Me6402 Mt2 Notes Rejinpaul

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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
II
(ME 6402)
UNIT 1
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP/Mech
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THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

1. Overview of Machining Technology
2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
6. Cutting tool
7. Tool wear and tool life
8. Cutting fluids
9. machinability
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Material Removal Processes

A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting work part so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
Machining material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material
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Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
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Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined

Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
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Disadvantages with Machining

Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
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Machining in Manufacturing Sequence

Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
Other processes create the general shape
of the starting work part
Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
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Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:

Shaping and planning
Broaching
Sawing
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Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating work piece to form a cylindrical shape
Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

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Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
(b) drilling,
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Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

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Cutting Tool Classification

1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose
radius
Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple
cutting edge tools
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Cutting Tools
(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.
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Cutting Conditions in Machining

Three dimensions of a machining process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool
below original work surface
For certain operations, material removal
rate can be computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d =
depth of cut
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Cutting Conditions for Turning
Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.
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Roughing vs. Finishing

In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry

Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
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Machine Tools
A
power driven machine that performs

machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds work part
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth
that have been set
The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
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Orthogonal Cutting Model

Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

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Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r
tc
where
r = chip thickness ratio;

to = thickness of the chip prior to
chip formation;
tc = chip thickness after separation
Chip thickness after cut always greater than

before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0
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Determining Shear Plane Angle

Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle can
be determined as:
r cos
tan
1 r sin
where r = chip ratio
= rake angle
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Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a

series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used
to derive strain equation.
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Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
= tan( - ) + cot
where = shear strain, = shear plane

angle, and = rake angle of cutting tool
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Chip Formation
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool-chip friction.
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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1.
2.
3.
4.
Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
Serrated chip
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Discontinuous Chip
Brittle work materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and depth
of cut
High tool-chip friction
Four types of chip formation

in metal cutting:
(a) discontinuous
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Continuous Chip
Ductile work materials
High cutting speeds

Small
depths
feeds
and
Sharp cutting edge

Low tool-chip friction
(b) continuous
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Continuous with BUE

Ductile materials
Low to medium cutting
speeds
Tool and chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE
forms,
then
breaks off, cyclically
(c) continuous with built-up edge

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Serrated Chip
Semi continuous
saw
tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
Associated
with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds
(d) serrated.
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Forces Acting on Chip

Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
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Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
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Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction
as follows:
tan
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Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane
t ow
As
sin
Shear stress = shear strength of work material
during cutting
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Cutting Force and Thrust Force

F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool that
can be measured
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Forces in Metal Cutting

Equations can be derived to relate the forces
that cannot be measured to the forces that can
be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
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The Merchant Equation

Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle that minimizes
energy, given by
45
Derived by Eugene Merchant

Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3-D machining
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What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

45
To increase shear plane angle

Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
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Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle

Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
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Power and Energy Relationships

A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force;
and v = cutting speed
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In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
expressed as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by
33,000)
Fcv
HPc
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp
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Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or
HPg is given by
Pc
Pg
E
or
HPc
HPg
E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Typical E for machine tools 90%
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Unit Power in Machining

Useful to convert power into power per unit
volume rate of metal cut
Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc
PU =
RMR
or
HPc
HPu =
RMR
where RMR = material removal rate
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Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc
Fcv
=
U = Pu =
RMR vtow
Units for specific energy are typically
N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)
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Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool chip interface
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
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Cutting Temperatures are Important

High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material
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Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook
from
dimensional
analysis
using
experimental data for various work materials
0.4U vt o
T
C K
0.333
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip

interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C =
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
thermal diffusivity of work material
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Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the
tool-chip thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed
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Thermal Aspects
Energy dissipated at the cutting edge is
converted into heat
Three regions where heat is generated are
1. Shear zone
80 - 85% of heat is generated
2. Chip - tool interface region
15 20 % oh heat is generated
3. Tool work interface region
1 3 % of heat is generated
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Cutting Tool Materials

Selection of cutting tool depends on
Volume of production
Tool design
Type of machining process
Physical and chemical properties of work
material
Rigidity and condition of machine
Properties / Characteristics of cutting tool
Hot hardness
Wear resistance
Toughness
Low friction
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Cutting Tool Materials

Classification of tool materials
Carbon tool steel

High Speed steel
Cemented carbides
Ceramics
Diamonds
Cubic boron nitride
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Tool Wear
Classification
Flank wear
Crater wear
Nose wear
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Tool Life
Ways of expressing tool life
Volume of metal removed per grind
Number of work pieces machined per grind
Time unit
Factors affecting tool life
Cutting speed
Feed and depth of cut
Tool geometry
Tool material
Cutting fluid
Work material
Rigidity of work, tool and machine
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Tool Life v Tool Wear
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Cutting Fluids
Used to carry away the heat produced during
machining
Functions of cutting fluids
Cools the tool and work piece
Lubricates the cutting tool
Reduces co-efficient of friction between tool and
work piece
Improves surface finish
Causes the chip to break up into small pieces
Washes away the chips from the tool
Prevents corrosion of work and machine
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Cutting Fluids
Properties of cutting fluids
Should possess good lubricating properties

Should have high heat absorbing capacity
Should have high specific heat
Should be odorless
Should be non-corrosive
Should have low viscosity
Should be harmless
Should not stain
Should be economical
Should be transparent
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Cutting Fluids
Types of cutting fluids
Water based cutting fluids
Straight or heat oil based cutting fluids
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mineral oils
Straight fatty oils
Mixed oils
Sulphurised oils
Chlorinated oils
Methods of applying cutting fluids
Drop by drop under gravity

Flood under gravity
Form of liquid jet
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Machinability
Defined as the ease with which a material can
be satisfactorily machined
Also defined as
Life of tool before tool failure
Quality of machined surface
Power consumption per unit volume of material
removed
Variables affecting machinability
Work variables
Tool variables
Machine variables
Cutting conditions
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Machinability
Evaluation of machinability
Tool life per grind

Rate of metal removal per grind tool grind
Surface finish
Magnitude of cutting forces and power
consumption
Dimensional stability of the finished work
Heat generated during cutting
Ease of chip disposal
Chip hardness
Shape and size of chips
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Machinability
Advantages
Good surface finish can be produced

Higher cutting speed can be used
Less power consumption
MRR is high
Less tool wear
Machinability Index
C.S. of metal investigated or 20 mins tool life

=
C.S. of standard
steel for 20 mins tool life
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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II
UNIT III
SHAPER, MILLING AND GEAR CUTTING
MACHINES
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP / Mech
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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY II
Reciprocating Machine Tools: Shaper, Planer, Slotter
Milling: Types, Milling Cutters, Operations
Hole Making: Drilling, Quill Mechanism , Reaming,
Boring, Tapping
Sawing Machine: Hack Saw, Band Saw, Circular Saw
Broaching Machines: Broach Construction, Push, Pull,
Surface and Continuous Broaching Machines
SHAPER
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SHAPER is a reciprocating type of machine tool with single point cutting

tool used to produce flat surface.
The flat surface may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Parts of Shaper:
1. Table
2. Tool Head
3. Ram
The tool head is fitted on the front end of the ram while the job is rigidly
fixed on the table.

The tool is mounted on the tool post or head.
The ram reciprocates along with the tool to remove the metal in the
forward stroke called cutting stroke.
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Classification of Shaper
1. According to the type of driving mechanism

i.
Crank drive type
ii. Whit worth driving mechanism type

iii. Hydraulic drive type
2. According to the position of ram
i.
Horizontal shaper
ii. Vertical shaper

iii. Travelling head shaper
3. According to the table design
i.
Standard or plain shaper
ii. Universal shaper

4. According to the type of cutting stroke
i.
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Principle Parts of Shaper
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Specification of Shaper
The specification of a typical shaper are listed below.

Maximum length of stroke
Maximum crosswise movement of the table
Maximum vertical adjustment of the table
Type of driving mechanism
Power of the motor

Speed and feed available
Type of shaper (Plain or Universal)
Floor space required
Total weight of the shaper
Ratio of cutting stroke time to return stroke time.
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Mechanism
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Whit worth Mechanism
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Stroke length arrangement
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Position arrangement
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Feed Mechanism Hand feed
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Feed Mechanism Automatic

Table feed
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Work Holding devices

Clamping in a vise
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Clamping on the table
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Clamping on a V Block
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Clamping on angle plate
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Shaper Tools
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Shaper Operations Machining

Horizontal Surfaces
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Vertical Surfaces
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Angular Surfaces
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Slots , grooves and Keyways
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Irregular Surfaces
PLANER
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PLANER is a very large reciprocating machine tool.

The work is mounted on the table by any one of the work holding
devices.
Two vertical columns with vertical guide ways are provided on both
sides of the bed and connected by a cross-rail to mount the tool heads
and also connected by a cross beam at the top.
These tool heads are used to hold the tools.
The tool cuts the workpiece when the table reciprocates.

The cross feed is given by moving the tool head along the cross-rail.
Vertical feed is given by moving down the tool.
The tool slide can be tilted or swivelled at any required angle using a
swivel head for machining inclined surfaces.
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Classification of Planer
The various types of planer are as follows.

1. Double housing planer
2. Open side planer
3. Pit planer
4. Edge planer
5. Divided table planer
Specification of Planer
The distance between two columns
Stroke length of the planer
Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most
position of the cross rail
Maximum length of the table
Power of the motor

Range of the speeds and feed available
Type of drives required
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Double Housing Planer
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Pit Planer
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Edge Planer
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Divided Head Planer
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Quick return mechanism Open

and Cross belt drive
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Quick return mechanism

Electric drive
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Feed mechanism
Work Holding devices Angle

plate , Screw stops, Planer Jacks
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Work Holding devices - Fixtures
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Planer Tools
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Horizontal , angle, Vertical , CURVED
Surfaces
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Difference Between Shaper and

Planer
SLOTTER
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SLOTTER is a reciprocating type machine tool.

In this machine, the ram reciprocates vertically.
The tool held in the ram cuts during downward stroke only.
Parts of Slotter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Base
Column
Saddle
Rotary table
Ram
Tool head
Slotter Operations
Machining flat surface

Machining grooves, slots, keyways
Machining cylindrical surface
Machining irregular surface
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Principle Parts of Slotter
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Drives
1. Whit worth mechanism
2. Variable speed reversible electric motor
drive
3. Hydraulic Drive
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Feed mechanism
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Work Holding Devices Slotting

fixtures
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Slotter Tools
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Slotter Operations
MILLING
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MILLING is the process of removing metal by feeding the workpiece

against a rotating multipoint cutter.
The metal is removed in the form of small chips.
Principle of Operation
In Up Milling Process, the workpiece is fed
opposite to the cutter's tangential velocity.
Each tooth of the cutter starts the cut with
zero depth of cut.
In Down Milling Process, the workpiece is
fed in the same direction as that of the cutter's
tangential velocity. the cutter enters the top of
the workpiece and removes the chip that gets
progressively thinner as the cutter tooth
rotates.
MILLING
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Specification of Milling Machine
The table length and width

Maximum longitudinal cross and vertical travel of the table
Number of spindle speeds and feeds
Power of driving motor
Floor space and net weight
Spindle nose taper size
Type of milling machine
Classification of Milling Machine

1. Column and Knee Type
4. Plano-Type Milling Machine
i.
Plain Milling Machine
5. Special Purpose Milling Machine
ii. Vertical Milling Machine
i.
Rotary Table Milling Machine
iii. Universal Milling Machine
ii. Drum Milling Machine
iv. Ram-type Milling Machine
iii. Profile Milling Machine
v. Omniversal Milling Machine
2. Bed-Type Milling Machine
i.
Simplex Milling Machine
ii. Duplex Milling Machine
iii. Triplex Milling Machine
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Column and Knee Type -Horizontal Milling
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Column and Knee Type - Vertical
Milling
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Milling Machines
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Column and Knee Type - Universal

Milling Machine
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Column and Knee Type Omniversal Milling Machine
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Bed Type- Fixed Plain Milling

machine
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Bed Type Duplex Head Milling
Machine
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Plano type Milling Machine
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Drum type Milling Machine
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Rotary and Profile Milling

Machines
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Work Holding Devices
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Tool Holding Devices
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Milling Attachments
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Milling Cutters Slab Milling

Cutter
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Milling Cutters Side Milling

Cutter
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Milling Cutters
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Milling Cutters
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Milling Cutters
Milling Cutterswww.rejinpaul.com
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Nomenclature of Plain Milling

Cutter
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Milling operations Peripheral

and Face milling operations
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Milling operations
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Milling operations
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Milling operations
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Milling operations
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Milling operations
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Gang Milling
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Indexing mechanisms
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Index Plates with sector arms
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Indexing mechanisms
DRILLING
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DRILLING is the process of producing hole ion the work piece by using a
rotating cutter called drill.
The machine on which the drilling is carried out is called drilling machines.
The drilling machine sometimes called drill press as the machine exerts
vertical pressure to originate a hole.
Specification of Drilling Machine

Maximum size of the drill in mm that the machine can operate.
Table size of maximum dimensions of a job can mount on a table in square
metre.
Maximum spindle travel in mm.
Number of spindle speeds and range of spindle speeds in RPM.
Number of automatic spindle feeds or feed range available in mm/rev.
Morse taper number of the drill spindle nose.
Power input of the machine HP.
Floor space required in m2.
Net weight of the machine
in Tonne.
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Hole Making
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Classification of Drilling Machine
1. Portable Drilling Machine
2. Sensitive Drilling Machine

i. Bench Type
ii. Floor Type
3. Upright Drilling Machine
i. Round Column Type or Pillar Type
ii. Box Column Type or Square Section Type
4. Radial Drilling Machine
i. Plain Type
ii. Semi-Universal Type
iii. Universal Type
5. Gang Drilling Machine
6. Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine
7. Automatic Drilling Machine
8. Deep Hole Drilling Machine
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Portable Drilling Machine
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Bench Type Sensitive Drilling
Machine
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Pillar Drilling Machine
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Radial Drilling Machine
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Gang Drilling Machine
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Turret Drilling Machine
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Automatic Feed Mechanism
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Drilling operations
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Twist Drill nomenclature
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Twist Drill nomenclature
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Mounting the Drill tool
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Mounting the Drill tool By

directly fitting into the spindle
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Mounting the Drill tool - By using

a sleeve
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Mounting the Drill tool - By using

a socket
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Mounting the Drill tool By using

chucks
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Reaming Tool
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Various reamers
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Tapping Tool
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Boring
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Horizontal Boring Machine
Floor Type Horizontalwww.rejinpaul.com

Boring
Machine
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Table type Horizontal Boring

Machine
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Planer type Horizontal Boring

Machine
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Multi spindle Horizontal Boring

Machine
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Vertical & Turret Boring Machine
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Jig Boring Machine
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Sawing Selection of Blade for

Sawing machine
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Broaching
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Horizontal type Internal

Broaching machine
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Horizontal type surface Broaching

machine
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Push down type Vertical

Broaching machine
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Pull down type and Up type

Vertical Broaching machine
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Horizontal type continuous

Broaching machine
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Rotary type continuous

Broaching machine
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Broach tool nomenclature
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Push type Broach
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Pull type Broach
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Progressive type Broach
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Broaching operations Spline

Broaching
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Broaching operations Keyway

Broaching
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Manufacturing Technology II (ME 6402)

Unit 5 CNC Machining
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NC Machine Tools
Mechanical actions of a machine tool or other
equipment are controlled by a program
containing coded alphanumeric data
Alphanumeric data represents the relative
position between a work head and a work part
When the current job is completed, a new

program can be entered for the next job
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Constructional Details
Basic Components of NC system
1. Program of
Instructions
2. Machine Control
Unit
3. Processing
Equipment
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Part programming in
machining
Controls the processes
Performs the processes
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Types of CNC
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Based on Motion
type
Point to point
Continuous path
Based on Control
Loops
Open Loop
Closed loop
Based on Power
Supply
Electric
Hydraulic
Pneumatic
Based on
Positioning System
Incremental
obsolete
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Special Features in CNC

High Precision
Increases Production
Reduces Labor intensity
Improves Working Condition
Enables unmanned operation
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Design Considerations of CNC Machine

Productivity
Reduction of machine Time

Reduction of non-productive time
Machining with more than one tool simultaneously
Improved reliability of machine components
Proper maintenance to prevent unscheduled stoppage
Accuracy
Improve geometrical accuracy of machine elements
Lead screw
Guide ways
Improves kinematic accuracy of machine tools
Increases static and dynamic stiffness of machine tool structure
Provides accurate machine tool for measuring distance
Reduces thermal deformation of tool while machining
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Machine response
Magnitude of load
Range of travel
Safe and easy control

Shield should be provided on the rotating and moving part
Protects the operator from chips, abrasive ducts and coolants by using
screens and shield
Better clamping mechanism to withstand tool force
Provides emergency stop buttons
Provides over load production switches, buttons, etc.,
Appearance
Good appearance and attractiveness to the workers to interest on machines
Cost
Low cost for manufacturing and operation
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Operating characteristics
Reliability
Maintainability
Component characteristics
Frictional characteristics and amount of backlash
Inertia and stiffness
Simplicity in Design
Uses simplified standard and sub-parts
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Structural members of CNC

Slide Ways
Linear Bearings
Ball Screw
Spindle Drives
Feed Drives
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Slide Ways
Designed to provide a free motion in one direction
Laterally
Longitudinally
Also called as linear motion bearing slide
Powered by either manual operation or inertial operation
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Types of Slide Ways

Hydrostatic slide ways
Antifriction slide
ways
Wear resistant slide
ways
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Oil lubricated slide ways

Air bearing slide ways
Ball type slide ways

Roller type slide ways
Induction hardened slide
ways
Flame hardened slide
ways
Surface coatedslideways
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Hydrostatic Slide ways

Liquid friction condition of the interface of mating
surface are achieved by supplying under pressure
Sliding bodies must not be inclined to each other
Used in high expensive machine
Example
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Grinding machine - programmed controllable

copying machine
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Oil Lubricated Slide Ways

Friction is minimized by forcing oil under pressure
between mating surfaces
Pressure is automatically varied according to the load

on surface
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Air Lubricated Slide Ways

Pressurized air is used instead of oil
Used for positioning the slide when no machining is

carried out
Disadvantages
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Misalignments may happen due to lifting of slides

Uneven distribution of load on work table
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Anti friction slide ways
Conventional machines have the property of stick-slip due to

high sliding friction at low velocity
To avoid this sliding, contact is avoided by making the
contact in point or line by converting sliding friction to
rolling friction
Types
Ball bearing guide ways
Roller bearing guide ways
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Ball bearing slide ways

The bed forms the guide
way for the ball to
recirculate
Hardened inserts are fitted
into the table which is
located on the ball track
with a single flat structure
in contact with the balls
The ball rolls between four

rods, two fixed to the table
and two fixed to the bed
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Roller bearing Slide ways

Instead of ball, which avoids direct contact of the surface,
roller is used
Increases the load carrying capacity
Hardened steel inserts are used as rollers to minimize the
friction
Suitable for using in boring and milling machines
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Wear Resistant Slide Ways
Non metallic parts or plastic inserts are used

Inserts stick to the underside of the moving element
Inserts are made up of 2 materials
First material reduces coefficient of friction

Other increases strength, load bearing capacity and self lubricating
capacity
Poly Tetra Fluro Ethene (PTFE), Ferobestos CA, turcite

B are some of the materials used to make positive contact
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Linear Bearings
Types
Roller Element bearing
Ball bearing slides
Roller Slides
Plain Bearing
Dovetail Slides
Compound Slides
Rack Slides
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Roller element bearingwww.rejinpaul.com

Composed of a sleeve-like outer ring and several rows of balls
retained by cages.
The cages were originally machined from solid metal and
were quickly replaced by stampings.
Features smooth motion, low friction, high rigidity and long
life.
They are economical, and easy to maintain and replace
Can run only on hardened steel or stainless steel shafting.
More rigid than plain bearings.

Do not handle contamination well and require seals.
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Requires lubrication.
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Ball Bearing Slides

Ball bearing slides offer smooth precision motion along a
single-axis linear design
self-lubrication properties that increase reliability

applications include
delicate instrumentation,
robotic assembly,
cabinetry,
high-end appliances
clean room environments
manufacturing industry
furniture
electronics
construction industries
powered by either a drive mechanism, inertia or by hand
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Ball Bearing Slides

For example, a widely used ball bearing slide in the furniture
industry is a ball bearing drawer slide
Constructed from materials such as
aluminum,
hardened cold rolled steel
galvanized steel
Ball bearing slides consist of two linear rows of ball bearings

contained by four rods and located on differing sides of the
base, which supports the carriage for smooth linear movement
along the ball bearings
A lower load capacity for their size compared to other linear
slides because the balls are less resistant to wear and
abrasions.
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Roller Slides
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Also known as crossed roller slides

non-motorized linear slides that provide low-friction linear
movement for equipment powered by inertia or by hand.
Provide heavier load capabilities and better movement control.
Serving industries such as
manufacturing,
photonics,
medical and telecommunications,
roller slides are versatile

Applications include
clean rooms,
vacuum environments,
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material handling and automation machinery.
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Roller Slides - Construction
Consisting of a stationary linear base and a moving carriage,

roller slides work similarly to ball bearing slides, except that the
bearings housed within the carriage are cylinder-shaped instead
of ball shaped.
The rollers crisscross each other at a 90 angle and move
between the four semi-flat and parallel rods that surround the
rollers.
The rollers are between "V" grooved bearing races, one being on
the top carriage and the other on the base.
Typically, carriages are constructed from aluminum and the rods
and rollers are constructed from steel, while the end caps are
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constructed from stainless
Roller Slides
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Although roller slides are not self-cleaning, they are suitable

for environments with low levels of airborne contaminants
such as dirt and dust.
Roller slides offers line contact versus point contact as with
ball bearings, creating a broader contact surface due to the
consistency of contact between the carriage and the base and
resulting in less erosion.
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Plain Bearings
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Plain bearings can run on hardened steel or stainless steel

shafting (raceways), or can be run on soft steel or aluminum.
The specific type of polymer/fluoro-polymer will determine
what hardness is allowed.
Less rigid than rolling-element bearings.
Handles contamination well and often do not need
seals/scrapers.
Generally handles a wider temperature range than rollingelement bearings

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Plain bearings do not require oil or lubrication
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Dovetail Slides
Typically constructed from cast iron, but can also be
constructed from hard-coat aluminum or stainless steel
Carriage has a v-shaped, or dovetail-shaped protruding
channel which locks into the linear base's correspondingly
shaped groove.
Once the dovetail carriage is fitted into its base's channel, the
carriage is locked into the channel's linear axis and allows
free linear movement.
When a platform is attached to the carriage of a dovetail slide,

a dovetail table is created, offering extended load carrying
capabilities.
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Dovetail Slides
Greater force is required to move the saddle than other linear
slides, which results in slower acceleration rates
Advantageous when it comes to
load capacity, affordability and durability.

Capable of long travel
more resistant to shock than other bearings
mostly immune to chemical, dust and dirt contamination
Used in the manufacturing and laboratory science industries

Not ideal for high-precision applications.
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Compound Slides
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Slides can be constructed with two sections or multiple

sections
A slide with two sections can only extend approximately 3/4
of the total compressed slide length.
A compound slide typically has three sections

fixed,
floating intermediate member and
the section attached to the equipment.
A compound slide can extend at least as far as the

compressed slide length and typically a bit more.
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Rack Slides
These can be friction bearing, ball bearing, or roller bearing.
They are sized to fit into racks with mounting flanges on the ends to
mate to the mounting holes in racks.
In some cases, one mounting flange is formed into the rack slide with
an adapter bracket attached to the other end to accommodate different
depths of the rack.
The outer fixed member is attached to the rack and the inner moving
member is generally screwed to the side of the mounted equipment.
Rack slides are typically compound or 3-part slides allowing full

extension of the mounted equipment and generally include provision
for sliding the inner member completely free to allow removal of the
equipment from the rack.
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Ball Screw
A ball screw is a mechanical linear actuator that translates
rotational motion to linear motion with little friction.
A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball
bearings which act as a precision screw.
As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads,

they can do so with minimum internal friction.
They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable for
use in situations in which high precision is necessary.
The ball assembly acts as the nut while the threaded shaft is the
screw.
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Ball Screw
Another form of linear actuator based on a rotating rod is
the thread less ball screw.
Three (or more) rolling-ring bearings are arranged
symmetrically in a housing surrounding a smooth (thread-less)
actuator rod or shaft.
The bearings are set at an angle to the rod, and this angle
determines the direction and rate of linear motion per
revolution of the rod.
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Part Programming
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Sequence of instructions
Task of preparing a program sheet from a drawing sheet

The machining data is as follows
Machining sequence classification of process, tool start up point, cutting depth,
tool path
Cutting conditions, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant
Selection of cutting tools
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Steps involved in Part programming

Determine the start up procedure
Select the tool and determine the tool offset

Set up the zero position for the work piece
Select the speed and rotation of the spindle

Set up the tool motions according to the profile required
Return the cutting tool to the reference point after

completion of work
End the programGet
byuseful
stopping
the
spindle
and control
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Types of part programming

Manual Part Programming
Computer Aided Part Programming
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Manual Part Programming

The programmer prepares the program manuscript in a
standard format
Manuscripts are typed in flexo writer, which is used to
type program instructions
Once the program is typed, the punched tape is prepared

on the flexo writer
Complex shaped components require tedious calculations
This type of programming is carried out for simple
machining parts produced on point-to-point machine tool.
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The programmer communicates with this system through

the system language, which is based on words
Programming languages are
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APT (Automatically programmed Tools)

ADAPT
AUTOSPOT
COMPAT-II
2CL
ROMANCE
SPLIT
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The programmer has to do the following things
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Define the work part geometry

Define the repetition work
Specify the operation sequence
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Machining Center
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Most important types of CNC machine tools

ATC is used here
Following operations are carried out
Milling
Drilling
Reaming
Boring
Tapping
Indexable tool magazine carries 16 to 100 tools

Machining centre has 2 or more tables named as pallets
An automatic pallet centre is used and time will be reduced
Classification
Horizontal spindle machining centre
Vertical spindle machining centre
universal machining centre
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Machining Center
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Horizontal machining centre
Single spindle machines

Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)
Bed type machine
Axis
X = Table or Column
Y = Spindle Head
Z = Saddle or column or head stock or spindle
Rotary indexing table
Vertical machining centre

Single or multi spindle
ATC or Turret head
Axis
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X = Table or Column
Y = Saddle or Colum or Ram
Z = Head Stock
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Machining Center
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Universal machining centre
Has single spindle

Spindle is capable of fitting horizontal to vertical
It has five axis of machine
Flexibility is more than other two type of machines
Tool breakage detection is possible
Automatics loading and unloading of work piece are possible
Turning centers
Horizontal machines
Chucking machines
Shaft machines
Universal machines
Vertical machines
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Preparatory function G Codes
G 00 rapid motion
G 01 linear motion
G 02 circular motion (clockwise)
G 03 circular motion (anticlockwise)
G 20 inches programming
G 21 metric programming (mm)
G 28 reference point
G 33 thread cutting operation (constant lead screw)
G 37 calling of sub-route
G 40 cutter nose radius compensation (cancel)
G 41 cutter compensation (in left)
G 42 cutter composition (in right)
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Preparatory function G
Codes
G 63 tapping operation
G 70 finishing cycle lathe
G 71 rough cutting cycle lathe
G 78,79 milling cycle
G 83 drilling cycle
G 90 absolute dimensioning
G 91 incremental dimensioning
G 92 position preset
G 94 feed rate in mm/min
G 95 feed rate in mm/rev
G 98 absolute datum
G 99 floating datum
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Miscellaneous functions www.rejinpaul.com

M Codes
M 00 program stop
M 02 end of program
M 03 spindle start (clockwise)
M 04 spindle start (anticlockwise)
M 05 spindle stop
M 06 tool change
M 07 coolant ON (flood cooling)
M 08 coolant ON (mist cooling)
M 09 coolant OFF
M 10 clamping
M 11 unclamping
M 30 end of tape
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Micromachining
A technique for the fabrication of 3D structures on the

micrometer scale
Refers to super finishing, a metal working process for
producing very fine surface finishes
Types of micromachining process are
Bulk micromachining
Surface micromachining
Mainly applied in MEMS

Examples include
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Airbag sensor
Medical devices
Micro dies
molds
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Micromachiningwww.rejinpaul.com
Part to be machined should be made ready by doing the
following preliminary processes
1.
2.
Photolithography process
Ethching
1.
2.
3.
LIGA (Lithographic, Galvanoforming, Abforming)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4.
5.
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Wet etching
Dry etching
Resist development
X-ray radiation and masking
Electroforming
Resist removal
Plastic molding
Laser ablation process

Mechanical microforming
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Bulk and surface micromachining
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Me6402 Mt2 Notes Rejinpaul

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THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

Material Removal Processes

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

Why Machining is Important

Variety of work materials can be machined

Disadvantages with Machining

Machining in Manufacturing Sequence

Other machining operations:

Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

Cutting Tool Classification

Cutting Conditions in Machining

Cutting Conditions for Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

Roughing vs. Finishing

Finishing - completes part geometry

power driven machine that performs

Orthogonal Cutting Model

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

Chip Thickness Ratio

r = chip thickness ratio;

Chip thickness after cut always greater than

Determining Shear Plane Angle

Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a

where = shear strain, = shear plane

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

Four types of chip formation

High cutting speeds

Sharp cutting edge

Continuous with BUE

(c) continuous with built-up edge

Forces Acting on Chip

Forces in metal cutting: (a)

Cutting Force and Thrust Force

Forces in Metal Cutting

The Merchant Equation

Derived by Eugene Merchant

What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

To increase shear plane angle

Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle

Power and Energy Relationships

Power and Energy Relationships

Power and Energy Relationships

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

Unit Power in Machining

where RMR = material removal rate

Specific Energy in Machining

Cutting Temperatures are Important

where T = temperature rise at tool-chip

80 - 85% of heat is generated

2. Chip - tool interface region

3. Tool work interface region

Cutting Tool Materials

Properties / Characteristics of cutting tool

Cutting Tool Materials

Carbon tool steel

Factors affecting tool life

Tool Life v Tool Wear

Should possess good lubricating properties

Methods of applying cutting fluids

Drop by drop under gravity