PILE FOUNDATIONS

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Learning Outcome

determine the ultimate and allowable bearing capacity of deep foundations.

Key Content

classification of piles

design considerations and principles

point bearing capacity and frictional resistance of pile

considerations for single pile and pile group

Sections
1. Introduction

Common types of piles

Ground investigation for pile

Classification of piles.

2. Ultimate capacity of a single pile

3. Point bearing capacity of pile: sand and clay
4. Frictional resistance of pile: sand and clay
5. Allowable pile capacity
6. Pile capacity on Rock
7. Practical considerations for pile

Reference: Das, B. M. (2007). Principles of Foundation Engineering. 7th Edition. Cengage Learning.

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1. Introduction
1.1 Common types of pile
Definition of Piles
Piles are long and slender structural members used to transmit foundation loads through soil
strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or rook strata having a high bearing capacity.

Conditions requiring foundations

Conditions requiring foundations are shown in Figure 1.

Conditions for use of pile foundations

Figure 1

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To support the load transmitted by the superstructure when the upper soil layer is
highly compressible and too weak (Figure 1. a).

To transmit the load to the soil gradually, in the form of frictional resistance when
bedrock or firm stratum is not encountered at a reasonable depth( Figure1. b).

To resist horizontal forces such as wind or earthquake forces for structures like
earth-retaining structures or tall buildings are subjected to horizontal forces (Figure
l.c).

To extend beyond the active zone of expansive and collapsible soils into stable soil
layers (Figure 1. d)..

To resist uplifting force, (Figure 1. e).

To conduct work over water (Figure 1.f)

Sheet piles as supporting members to earth or water in cofferdams for foundation

excavations or as retaining walls.

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1.2 Site (Ground) Investigation considerations for Pile Foundations

Existing structures and their foundations, within and immediately beyond the site
boundaries may pose constraints to the proposed foundation construction. Therefore a
detailed knowledge of such existing structures, such as deep sewer tunnels, caverns,
service reservoirs and railways, is important.

For sites on reclaimed land, it is important to establish the timing and extent of the
reclamation to help to assess the likelihood of continuing ground settlement that may
give rise to negative skin friction,

Special requirements for working in the vicinity of the Mass Transit Railways (MTR),
provisions for Scheduled Areas of Mid-levels, Yuen Long and Ma On Shan.

Important considerations should include possible geological variation, the presence of

corestones, undulating rock surface and the inherent spatial variability of the soil
mass.

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For sites underlain by karst formations, foundations may be adversely affected by the
dissolution voids and the geometry of the dissolution features and rock mass
properties.

For large-diameter bored piles, the usual practice in Hong Kong is to sink one
borehole at each pile position prior to pile installation, to a depth of three times the
pile diameter below the intended founding level in order to confirm the design
assumptions.

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1.3. Classification of Piles

Piles can be classified according to the type of materials forming the piles, the mode of
load transfer, the degree of ground displacement or the method of installation. The
following are some common classification.

(i) Based on pile material types, piles can be divided into the following categories:

steel piles,

concrete piles,

timber piles, and

composite piles.

(ii) According to the method of Installation, the main types of piles in general use are as
follows:
Driven piles. Piles, usually in steel, concrete or timber, driven into the soil by the
blows of a hammer.
Driven and cast-in-place piles. Formed by driving a tube with a closed end into
the soil, and filling the tube with concrete. The tubes may or may not be
withdrawn
Jacked piles. Steel or concrete units jacked into the soil
Bored and cast-in-place piles. Piles formed by boring a hole into the soil and
filling it with concrete.
Composite piles. Combinations of two or more of the preceding types, or
combinations of different materials in the same type of pile.

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(iii) Based on the nature of their placement, piles may be divided into two categories:
displacement piles and non-displacement piles.

Displacement piles. The first three of the types in (ii) above are sometimes
called displacement piles since the soil is displaced as the pile is driven or jacked
into the ground.

Non -displacement piles. In all forms of bored piles, and in some forms of
composite piles, the soil is first removed by boring a hole into which concrete is
placed or various types of precast concrete or other proprietary units are inserted.
Therefore all bored piles are non-displacement piles.

(iv) Depending on the mechanisms of load transfer to the soil, piles can also be divided
into two major categories:
Point bearing piles. If the bearing stratum for piles is a hard and relatively
impenetrable material such as rock or a very dense sand and gravel, the piles
derive mat of their carrying capacity from the resistance of the stratum at the toe
of the piles. In these conditions the piles are called point bearing or end bearing
piles (Figure 2a)
Friction piles. On the other hand, if the piles do not reach an impenetrable
stratum, the carrying capacity is derived partly from end bearing and partly
form the skin friction.
Piles which obtain the greater part of their carrying capacity by skin friction or
adhesion are called friction piles (Figure 2b).

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(a) End-bearing

(b) Friction pile

Figure 2
(v)

Special Pile Types

Barrettes. The rectangular holes are excavated with the use of grabs. Because of
their rectangular shape, barrettes can be oriented to give maximum resistance to
moments and horizontal forces.
Mini-piles. Mini-piles generally have a diameter of between 100 mm and 250
mm.

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1.4. Classifications of Piles in Hong Kong

(a) Large-displacement piles, which include all driven piles, such as precast concrete
piles, and steel or concrete tubes closed at the lower end by a driving shoe or a plug,
i.e. driven cast-in-place piles.

(b) Small-displacement piles, which include H-piles and open-ended tubular piles.
However, these piles will effectively become large-displacement piles with soil plug
forms.

(c) Replacement piles, which are formed by machine boring, grabbing or

hand-digging. The excavation may need to be supported by bentonite slurry, or lined
with a casing that is either left in place or extracted during concreting for re-use.

(d) Special piles, which are particular pile types or variants of existing pile types
introduced from time to time to improve efficiency or overcome problems related to
special ground conditions.

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(GEO)

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Learning Activity 1 (exercise)

Learning outcome:
-

To appreciate the various types of pile foundation

To understand the point bearing capacity and frictional resistance

Discussion

In Hong Kong, piles are classified according to the degree of ground movement
during pile installation. Name the pile types under this classification and give
examples for each type.

Briefly discuss the merits and limitations of concrete, preformed displacement piles.

Briefly discuss the merits and limitations of using steel driven piles.

Describe briefly, with labelled sketches, the major categories of piles according to
the mechanism of load transfer between the pile and the surrounding soil.

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2. Ultimate capacity of a single pile

The ultimate load-carrying capacity of a pile [Figure 3.(a)] is given by
Qu = Qp+ Qs

(1)

where
Qu = ultimate pile capacity
Q p = load-carrying capacity of the pile point
Qs = frictional resistance

Ultimate load-carrying capacity of a pile

e.g. an H-pile and soil plug for calculating the perimeter
Figure 3

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To estimate the ultimate capacity of an axially loaded pile, the following methods may
be used:

calculation methods based on simplified soil principles

(only this method will be described in details in this chapter)

pile driving formulae for driven piles,

wave equation analysis for driven piles,

correlation with Standard Penetration Tests (SPT),

correlation with other insitu tests such as cone pressuremeter tests, and

pile loading tests.

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3. Point bearing capacity of pile: sand and clay

Similar to the general bearing capacity equation for shallow foundations, the point
bearing capacity of a pile is
Qp = A pq p = A p ( c N c * + q 'N q * )
where

Ap

= area of pile tip

= cohesion of the soil supporting the pile tip

qp

= unit point resistance

= effective vertical stress at the level of the pile tip

(2)

Note that the term 0.5 BN* for shallow foundations is neglected since the width B of a
pile is relatively small compared to the length of the pile.

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Meyerhofs Method
The variation of Nc* and Nq* with the friction angle, , of the soil is shown in Figure 4.
(a)

For piles in sand, c =0, and Eq. 2 simplifies to

Qp = A p qp = Apq ' Nq*

(3)

However, Qp should not exceed the limiting value, or Ap ql , so

Q p = A p q Nq* < Apql

(4)

Q p = A p q Nq* < Apql

where ql, the limiting point resistance, is given by

ql (kN/m2)= 50 Nq* tan

(5)

The ultimate point load relation given in Eq. 3 is for the gross ultimate point load, that is,
it includes the weight of the pile. So the net ultimate point load is approximately
Qp(net) = Qp(gross) - q'Ap
For soils with > 0, the general practice is to assume that Q p(net ) =Q p (gross) by ignoring
the term q ' A p .
Das, B.M. (2007), Fig.8.11

Meyerhofs Bearing Capacity Factors

Figure 4

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(b) For piles in saturated clays under undrained conditions, = 0, Nq* = 1, then
Q p ( g r o s s ) =(cu Nc* + q) A p
Qp(net)

= [(cu Nc* + q) q] A p
= cuNc*

= 9cu Ap

where cu,= undrained cohesion of the soil below the pile tip.
If the term q' Ap is neglected, as in the case of piles in sand, then there is no difference
between net and gross pile bearing capacities and

Qp(net) = Qp(gross) = 9cuAp

Berezantzevs Method

For both bored and driven piles in granular soils (i.e. c = 0) and for general design
purposes, values of Nq* proposed by Berezantzev et al (1961) as presented in Figure
5 can be used (GEO). It is further suggested that the calculated ultimate base stress
should conservatively be limited to 10 and 15 MPa for bored and driven piles
respectively, unless higher values have been justified by load tests.

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Figure 5 (GEO,1990)

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Learning Activity 2 a (Das B.M.) (example)

Learning Outcome
- To understand and apply various design approaches with respect to cohesive and
cohesionless soils.

An H pile is driven into sand as shown. The dimensions of the section including soil
plug are 308 x 310 mm.

Determine the ultimate point load (Qp) using (a) Meyerhofs method

Write down the formula use

Determine Ap (0.0955 m2)
Determine Nq*
Determine q
Which is the limiting value, qp or ql?
Determine Qp (1402 kN)

(Das, B.M )
Meyerhof
Qp = q l * Ap
o
= 40 => Nq* = 350
2
Ap = 0.308 x 0.31 = 0.0955 m
q = 5 x 15.7 + 13 x (18.1-9.8) + 4 x (19.4 -9.8) =

224.7 kN/m

qp = q Nc* = 224.7 x 350 = 78645 kN/m

q l = 50 Nq* tan = 50 x 350 tan 40 = 14684 kN/m

use the lower one

Qp = q l * Ap =14684 * 0.0955 = 1402 kN

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Learning Activity 2b (example)

Learning Outcome
- To understand and apply various design approaches with respect to cohesive and
cohesionless soils.

Determine the ultimate point load (Qp) using (b) Berezantzevs method
Write down the formula required
Determine Nq*
Determine q
Which is the limiting value of qp compared with the GCE recommendation
Determine Qp (1433 kN)
Berezantzevs
o
= 40 => Nq* = 180
2
Ap = 0.308 x 0.31 = 0.0955 m
2
q = 5 x 15.7 + 13 x (18.1-9.8) + 4 x (19.4 -9.8) = 224.7 kN/m
2
qp = q Nc* = 0.0955 x 180 = 40,446 kN/m > 15 MPa use 15 MPa
Qp = q l * Ap =15000* 0.0955 = 1432 kN

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Learning Activity 3 (example)

Learning Outcome
- To understand and apply various design approaches with respect to cohesive and
cohesionless soils.

A pipe pile is driven in saturated clay with undrained cohesion strength (cu)as shown.
The outside diameter is 406 mm and wall thickness of 6.35 mm. Determine the
ultimate point load (Qp)

What method to use

Write down the formula required
Determine Ap
Determine Nc*
Determine Qp (116.5 kN)

u = 0 => Nc* = 9
Ap = D /4 = 3.14(0.406) /4
2

= 0.1295 m

Qp = Ap qp = Ap Nc* Cu = 0.1295 x 9 x 100 = 116.5 kN

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4. Frictional resistance of pile: sand and clay

The frictional or skin resistance of a pile (Figure 6) may be written as
Qs = p L f
where

p
L
f

(6)

= perimeter of the pile section

= incremental pile length over which p andf are taken
constant
= unit friction resistance at any depth z

Unit frictional resistance for piles in sand

Figure 6

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(a)

Frictional Resistance in Sand

The unit frictional resistance at any depth for a pile is

f
or f
where

Kv tan

(7)

= v

(8)

K = earth pressure coefficient

v = mean vertical effective stress at the depth under consideration

= soil-pile friction angle

= shaft friction coefficient
The values of from various investigations appear to be in the range of 0.50 to 1.00.
Judgment must be used in choosing the value of . Typical values of are shown in
Table 1.
In reality, the magnitude of K varies with depth. It is approximately equal to the
Rankine passive earth pressure coefficient, Kp, at the top of the pile and may be less
than the at-rest earth pressure coefficient, Ko, at the pile tip. It also depends on the
nature of pile installation. The variation of K with Ko is shown in Table 2.
In view of the uncertainties associated with assessing Ko and the effects of construction
method, it may be more reasonable to consider the combined effect as reflected by the
values deduced from load tests on piles in saprolite (GEO, 1990). Typical values of
for bored piles in sand are given in Table 3.

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(GEO 1990)

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(GEO 1990)

Critical Depth Concept

Based on model tests on piles in granular materials, it was suggested that beyond a
critical depth there will be little increase in both skin friction and base resistance. The
critical depth usually occurs at a depth of 15 - 20 pile diameters.

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Learning Activity 4 (example)

Learning Outcome
- To understand and apply various design approaches with respect to cohesive and
cohesionless soils.

An H pile is driven into sand as shown. The dimensions of the section including soil
plug are 308 x 310 mm.

Determine the ultimate skin resistance (Qs) with K = 1.4 and = 0.6

(Das B.M. )

Write down the formula use

Plot the effective stress diagram
Determine v for each layer of sand (78.5, 186.3, 224.7 kN/m2)
Determine Qs (1076.8 + 633.3 ) = 1710 kN

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Qs =
pL K (v)mean tan

Determine v
z(m)
0
5
18
22

z (m)
0
5
13
4

v (kN/m )
0
5 x 15.7 = 78.5
13 x (18.1-9.8) = 107.9
4 x (19.4 -9.8) = 38.4
2

v (kN/m )
0
78.5
186.4
224.8
2

224.8

Determine (v)mean for each soil layer

Soil 1: (v)mean = [(0.5 x 5 x 78.5 + 0.5 x 13 x (78.5 + 186.4))/18
2
= 106.6 kN/m
2
Soil 2: (v)mean = [ 0.5 x 4 x (186.5 + 224.8)]/4
= 205.7 kN/m

Determine = 0.6
1 = 0.6 1 = 0.6 x 30 = 18
2 = 0.6 2 = 0.6 x 40 = 24

Determine the perimeter of pile

P = 2 (0.308 + 0.310) = 1.236 m

Qs =
Qs =

(pL K (v)mean tan

( 1.236 x 18 x 1.4 x 106.6 x tan 18)

+ 1.236 x 4 x 1.4 x 205.7 x tan 24 )
= 1712 kN

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(ii) Frictional (or Skin) Resistance in Clay

Several methods of obtaining unit frictional (or skin) resistance of piles in clay are
available. Three of the presently accepted procedures are described briefly. There are ,
, and methods and only method will be described here.

Method
According to the method, the unit skin resistance in clayey soils can be represented
by the equation
f = cu

(9)

where = empirical adhesion factor.

The approximate variation of the value of is shown in Figure 7. Thus

Q. = f p L = cu p L

(10)

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Das, B.M. (2007) Fig. 8.18 .

Variation of with cu of clay

Figure 7 (Das, B.M.)

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Learning Activity 5a (example)

Learning Outcome
- To understand and apply various design approaches with respect to cohesive soils.
A pile is driven in saturated clay with undrained cohesion strength (Cu)as shown.
The outside diameter is 406 mm.
Determine the ultimate skin resistance using method respectively.

Method
Write down the formula used
Determine for each layer (1, 0.5)
Determine Qs (1658 kN)

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7-32

5. Allowable Pile Capacity

After the total ultimate load-carrying capacity (Q.) of a pile has been determined by
summing the point bearing capacity and the frictional (or skin) resistance, a reasonable
factor of safety (FS) should be used to obtain the total allowable load (Qall) for each
pile, or
Qall = Qult/F

(11)

The factor of safety generally used ranges from 2.5 to 4, depending on the
uncertainties of ultimate load calculation.

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6. Practical Considerations

6.1 Estimation of Pile Capacity for Piles in Rock

General
For pile design in Hong Kong, rock refers to the fresh to moderately decomposed rock
or partially weathered rock having a rock content greater than 50%. For a short rigid
pile founded on rock, the frictional resistance or adhesion along its sides in the soil
layers is usually insignificant compared with the end bearing capacity and is
acceptable to be neglected. For piles socketed into rock, the frictional resistance of
the rock socket could be significant and should be taken into account in design.

Bored Piles in Rock

Broadly speaking, there are four methods of designing bored piles founded on rock as
follows:

Semi-empirical methods

Bearing capacity theories

The use of presumptive bearing values

Insitu tests

Semi-empirical Methods
A semi-empirical correlation between allowable bearing pressure and Rock Quality
Designation (RQD) was suggested by Peck et al (1974).

Bearing Capacity Theories

Design of foundations using bearing capacity theories can be carried out with
reference to the various failure modes.

Presumptive Bearing Values

In Hong Kong, presumptive bearing values of 3 MPa to 7.5 MPa for granitic and
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volcanic rocks are customarily being used. These presumptive values reflect local
experience and may be used in routine work or for preliminary designs. It must be
noted that the use of presumptive values should not be a substitute for consideration of
settlement, particularly if the structure is susceptible to foundation movement.

Insitu Tests
The load-settlement behaviour of a rock foundation may be evaluated by insitu tests
such as plate loading tests, Goodman Jack, pressuremeter or full-scale load tests.

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6.2 Negative Skin Friction

Negative skin friction is a downward drag force exerted on the pile by the soil
surrounding it. This occurs on the part of the shaft along which the downward
movement of the surrounding soil exceeds the settlement of the pile and may occur
under the following conditions:

If a fill of clay soil is placed over a granular soil layer into which a pile is
driven, the fill will gradually consolidate. This consolidation process will
exert a downward drag force on the pile during the period of consolidation.

If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of soft clay, it will impose an
increase of effective stress in the clay, induce the process of consolidation in
the clay layer, and thus exert a downward drag on the pile.

Lowering of water table will increase the vertical effective stress on the soil at
any depth, which will induce consolidation settlement in the clay. If a pile is
located in the clay layer, it will be subjected to a downward drag force.

In some cases, the downward drag force may be excessive and cause
foundation failure.
If the pile settlement under working load is small, e.g. short large-diameter
piles resting on rock, there may not be significant relief of negative skin friction due to
pile settlement and the following method can be used to calculate the allowable pile
load.
Qall = (Qult/Fd ) - Pn
Where

Q all = the allowable pile load

Qult = the ultimate resistance below the neutral point
Fd

= global factor of safety

Pn

= ultimate negative skin friction

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6.3

Pile Design in Karst Marble

The main problem affecting the design of piles founded in karst formation is
the presence of dissolution features such as overhangs and cavities below the pile
toe. The stability of such piled foundation depends on the geometry of these karst
features and the properties of the rock mass, particularly of the discontinuities.
There are no simple design rules, which could overcome all the potential problems
associated with pile foundations in karst formation. Suitable redundancy should be
incorporated into the design to allow for uncertainties arising from the karst
morphology. However no definite guidelines can be given for the percentage of
redundancy and each site must be treated on its own merits.
Foundations in karst formations in Yuen Long and Ma On Shan areas have been
successfully been constructed using bored piles founded beneath cavities. Steel
H-piles with redundancy factors and hard driven to refusal into the karst formation
have also been successfully used in these areas.

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7 Pile Groups

The Behaviour of Pile Groups

In most cases, piles are used in groups, as shown in Figure 8, to transmit the
structural load to the soil. A pile cap is constructed over group piles. The pile cap
can be in contact with the ground (Figure 8a) or well above the ground as in the case
of offshore platforms (Figure 8b).

If the piles are driven into a compressible bearing stratum, such as a layer of stiff clay,
then the carrying capacity of a group of piles may be very much less than that of the
sum of the individual piles. Also, the settlement of the group of piles is likely to be
many times greater than that of the individual pile under the same working load. In
the case of a single pile (Figure 11a) only a small zone of compressible soil around or
below the pile is subjected to vertical stress. In the case of a pile group (Figure 9.b) a
considerable depth of soil around and below the group is stressed and settlement of the
whole group may be large.

The problems of the stability of pile groups are twofold:

First, the ability of the soil around as well as below the block of soil containing the pile
group to support the whole load of the structure.

Second, the effects of consolidation of the soil for a considerable depth below the pile
group.

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pile cap in contact with the ground

Figure 8

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The Carrying Capacity of Pile Groups

The efficiency of the load-bearing capacity of a group pile may be defined as

Qg ( u )

(12)

where

= group efficiency

Qg(u) = ultimate load-bearing capacity of a pile group

Qu

= ultimate load-bearing capacity of an individual pile in the group

without the group effect

It is assumed that the piled area under the pile group acts as a combined raft
foundation. Transfer of load from the piles to the soil in skin friction is allowed for
by assuming that the load is spread from the shafts of friction piles at an angle from
the vertical as shown in Figure 10.

The bearing capacity and settlement of the equivalent raft foundation can be
calculated using the methods described for shallow foundations.

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Stress zones under (a) single pile; (b) pile group

Figure 9

Load transfer under (a) pile group supported by skin friction; (b) pile group supported
by skin friction and end-bearing; (c) pile group supported by end-bearing
Figure 10
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The ultimate load-carrying capacity of group piles in clay may be estimated by

assuming that the piles in the group act as a bloc with dimensions of Lg x B g x L. The
skin resistance of the block is

pg cu L = 2 (Lg + Bg) cu L
and the point bearing capacity is
Ap q p = A p cu(p) Nc* =(Lg Bg) cu(p) Nc*
where cu(p) = undrained cohesion of the clay at the pile tip.
Thus the ultimate load carrying capacity is

Qu = (Lg Bg) cu(p) Nc* + 2 (Lg + Bg) cu L

Settlements of pile groups in cohesive soils are calculated on the assumption

that the group acts as a buried raft foundation and using the 2:1 stress distribution
method. The procedure of calculation is similar to that for shallow foundations.

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References
Disclaimer- the author has tried his best to indicate all references but there is no
guarantee that all materials cited can be included.
1. Das, B. M. (2007). Principles of Foundation Engineering. 6th Edition. Cengage
Learning.
2. Craig, R. F. (2004). Soil Mechanics. 7th Ed, E & FN Spon.
3. Capper, P.L., Cassie, W.F. and Geddes, J.D. (1980). Problems in Engineering Soil, E
& FN Spon.
4. Whitlow,R.(2000) Basic Soil Mechanics, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
6. Barnes, G.E. (2000) Soil Mechanics Principles and Practices, MacMilan.
7. Berry, P.L. & Reid, D.(1987) An Introduction to Soil Mechanics, McGraw-Hill
Book Company
8. Budhu, M. (2000), Soil mechanics & Foundations, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons
9. Smith G.N. (1990), Elements of Soil Mechanics, 6th Ed, BSP Professional Books.
10. Sutton, B.H.C (1993). Solving Problems in Soil Mechanics, 2nd Ed, Longman.
11. ELE International. Catalogue in Laboratory Testing.
12. Geotechnical Engineering Office (1996). GEO Publication No. 1/96 - Pile Design
and Construction, CED, HK Government, Government Publications Centre.
13. Geotechnical Engineering Office (1987). Geoguide 2 - Guide to Site Investigation,
CED, HK Government, Government Publications Centre.
14. Geotechnical Engineering Office (199 I). GEO Report No. 8: Foundation Design of
Caissons on Granite and Volcanic Rocks, CED, HK Government, Government
Publications Centre.

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