotype.
Highly canalized phenotype is not much influenced by the environmental influences
Weakly canalized phenotype is open to environmental influences.
Canalization principle is a simple idea, and yet, a very useful one that illustrates that:
There are multiple pathways along which an individual might develop
Nature and nurture combine to determine these pathways
Either genes or environment may limit the extent to which the other factor can influence development.
RANGE-OF-REACTION PRINCIPLE.
Where genotype/genetic endowment sets limit to a range of possible phenotype/ways in which persons genotype is expressed in
observable or measurable characteristics. Ones genotype helps to set a range of possible outcomes for any particular attribute but the
environment may determine the point within the range where the individual would fall.
According to GOTTESMAN (1963), genes do not rigidly canalize behavior. Instead, an individual genotype establishes a range of
possible responses to different kinds of life experiences the so called range of reaction.
Example:
Here we see the effects of varying degrees of environmental enrichment in the IQs of 3 children: Juan who has highly genetic potential
for intellectual development, Tony, whose genetic endowment for intelligence is average, and Freddie, whose potential for intellectual
growth is far below average. Notice that, under the similar environmental conditions, Juan always outperforms the other two children.
Juan has also the widest reaction range, in that his IQ may vary from well below average in a restricted environment to far above
average in an enriched environment. By contrast, Freddie has a very limited reaction range, his potential for intellectual is low and, as
a result, he shows smaller variation in IQ across environments than do the other two children.
NICHE PICKING
Psychological theory that people choose environments that complement their heredity. For example, extroverts may deliberately
engage with others like themselves. Niche picking is a component of gene-environment correlation.
Scarr and McCartney's model
In 1983, psychology professors Sandra Scarr and Kathleen McCartney proposed that genes affect the environments individuals choose
to interact with, and that phenotypes influence individuals exchanges with people, places, and situations.The model states that
genotypes can determine an individual's response to a certain environment, and that these genotype-environment pairs can affect
human development. Scarr and McCartney, influenced by Robert Plomin's findings, recognized three types of gene-environment
correlations. As humans develop, they enter each of these stages in succession, and each is more influential than the last.
Types:
1. Passive Genotype/Environment correlation
According to Scar and McCartney, the kind of environment that parents provide for their children is influenced, in part, by the parents
own genotypes.
2. Evocative Genotype/Environmental Correlations
Scar and McCartney assumes that a childs genetically influenced attributes effect the behavior of others toward him or her.
3. Active Genotype/Environment Correlations

Scar and McCartney (1983) proposed that the environment that children prefer and seek out will be those that are most compatible
with their genetic predispositions.
RUBBER-BAND HYPOTHESIS
Where genetic traits may be compared with a rubber band where its length is strength by environmental forces. People may initially
have been given different lengths of stretched genetic endowments, but the natural forces of environment may have stretched their
expression to equal lengths or led to differences in attained length in function of innate differences.
B. DEVELOPMENT GROWTH AND MATURATION
In psychology, maturation is the process of development in which an individual matures or reaches full functionality. Originally,
maturation examined only biological forces, such as the aging process, involved in a child's changes in behavior. Maturation theories
evolved to include cognitive development as a result of biological maturation and environmental experiences. Modern concepts of
maturation theorize that it is the process of learning to cope and to react in emotionally appropriate ways
Along with growth and learning, maturation is one of three processes that play a central role in a person's development. Maturation
does not necessarily happen along with aging or physical growth, but is a part of growth and development.
The concept of maturation was pioneered by Arnold Gesell in the 1940s. He emphasized nature's role in human development. In
developmental psychology, the concept of maturation was advanced by Jean Piaget. For him, simply growing up played a crucial role
in children's increasing capacity to understand their world, posing that children cannot undertake certain tasks until they are
psychologically mature enough. Today, cognitive theories of development do not adopt a strictly biological perspective. Instead,
maturation relates to the interplay between genetics and socio-environmental influences. Also, maturation is no longer seen as being
limited to childhood.
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential
order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. These changes in the
brain and nervous system help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills. Also, children must mature to a
certain point before they can progress to new skills (Readiness). For example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the
infant's brain has not matured enough to allow the child to talk. By two years old, the brain has developed further and with help from
others, the child will have the capacity to say and understand words. Also, a child can't write or draw until he has developed the motor
control to hold a pencil or crayon. Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically programmed. The child's environment and the
learning that occurs as a result of the child's experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. A
stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential.
C. DETERMINANTS OF DEVELOPMENT
Physical growth, like other aspects of development, results from a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors.
Heredity
It contributes considerably to physical growth.
Genes influence growth by controlling the bodys production of and sensitivity to hormones.
Mutation can disrupt this process, leading to deviations in physical size.
Nutrition
Is important at any time of development, but is crucial during the first two years because the babys brain and body are growing so
rapidly.
Breastfeeding versus Bottle-feeding
In early infancy, breast milk is ideally suited to their needs, and bottled formulas try to imitate it.
In place of breast milk, mothers give their babies commercial formula or low- grade nutrients, such as rice water or highly diluted cow
or goat milk. Contamination of these foods as a result of poor sanitation is common and often leads to illness and
infant death.
Malnutrition
Recent evidence indicates that about 27 percent of the worlds children suffer from malnutrition before age 5
(World Health Organization, 2010b). The 10 percent who are severely affected suffer from two dietary diseases.
Marasmus- is a wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential nutrients.
it usually appears in the first year of life when a babys mother is too malnourished to produce enough breast milk and bottle feeding is
also inadequate.
Kwashiorkor-caused by unbalanced die very low in protein.
Usually strikes after weaning, between 1 and 3 years of age.
Children who are malnourished are likely to grow very slowly at all.
Over nutrition or dietary excess
Another form of poor nutrition because a child may become obese and face added risk of serious medical complications such as
diabetes or high blood pressure.
Obesity
Besides serious emotional and social difficulties, obese children are at risk for lifelong health problems.
Leads to stroke, kidney failure, and circulatory problems that heighten the risk of eventual blindness and leg amputation.
c. Disease / Illness
Major diseases that keep a child in bed for several months may retard growth; but after recovering, the child will ordinarily show a
grow spurt.
Children with frequently recurring colds, ear problems, sore throats, or skin infections tend to be smaller than their less sickly peers.
Major contributor to malnutrition, hindering both physical growth and cognitive development.

d. Emotional well-being/ stress and lack of affection

We may not think of affection as necessary for healthy physical growth, but it is as vital as food.
Growth faltering- term applied to infants whose weight, height, and head circumference are substantially below age-related growth
norms who are withdrawn and apathetic.
- Extreme emotional deprivation can interfere with the production leads to Psychosocial dwarfism.
-a growth disorder that appears between 2 and 15 years of age.
Typical Characteristics- decreased GH secretion, very short stature, immature skeletal age, and serious adjustment problems.
-Deprived dwarves- infants and toddlers who suffered severe emotional deprivation.
- a condition referred to by researchers as failure to thrive.
- inhibiting the production of pituitary growth hormone.
Even healthy children who experience too much stress and too little affection are likely to lag far behind their age mates in physical
growth and motor development.
e. Practice effects
Researchers believe that practice is essential to motor development and that children might never learn to crawl, walk, run, jump or
throw if they are denied all opportunities to rehearse these basic skills.
Physical Maturation- what underlies motor development and that practice merely allows the child to perfect those skills that
maturation has made possible.
D. PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth: Refers to an increase in some quantity over time. The quantity can be; Physical (e.g. Growth in height)
Development is systematic and orderly change, organisms experience as they live and either gain or lose abilities.
Continuity
Growth and development is a continues process from conception to death.
In the early years of life, development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body size and functioning, but
also of behavior.
Changes continue which lead to the period of life known as senescence or old age.
These changes continue until death ends the life cycle.
Sequentiality
Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of development peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the same for all
individuals.
Social behavioral scientists increasingly have come to see development as a relationship between organism and environment in a
transaction or collaboration.
Individuals work with and affect their environment, and in turn the environment works with and affects them.
All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next. (e.g. Infants stand before they walk; Draw circles before
they make squares)
General to specificity
Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general activities always precede specific activity.
For example; - The fetus moves its whole body but incapable of making specific responses -Infants wave their arms randomly. They
can make such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them.
Differentiality
The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development.
Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. Development does not
occur at an even pace.
There are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance.
Development achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or between levels.
Development proceeds from the Head downward
This principle describes the direction of growth and development.
The head region starts growth at first, following by which other organs starts developing.
The child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the legs.
Infants develop control of the head and face movements at first two months. In next few months they are able to lift themselves up by
using their arms. Next gain control over leg and able to crawl, stand, walk, run, jump, climb, day by day.
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward
The directional sequence of development during both prenatal and postnatal stages may either be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the
central axis to the extremities of the body.
The spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body.
The childs arms develop before the hands, the hands and feet develops before the fingers and toes.
Fingers and toe muscles are the last to develop in physical development.
The directional sequence of development stages may either be (A) from head to foot, or (B) from the central axis to the extremities of
the body.
Development depends on maturation and learning
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development.
The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities.

Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. And help children to improve in thinking and motor skills.
Children must mature to a, certain point before they can progress to new skills.
Development proceeds from the simple to more complex
Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems.
Children at first are able hold the big things by using both arms, In the next part able to hold things in a single hand, then only able to
pick small objects like peas, cereals etc.
Children when able to hold pencil, first starts draw circles then squares then only letters after that the words.
Growth is a personal matter
Each child grows in his own personal manner. He/she should be permitted to grow at his/her own rate.
If we expect too much, he/she may do even less than he/she is able to do.
Growth comes from within
One or surrounding environment can encourage or can hinder the energy of a child, but the drive force that pushes a child to grow is
carried inside him.
Parent or teacher job is to clear the track, guide the child with loving acceptance and then relax and enjoy.
Growth has certain characteristics common at particular stages
Growth is gradual and orderly but uneven
E. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
I. Prenatal Growth and Birth- fertilization
Stages:
Zygote/ Germinal Phase- conception to end of 2nd week
- fertilized egg cell divides and subdivides many times until a globular cluster of many cells is formed. The cluster moves freely until
it becomes attached and implanted in the uterine wall where placenta, through which it receives nourishment and is developed
-egg-like organization and structure
Embryo- 2nd week to 2nd month
-miniature human being
-head: large; trunk and extremities: very small
-spontaneous movements
Fetus- 2nd lunar month to time of birth
-5 lunar months: weighs 9-10 ounces;10in long
-8 lunar months: 4-5 lbs;16-18in
-birth: 7-7 lbs;20in
*premature: below 5 lbs. or 2500g
Physiological Development
1. Internal Structure
-5th week: principal structures of brain (midbrain, cerebellum, medulla)
-3rd month: peripheral nerves, spiral ganglia, and other structures necessary for spontaneous or automatic activity
-15th week: can hear fetal heartbeat through stethoscope
Motor Activity
-turn and squirm; others maintain same position but thrust and kick with their hands or feet
Maturation of the Sense Organs
-temperature senses are better developed
-taste buds are well developed and more widely distributed in fetal than in adult life
-smell mechanisms: as soon as air reaches the nasal cavities the olfactory sense begins to function
-hearing-least developed
Influences of the Prenatal Environment
-diseased condition or deep emotional experience interferes with the development of the new individual
Birth-first transitional phase
II. Infancy- birth to approximately 3 years
Phases:
Neonate- birth to 2 months
-sleep occupies more than 2/3 of his time
-reactions: negative and body-bound (hunger, tiredness)
-somesthetic senses: for temperature, taste, and smell are well developed by birth
-distance senses: vision and audition are less developed
-2 instinctive abilities: to cry and to suckle
-one month: can lift his head when supported, simple crawling movements when laid prone, focus eyes on light changes/ moving faces
-follows moving persons and object, watch faces, tries to reach for objects particularly his mothers face
-language development: crying and simple vocalization
-personality trait: degree of stability and instability
*stable: adaptable, easy-going individual who is not easily upset by normal environmental changes (eg. Taking food, getting
to sleep)
*unstable: cries easily, much upset by changes in temperature, feeding or position

Babyhood- 2 months to about 1 year

-evidence recognition of the mother, exhibits social smile, makes crawling motions or imitate movements to the time when he
pronounces his first word or takes his first step
-four months: crawls successfully
-end of the period: stands alone, begins to walk, grasp, hold, and manipulate various toys and objects
-vision and audition are well developed
-span of memory increases- recognize his mother and a little later familiar persons and objects
-nine months: imitation- coping simple movements
-begins his career of learning
-vital feelings: anger, rage, fear, affection begin to play important role
-pre speech level: not able to associate meaning with the sounds he may eagerly use
-fifth month: learns to control the flow of air over the vocal cords, so that sooner or later he develops the ability to produce sounds at
will
*Babbling stage- 6-9 months
-derive much pleasure and delight from listening to his own sounds
-bah-bah, mah-mah, dah-dah
-ten months: clearer duplication of monosyllables (ma-ma, da-da, by-by)
-imitation of sounds or words produced by others
-second month: baby begins to turn when he hears a human voice
-third month: social smiling
-interest in adult
Late Infancy- 1 year to few months before 3
-baby observes moving objects that are in motion
-walking and speech
-playing with toys but not limited to any rules or regulations- plays as he wishes and stops when he becomes interested in something
else
-tries to utilize and to keep in his possession all the things which he becomes in contact
-sympathy, jealousy, distress, joy, compassion and surprise begins to manifest
-self-centered and less dependent on adults
-interest in other children: plays with other children
-speech level: monosyllables are first combined with words and meaning is now attached
-pronunciation of word is very flexible
-17-20 month: single word sentencesentences or 2 or more words
-period of questioning (whats that?)
Period of Negativism
-before 2 years of age
-realization and development of the childs own ego
-less to imitate, begins to act on his own will
-makes up his own mind and makes his own judgment
-plans his own play and other act
-parents should guard against over correctiveness: give the child reasonable opportunity to express his own will and to do things by
himself when he prefers it
-adults give suggestions or stop activity that is dangerous or unhygienic but should not force upon the child their own activities or
plans of action when he himself recognizes what he wishes to do
-signifies beginning of ego consciousness, rise of self-assertion, termination of infancy, entrance into a higher status of maturity
III. Childhood
Three Maturational Periods
a. The Period of Early Childhood
-The Child enters early childhood as a self-conscious and ego-directed individual.
-His physical growth gradually slows down.
-the Motor co-ordination enters the stage of increasing perfection in speed and facility.
-Children as graceful being.
-This grace makes the child feel more adequate and diminishes his insecurity and helplessness.
-Speaking to dolls, having imaginary friends and speaking to them, or conversing with other persons who are momentarily absent
through miniature telephones, having parties and drinking from empty cups, eating from imaginary dishesall are typical activities in
the preschool age.
-At this age child like to dramatize events and people from their daily life, playing house and family, using younger children as
babies, while they themselves are daddies or mommies.
-The preschool child is frequently unable to distinguish between imaginary experience and real occurrences perceived by the senses.
-He easily exaggerates and invents stories for which he may frequently be accused of lying. So-called white lies express imaginary
experiences or activities held as true, since his imagination presents many pictures which he confuses with memory.
b. Childhood Proper

-is the age best fitted for learning and adjustment.

- The average child enters childhood proper in the first half of his 7th year
- During school years, the child becomes more and more practical, more and more realistic.
-Emotional development is characterized by a considerable decrease of fear, timidity, envy, and jealousy and by increasing self-control
over emotions generally.
- The child becomes less emotionally excitable, less easily hurt, and exhibits lower sensitivity.
-Busemanns study shows that at nine years, 82% of a childs feeling or reactions may be described as pleasant.
-These are the years of happy childhood.
c. Late Childhood
-SOCIALIZATION begins in this period.
-Thinking about natural phenomena, questioning about causes and effects, an advance in discrimination and theoretic consideration,
growth of criticism, much reorientation toward adulthood and gang-mindedness are few of the main characteristics that distinguish the
personality of the child.
-Children now show extreme interest in watching anything dramatized.
-Girls prefer songs, music and romance, while boys most enjoy adventure, combat, mystery, and detective plays.
- Social life is characterized by gang activities.
-Children enjoy belonging to gangs for protection, excitement and adventure,
Expiration of Childhood
-Beginnings of Puberty Changes.
-Puberty changes are introduced by rapid growth of the child with respect to the extremities of the body
-Arms and legs first, then the nose, grow quickly and assume adult like proportions, while the trunk and other parts of the face
undergo only an insignificant increase.
-At the same time the HEART enlarges disproportionately so that the arteries are not able to keep pace.
Dynamics of Individuals and Group
Group Dynamics
The forces from the interactions of group members.
Influence the behavior of both individual group members and the group as a whole.
Understanding of Group Dynamics is useful for practicing effectively with any type of group.
Four Dimensions of Group Dynamics
Particular importance to group workers in understanding and working effectively with all types of task and treatment groups:
Communication and Interaction Patterns
Verbal and nonverbal communications are the components of social interaction.
process by which people convey meanings to each other by using symbols.
Communication entails:
(1) the encoding of a persons perceptions, thoughts, and feelings into language and other symbols,
(2) the transmission of these symbols or language, and
(3) the decoding of the transmission by another person.
Communication can be verbal, nonverbal, or written. Whereas members of face-to-face groups experience verbal and nonverbal
communications, members of telephone groups experience only verbal communications, and members of computer groups experience
only written messages.

Kiesler (1978) has suggested that people communicate with such interpersonal concerns as
(1) understanding other people,
(2) finding out where they stand in relation to other people,
(3) persuading others,
(4) gaining or maintaining power,
(5) defending themselves,
(6) provoking a reaction from others,
(7) making an impression on others,
(8) gaining or maintaining relationships, and
(9) presenting a unified image to the group.

Body language, gestures, and facial expressions can provide important clues about how members are reacting to verbal
communications.
Workers who are aware that group members communicate for many reasons can observe, assess, and understand communication and
interaction patterns. Because patterns of communication are often consistent across different situations, group workers can use this
information to work with individual members and the group as a whole.
The worker should also be aware that messages are often received selectively. Selective perception refers to the screening of messages
so they are congruent with ones belief system.
Communications can also be distorted in transmission. In Figure 3.1, distortion is represented as interference. Among the most
common transmission problems are language barriers.
Workers to be aware that problems in sending or receiving messages can distort or obfuscate intended meanings.
Interaction Patterns
In addition to becoming aware of communication processes, the worker must also consider patterns of interaction that develop in a
group.
PATTERNS OF INTERACTION
Maypole when the leader is the central figure and communication occurs from the leader to member and from member to leader.
Round Robin when members take turns talking
Hot Seat when there is an extended back and-forth between the leader and one member as the other members watch.
Free Floating when all members take responsibility for communicating, taking into consideration their ability to contribute
meaningfully to the particular topic.
IMPORTANT FACTORS OF INTERACTION
Cues and Reinforces cues such as words or gestures can act as signals to group members to talk more or less frequently to one
another or to the worker. Workers and members can also use selective attention and other reinforces to encourage beneficial
interaction.
Emotional Bonds positive emotional bonds such as interpersonal liking and attraction increase interpersonal interaction, and
negative emotional bonds reduce solidarity between members and result in decreased interpersonal interaction. Attraction and
interpersonal liking between two members may occur because they share common interests, similar values and ideologies,
complementary personality characteristics or similar demographic characteristics.
Subgroups also affect the interaction patterns in group subgroups form from the emotional bonds and interest alliances among
subsets of group members. They occur naturally in all groups. They help make the group attractive to its members because individuals
look forward to interacting with those whom they are particularly close.
STRATEGIES FOR ADDRESSING INTENSE SUBGROUP ATTRACTION
Examine whether the group as a whole is sufficiently attractive to member.
Promote the development of norms that emphasize the importance of members listening to and respecting each other.
Promote the development of norms restricting communication to one member at a time.
Change seating arrangements.
Ask for certain members to interact, more frequently with other members.
Use program materials and exercises that separate subgroup members.
Assign tasks for member to do outside of the group in subgroups of different members.
Size and Physical Arrangement other factors that influence interaction as the size of the group increases the possibilities for
potential relationships increase dramatically. With increased group size that are also fewer opportunities and less time for members to
communicate. The physical arrangement of group members also influences interaction patterns, and also be used to help assess
relationships among members and potential problems in group interaction.
Power and Status two other factors that affecting communication and interaction patterns are the relative power and status of the
group members. Initially, members are accorded power and status on the basis of their position and prestige in the community their
physical attributes, and their position in the agency sponsoring the group.
Dynamics of Individuals and Group
Group Cohesion
Cohesion can affect the functioning of individual members and the group as a whole in many ways.
It is the result of all forces acting on members to remain in a group.
Made up of three components
According to Forsyth (2010)
Member-to-member attraction and a liking for the group as a whole,
A sense of unity and community so that the group is seen as a single entity,
A sense of teamwork and spirit de corps with the group successfully performing as a coordinated unit.
Members reason for being attracted to a group affects how they perform in the group.
Reasons for Members Attraction to the Group
The need for affiliation, recognition, and security.
Some members have a need to socialize because their relationships outside the group are unsatisfactory or nonexistent.
Members are attracted to the group when they feel that their participation is valued and when they are well-liked.
Groups are also more cohesive when they provide members with a sense of security.
The resources and prestige available through group participation.
Many people join groups because of the people they expect to meet and get to know.

Opportunities for making new contacts and associating with high-status members are also incentives.
Another inducement to group membership may be access to services or resources not otherwise available.
Expectations of the beneficial and detrimental consequences of the group.
Expectations of gratification and favorable comparisons with previous group experiences are two other factors that help make group
cohesive.
The comparison of the group with other group experiences.
Members attracted by the prestige of group membership were cautious not to risk their status in the group. They initiated few
controversial topics and focused on their actions rather than on those of other group members.
Social Integration and Influence
Social Integration refers to how members fit together and are accepted in a group. It also builds unanimity about the purpose and goals
of the group, helping members to move forward in an orderly and efficient manner to accomplish work and achieve goals.
Hierarchies that promotes Social Integration
Status refers to an evaluation and ranking of each members position in the group relative to all other members. A persons status
within a group is partially determined by his or her prestige, position, recognized expertise outside the group. And it is also dependent
on the situation.
Status serves a social integration function in a rather complex manner. Low-status members are the least likely to conform to group
norms because they have little to lose by deviating. For this reason, low-status members have the potential to be disruptive of
productive group processes.
Medium-status group members tend to conform to group norms so that they can retain their status
and perhaps gain a higher status.
High-status members perform many valued services for the group and generally conform to valued group norms when they are
establishing their position. However, because of their position, high-status members have more freedom to deviate from accepted
norms.
GROUP CULTURE
- An important force in the group as a whole.
-GROUP CULTURE refers to values, beliefs, customs, and traditions held in common by group members (Olmsted, 1959)
3 levels according to LEVI (2001):
SURFACE
- Symbols and rituals display the culture of the group
DEEPER LEVEL
- Culture is displayed in the way members interact with one another.
DEEPEST LEVEL
-includes core beliefs, ideologies, and values held in common by members.
MULTICULTURAL DIFFERENCES within the group can have an important impact on the development of group culture and the
social integration of all members.
*When the membership of a group is diverse, group culture emerges slowly. Members contribute unique set of values from their past
experiences as well as from their ethnic, cultural, and racial heritages. These values are blended through group communications and
interactions.
Members explore each others unique value systems and attempt to find a common ground on which they can relate to each other. By
later meetings, members have had a chance to share and understand each others value systems. As a result, a common set of values
develops, which becomes the groups culture.
The groups culture continues to evolve throughout the life of the group.
Group culture emerges more quickly in groups with a HOMOGENEOUS MEMBERSHIP.
Members share common life experiences and similar sets of values, their unique perspectives blend more quickly into a group culture.
Culture is also influenced by the environment in which a group functions. As part of the organizational structure of an agency, a
community and a society, groups share the values, traditions, and heritage of these larger social systems. The extent to which these
systems influence the group depends on the degree of interaction the group has with them.
***Group workers can learn a great deal about groups by examining how they interact with their environment.
Once a culture has developed, members who endorse and share in the culture feel secure and at home, whereas those who do not are
likely to feel isolated or even alienated. Subgroups that feel alienated from the dominant group culture may rebel in various ways
against the norms, roles, and status hierarchies that have developed in the group. This can be avoided by providing individual attention
to isolated members, and by stimulating all members to incorporate beliefs, ideologies, and values that celebrate difference and
transcend individual differences. The worker can also help by fostering the full participation and integration of all group members into
the life of the group.

Principles of Social Group Work

(Douglus and Tom has mentioned 14 Principles of Social Group Work)
Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the unique difference of each individual.
Recognition and subsequent action in relation to the wide variety of groups as groups
Genuine acceptance of each individual with his unique strengths and weaknesses.
Establishment of a purposeful relationship between group worker and group member.
Encouragement and enabling of help and co-operative relationships between members.
Appropriate modification of group process.
Encouragement of each member to participate according to the stage of his capacity and enabling him to become more capable.
Enabling members to involve themselves in the process of problem solving.
Enabling group members to experience increasingly satisfactory forms of working through conflicts.
Provision of opportunities for new and differing experience in relationship and accomplishments.
Judicious use of limitations related to the diagnostic assessment of each individual and the total situation.
Purposeful and differential use of programme according to diagnostic evaluation of individual members, group purpose and
appropriate goals.
Ongoing evaluation of individual and group progress.
Warm human and disciplined use of self on the part of the group worker.
Treckers 10 Principles of Social Group Work
The Principle of Planned Group Formation.
The Principle of Specific Objectives
The Principle of Purposeful Worker Group Relationship
The Principle of Continuous Individualization
The Principle of Guided Group Interaction
The Principle of Democratic Group Self Determination
The Principle of Flexible Functional Organization
The Principle of Progressive Programme Experiences
The Principle of Resource Utilization
The Principle of Evaluation

Dynamics of Individuals and Group

C. Group Cohesion
Cohesion can affect the functioning of individual members and the group as a whole in many ways.
It is the result of all forces acting on members to remain in a group.
Made up of three components
According to Forsyth (2010)
Member-to-member attraction and a liking for the group as a whole,
A sense of unity and community so that the group is seen as a single entity,
A sense of teamwork and spirit de corps with the group successfully performing as a coordinated unit.
Members reason for being attracted to a group affects how they perform in the group.
Reasons for Members Attraction to the Group
The need for affiliation, recognition, and security.
Some members have a need to socialize because their relationships outside the group are unsatisfactory or nonexistent.
Members are attracted to the group when they feel that their participation is valued and when they are well-liked.
Groups are also more cohesive when they provide members with a sense of security.
The resources and prestige available through group participation.
Many people join groups because of the people they expect to meet and get to know.
Opportunities for making new contacts and associating with high-status members are also incentives.
Another inducement to group membership may be access to services or resources not otherwise available.
Expectations of the beneficial and detrimental consequences of the group.
Expectations of gratification and favorable comparisons with previous group experiences are two other factors that help make group
cohesive.
The comparison of the group with other group experiences.
Members attracted by the prestige of group membership were cautious not to risk their status in the group. They initiated few
controversial topics and focused on their actions rather than on those of other group members.

EQUATION OF VALUES
In business transactions, it is often needed to exchange a set of obligations for another set of different amounts due at different times.
The most effective method to solve investment problems like these is the EQUATION OF VALUE process.
An equation of value is a mathematical statement, which shows that the dated values on a comparison date (focal date) of two sets of
payments are equal. The focal date or point is the point where all obligations and payments are brought through the process of
accumulation or discounting. The location of the focal point or date will not change or affect the final answer.
Examples:
1.

Mr. Haeyram owes his creditor $1000 due without interest at the end of 10 years, and $3000 due at the end of 4 years with
accumulated interest from today at 4% compounded annually. Mr. Haeyram will discharge his obligations by two equal
payments at the end of the 3rd and 6th years. If the creditor states that money is worth 6% compounded semiannually, find the
new payments.

2.

Mr. Aye borrowed $2000 from Mr. Yoo on June 1, 1975, and $500 on June 1, 1977, agreeing that money is worth 5%
compounded annually. Mr. Aye paid $500 on June 1, 1978, $400 on June 1, 1979, and $700 on June 1, 1980. What additional
sum should Mr. Aye pay on June 1, 1983, to discharge all remaining liability?

3.

Kafagway owes Bangkale, P3, 300 due now, and P4, 500 due in 6 years with interest at 5 % compounded quarterly. He will
be allowed to settle these obligations by paying two equal payments in 3 and 4 years respectively. Find the size of the
payments if money is worth 5 % compounded semi- annually.

4.

A housewife buys a dining set worth P42, 400. She pays a down payment of P14, 600 and promise to settle the balance in
three equal payments in 3, 6 and 9 months, respectively. If interest is charged at 9% compounded monthly, what will be the
size of each payment?

5.

If money is worth 9% compounded quarterly, what single payment at the end of 4 years will equitably replace the following
set of obligation:
a. P5, 500 due at the end of 2 years
b. P6, 600 due at the end of 3 years with 11 % simple interest
c. P4, 400 due at the end of 6 years with interest at 5 % converted semi- annually
d. P7, 700 due at the end of 7years with interest at 6% compounded quarterly.