Chapter 11

Chapter 11
Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers
428
The rms voltage across the load Vo rms, and rms load current Io rms, are
1
2
2
2V sin t d t
2 0
Vo rms =
11
= I o rms R =
(11.3)
2
and the power dissipated in the load, specifically the load resistor, is
Po = I o2rms R =
V2
R
(11.4)
The ac current in the load is
Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters
- Uncontrolled Rectifiers
I ac = I o2rms I o2 =
V
R
(11.5)
The load voltage harmonics are

2V
2V
2 2V 1
1
1
v o (t ) =
sin t
cos 2t +
cos 4t .. + 2
cos n t ......... (11.6)
+
2
1 3
35
n 1
for n = 2, 4, 6,
2
For a resistive load, the load voltage and current ripple factors are both ( ) 1 . FF = . The poor
output voltage form factor can be improved by using a capacitor across the output, viz., the load resistor.
11.1.2 Half-wave circuit with a resistive and back emf R-E load
The rectifier converter circuits considered in this chapter have in common an ac voltage supply input and
a dc load output. The function of the converter circuit is to convert the ac source energy into fix dc load
voltage. Turn-off of converter semiconductor devices is brought about by the ac supply voltage reversal,
a process called line commutation or natural commutation.
Converter circuits employing only diodes are termed uncontrolled (or rectifiers) while the incorporation of
only thyristors results in a (fully) controlled converter. The functional difference is that the diode conducts
when forward-biased whereas the turn-on of the forward-biased thyristor can be controlled from its gate.
An uncontrolled converter provides a fixed output voltage for a given ac supply and load.
Thyristor converters allow an adjustable output voltage by controlling the phase angle at which the
forward biased thyristors are turned on. With diodes, converters can only transfer power from the ac
source to the dc load, termed rectification and can therefore be described as unidirectional converters.
Although rectifiers provide a dc output, they differ in characteristics such as output ripple and mean
voltage as well as efficiency and ac supply current harmonics.
An important rectifier characteristic is that of pulse number, which is defined as the repetition rate in
the direct output voltage during one complete cycle of the input ac supply.
A useful way to judge the quality of the required dc output, is by the contribution of its superimposed
ac harmonics. The harmonic or ripple factor RF is defined by
RFv =
With an opposing emf E in series with the resistive load, the load current and voltage waveforms are as
shown in figure 11.1b. Load current commences when the source voltage exceeds the load back emf at
t = = sin1
t = = sin1
(11.8)
2V
The diode conducts for a period = - 2, during which energy is delivered to both the load resistor R
and load back emf E.
2V
load
voltage
vo
D
io
vo
io
R
2V/R
vo
Vac
V 2 V 2
V2
= rms 2 dc = rms2 1 = FF 2 1
Vdc
Vdc
Vdc
t
io
where FF is termed the form factor. RFv is a measure of the voltage harmonics in the output voltage
while if currents are used in the equation, RFi gives a measure of the current harmonics in the output
current. Both FF and RF are applicable to the input and output, and are defined in section 11.6.
The general analysis in this chapter is concerned with single and three phase ac rectifier supplies
feeding inductive and resistive dc loads. Purely resistive load equations generally can be derived by
setting inductance L to zero in the L-R load equations. Just as purely inductive load equations generally
can be derived by setting resistance R to zero in the same L-R load equations.
vo
(a)
v
ac supply
voltage
2V
11.1
Single-phase uncontrolled converter circuits ac rectifiers
BWW
load
voltage
vo
D
11.1.1 Half-wave circuit with a resistive load, R

The simplest meaningful single-phase half-wave load to analyse is the resistive load. The ac supply V is
impressed across the load every second ac cycle half period, when load current flows.
The load voltage and current shown in figure 11.1a are defined by
2V sin t
0 t
(11.1)
v o (t ) = i o R =
t 2
0
The circuit voltage and current equations can be found by substituting L = 0, = and = 0 in the
generalised equations (11.18) to (11.20) in section 11.1.3. The average dc output current Io and voltage
Vo are given by
1
2
(11.2)
Vo = I o R =
V = 0.45V
2V sin t d t =
2 0
(11.7)
2V
and ceases when the source voltage falls to the load back emf level at
io
vo
R
E
(2V-E)/R
io
vo
t
o
(b)
ac supply
voltage
io
vo
Figure 11.1. Single-phase half-wave rectifiers:

(a) purely resistive load, R and (b) resistive load R with back emf, E.
Power Electronics
429
The load average and rms voltages are
Vo = + E +
2
Chapter 11
Io =
2V sin t d t
(11.9)
2V cos
= + E +
Vo rms = E 2 +

sin 2
+V 2 +

2

The load average and rms currents are
1 2V
Io =
cos E
I o rms =

1 V
2 2
sin
V E sin + (V 2 + E 2 )
R 2
2
1 2 230 V
144.2
sin 144.2 100V
= 5.85A
10
360

sin 2
+V 2 +

1 2V
= R sin E 2

430
1 2V

sin E
2
R
Vo rms = E 2 +
(11.10)
17.9
17.9 1

2
= 1002 +
+ 230 180 + 2 sin 2 17.9 = 179.2V
180
(11.11)
I o rms =
The total power delivered to the R-E load is

Po = PR + PE = I o2rms R + E I o
Example 11.1:
(11.12)
(11.13)
Half-wave rectifier with resistive and back emf load
A dc motor has series armature resistance of 10 and is fed via a half-wave rectifier, from the singlephase 230V 50Hz ac mains. Calculate
i. rectifier diode peak current
ii. motor average starting current
If at full speed, the motor back emf is 100V dc, calculate
iii. average and rms motor voltages and currents
iv. motor electrical losses
v. power converted to rotational energy
vi. supply power factor and motor efficiency
vii. diode approximate loss if modelled by vD = 0.8 + 0.025 iD.
Solution
1 2302
2 2
144.2
230V 100V sin 144.2 + ( 2302 + 1002 )
sin144.2
10 2
360
V
103.5V
Io = o =
= 10.35A
10
R
With a 100V back emf, the circuit and waveforms in figure 11.1b are applicable.
The current starts conducting when
E
100V
= sin1
= 17.9
t = = sin1
2V
2 230V
The current conducts for a period = - 2 = 180 - 217.9 = 144.2, ceasing at t = - =
162.1.
iii. The average and rms load currents and voltages are given by equations (11.9) to (11.12).
Vo = + E +
2V cos
17.9
1
2 230V cos17.9 = 158.5V

= +
100V +
180
= 10.2A
v. The back emf represents the source of electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
PE = E I o = 100V 5.85A = 585W
vi. The supply power factor is defined as the ratio of the supply power delivered, P, to apparent supply
power, S
P + PE
1041.5W + 585W
P
=
= 0.69
pf = = R
230V 10.2A
S V I o r ms
The motor efficiency is
PE
585W
=
100 = 40.0%
PR + PE 1041.5W + 585W
By assuming the diode voltage drop is insignificant in magnitude compared to the 230V ac
supply, then the currents and voltages previously calculated involve minimal error. The rectifying
diode power loss is
PD =
0.8 I o + 0.025 I o2rms
i. The peak supply and peak load voltage is 2V = 2230 = 325.3V.

The peak diode and load current is
v
325.3V
= 32.5A
iD = io = o =
R
10
ii. The motor average current, at starting, is given by equation (11.2)
Vo = I o R = 0.45 230V=103.5V
iv. The motor loss is the loss in the 10 resistor in the dc motor equivalent circuit
PR = I o2rms R = 10.22 10 = 1041.5W
vii.
Worst case conditions are at standstill when the motor back emf is zero (E = k) and the circuit and
waveforms in figure 11.1a are applicable.
1 V 2
2 2

sin
V E sin + (V 2 + E 2 )
R 2
= 0.8 5.85A + 0.025 10.22 = 7.3W
11.1.3 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with an R-L load

A single-phase half-wave diode rectifying circuit with an R-L load is shown in figure 11.2a, while various
circuit electrical waveforms are shown in figure 11.2b. Load current commences when the supply
voltage goes positive at t = 0. It will be seen that load current flows not only during the positive half of
the ac supply voltage, 0 t , but also during a portion of the negative supply voltage, t .
The load inductor stored energy maintains the load current and the inductors terminal voltage reverses
and is able to overcome the negative supply and keep the diode forward-biased and conducting. This
current continues until all the inductor energy, Li2, is released (i = 0) at the current extinction angle (or
cut-off angle), t = .
During diode conduction the circuit is defined by the Kirchhoff voltage equation
v R +v L = L
di
+ Ri = v = 2 V sin t
dt
(V)
(11.14)
where V is the rms ac supply voltage. Solving equation (11.14) yields the load (and diode) current
i (t ) =
2V
{sin (t - )
+ sin e-t /tan
0 t
(A)
(11.15)
(rad)
Power Electronics
431
Chapter 11
432
while the mean output voltage Vo is given by
Vo =
1
2
2 V sint d t =
Io R =
2V
2
(1 cos )
(V)
(11.19)
Since the mean voltage across the load inductance is zero, Vo = I o R (see the equal area criterion to
follow). Figure 11.3b shows the normalised output voltage Vo /V as a function of L / R.
The rms output (load) voltage and current are given by

q =1 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=1
V rms = 1 2
Z=
R2+2L2
X=
L
2V
2
From equations (11.19)
voltage form factor.
i rms =
V cos
R
sin2 t d t
= V 12 { sin 2 }
(11.20)
sin cos ( + )
sin cos ( + )
V 1
cos
cos
Z 2

and (11.20) the harmonic content in the output voltage is indicated by the
FFv =
V rms { sin 2 }
=
1 cos
Vo
(11.21)
For a resistive load, when = , the form factor reduces to a value of 1.57. The ripple factor is therefore
FFv 2 1 = 1.21. For a purely resistive load the voltage and current form factors are equal.
vL = 0 = Ldi/dt
current slope = 0
i
current extinction
angle
-VR
Figure 11.2. Half-wave rectifier with an R-L load:

(a) circuit diagram and (b) waveforms, illustrating the equal area and zero current slope criteria.
2/
= 0.45
Z = (R2 + 2 L2) (ohms)

tan = L / R = Q and R = Z cos
i (t ) = 0
(A)
(11.16)
t 2
(rad)
The current extinction angle is determined solely by the load impedance Z and can be solved from
equation (11.15) when the current, i = 0 with t = , such that > , that is
sin( - ) + sin e - /tan = 0
(11.17)
This is a transcendental equation which can be solved by iterative techniques. Figure 11.3a can be used
to determine the extinction angle , given any load impedance (power factor) angle = tan1 L / R .
where
The mean value of the rectified current, the output current, I o , is given by integration of equation (11.15)
Io =
Io =
1
2
2V
2 R
i (t ) d t
(1 cos )
(A)
(A)
(11.18)
Figure 11.3. Single-phase half-wave converter characteristics: (a) load impedance angle versus
current extinction angle and (b) variation in normalised mean output voltage Vo / V versus L/R.
Power Electronics
433
Chapter 11
The power delivered to the load, which is the power delivered to the load resistance R, is
2
PL = i rms
R
The supply power factor, using the rms current in equation (11.20), is
power, PL
pf =
apparent power
2
sin cos ( + )
i rms
R i rms R VR rms 1
=
=
=

cos = cos
2
cos
i rmsV
V
V
2V
{1 cos t }
L
i s (t ) =
=
(11.23)
io
= + = + tan1
2Vs
dt = 0
is
iC
C
Vs
(Vs)
dv o v o
+
dt
RL
iD
(11.25)
The output voltage ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier with a resistive load can be improved by adding
decoupling capacitance across the load output, as shown in figure 11.4.
and
RL
Vo
vo
t
o
Vo
(a)
11.1.4 Half-wave rectifier circuit with an R load and capacitor filter
v o (t ) = 2V s sint
io
ID
(11.24)
11.1.3ii - Load current zero slope criterion

The load inductance voltage polarity changes from positive to negative as energy initially transferred into
the inductor, is released. The stored energy in the inductor allows current to continue to flow after the
input ac voltage has reversed. At the instant when the inductor voltage reverses, its terminal voltage is
zero, and
v L = Ldi / dt = 0
(11.26)
that is di / dt = 0
The current slope changes from positive to negative, whence the voltage across the load resistance
ceases to increase and starts to decrease, as shown in figure 11.2b. That is, the Ri waveform crosses
the supply voltage waveform with zero slope, whence when the inductor voltage is zero, the current
begins to decrease. The fact that the resistor voltage slope is zero when vL = 0, aids prediction and
sketching of the various circuit waveforms in figure 11.2b, and subsequent waveforms in this chapter.
i s = iC + io = C
RLC
The inductor voltage waveform for the circuit in figure 11.2a is shown in the last plot in figure 11.2b. The
inductor equal voltage area criterion implies that the shaded positive area must equal the shaded
negative area, in order to satisfy equation (11.25). The net inductor energy at the end of the cycle is zero
(specifically, unchanged since i o = i ), that is, the energy into the inductor equals the energy transferred
from the inductor. This area aspect is a useful aid in predicting and drawing the load current waveform.
It is useful to superimpose the supply voltage v, the load voltage vo, and the resistor voltage vR
waveforms on the same time axis, t. The load resistor voltage, vR = Ri, is directly related to the load
current, i. The inductor voltage vL will be the difference between the load voltage and the resistor
voltage, and this bounded net area must be zero. Thus the average output voltage is Vo = I o R . The
equal voltage areas associated with the load inductance are shown shaded in two plots in figure 11.2b.
In the period t
RLC
Vs
v L (t ) dt = L di = L (i i 0 )
(11.27)
Since is = 0 when t = , - = . That is
If the load current is in steady state then i = i o , which is zero here, and in general
2V s
2
1 + (RLC ) cos (t )
RL
(A)
11.1.3i Inductor equal voltage area criterion

The average output voltage Vo, given by equation (11.19), is based on the fact that the average voltage
across the load inductance, in steady state, is zero. The inductor voltage is given by
v L = L di / dt
(V)
which for the circuit in figure 11.2a can be expressed as
i
2V s
R C cos t + sin t
RL L
where = tan1
which has a mean current value of 2 V/L.
434
Solving for the source current is

(11.22)
The characteristics for an R-L-E load can be determined by using = 0 in the case of the half-wave
controlled converter in section 12.2.1iii.
For a purely inductive load, L, = 2 is substituted into the appropriate equations. The average output
voltage tends to zero and the current is given by
i (t ) =
ID
(b)
Figure 11.4. Single-phase half-wave rectifier:

(a) circuit with a capacitively filtered resistive load and (b) waveforms.
For the period t 2 +

is = 0
and
dv o v o
C
+
=0
dt
RL
where v o (t = ) = 2V s cos
Therefore
v o (t ) = 2V s e (t ) tan cos
Since vo = 2Vs sin when t = 2 +
sin = e tan e ( 2
where can be solved iteratively.
3 ) tan
(11.28)
cos
The peak to peak ripple voltage is 2Vs (1 - sin), which decreases as C increases for which . The
peak inverse voltage rating of the diode is approximately 22Vs.
The full-wave rectified case is considered in section 11.1.8iv, where the period boundary t = + is
used.
Example 11.2:
Half-wave rectifier with source resistance
In the dc supply half-wave rectifier circuit of figure 11.5, the source voltage is 2302 sin(2 50t) V with
an internal resistance Ri = 1 Ohm, RL = 10 Ohms, and the filter capacitor C is very large. Calculate
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
the mean value of the load voltage, Vo
the diode average and peak currents, ID, I D

the capacitor peak charging and discharging currents
the diode reverse blocking voltage, VDR
Power Electronics
435
Chapter 11
436
Ri
Vo
is
iC
Vs
iv.
2Vs
Vs
io
Vo
RL
iD
(a)
11.1.5 Half-wave circuit with an R-L load and freewheel diode
ID
ID
(b)
Figure 11.5. Single-phase half-wave rectifier: (a) circuit with a resistive load and (b) waveforms.
Solution
i.
Because the load filter capacitor is large, it is assumed that the dc output voltage is ripple free
and constant. The capacitor provides the load current when the ac supply level is less that the
dc output. The load current and peak diode (hence supply) current are therefore
V
2V s V o
Io = o
ID =
RL
The diode reverse voltage is the difference between the instantaneous supply voltage and the
output voltage 210V. This is a maximum at the negative peak of the ac supply, when the diode
voltage is 2230V + 210V = 535.3V. During any period when the load is disrupted, the output
capacitor can charge up to 2230V, hence the diode can experience, worst case, 22230V
= 650.5V.
The circuit in figure 11.2a, which has an R-L load, is characterised by discontinuous current (i = 0) and
high ripple current. Continuous load current can result when a diode Df is added across the load as
shown in figure 11.6a. This freewheel diode prevents the voltage across the load from reversing during
the negative half-cycle of the ac supply voltage. The inductor energy is not returned to the ac supply,
rather is retained in the load circuit. The stored energy in the inductor cannot reduce to zero
instantaneously, so the current is forced to find an alternative path whilst decreasing towards zero.
When the rectifier diode D1 ceases to conduct at zero volts it blocks, and diode Df provides an alternative
load current freewheeling path, as indicated by the waveforms in figure 11.6b.
Ri
The ac supply provides current, through the rectifying diode, during the period
1
2V s sin t Vo
is =
t
Ri
If the capacitor voltage is to be maintained constant, the charge into the capacitor must equal
the charge delivered by the capacitor when the rectifying diode is not conducting, that is
(i
i o ) d t =
+ 2
i o d t
q =1 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=1
Also
Vo = 2V s sin

+
=
=
2
Manipulation yields
tan =
Ri
1
=
= 0.1
10
RL
An iterative solution yields = 99.6, that is, the diode conducts for a period of 5.53ms
(10ms99.6/180), every cycle of the ac supply, 20ms. The capacitor, hence output voltage, is

Vo = 2V s sin = 2V s sin
2
180 99.6
= 2 230V sin
= 209.95V
2
ii.
The average diode current is given by
1 1
1

ID =
2V s sint Vo d t =
2V s 2 cos
V o
2 Ri
2 Ri
2
1
180 99.6
99.6
2 230V 2 cos
=
209.95V
= 21.0A
2 1
2
180
Alternatively, as would be expected, the average diode current is the average load current:
V
209.95V
I D = Io = o =
= 21.0A
RL
10
The peak diode current is
2V s V o
2 230V 210V
=
= 115.3A
ID =
1
Ri
iii.
The capacitor peak charging current is the difference between the peak diode current and the
load current, viz., 115A - 21A = 94A, while the peak discharging current is the average load
current of 21A.
Figure 11.6. Half-wave rectifier with a load freewheel diode and an R-L load:
(a) circuit diagram and parameters and (b) circuit waveforms.
The output voltage is the positive half of the sinusoidal input voltage. The mean output voltage (thence
mean output current) is
Vo = I o R =
Vo = 2V
1
2
2V
sint d t
(11.29)
0.45 V = I o R
(V)
Power Electronics
437
Chapter 11
The rms value of the load circuit voltage v0 is given by
1
2
V rms =
= V
Example 11.3: Half-wave rectifier with load freewheel diode
2V sint d t
(11.30)
= 0.71 V
(V)
In the circuit of figure 11.6, the source voltage is 2402 sin(2 50t) V, R
Calculate
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
VRi V rms Vo
=
2V
2V
=V
(11.31)
0.545 V
hence the load voltage form and ripple factors are defined as
FFv = V r ms /Vo = = 1.57
( )
Vrms 2
RFv V Ri /Vo =
Vo
di
+ Ri = 2V sin t
dt
(11.32)
1.211
0 t
(A)
(11.33)
di
L
+ Ri = 0
dt
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
(A)
t 2
(11.34)
sin(t ) + (I o 2 + 2V
sin )e t /tan
(A)
sin
/tan
1+e
e /tan e /tan
R 2 + ( L )2
tan = L / R
where Z =
i.
V
2 R
(2 (1 + e
I Df = I o I D 1 =
/tan
From equation (11.30) the load rms voltage is
V rms =V / 2
I o = Vo
(A)
Z =
(11.37)
V
(1 + e /tan ) sin2
2 R
2V
(n
n = 2,4,6
2
cos n t
1)
Vn
Vn
Vn
=
=
2
Z n R + jn L
R 2 + ( n L )
(11.38)
I n2
n = 1, 2, 4, 6..
2V
2240V
10
10.8A
18.62
1
25.22A
25.22A e t /1.57rad d t =
1.57rad 1 e 1.57 = 5.46A
2 0
2
The average input current, which is the rectifying diode mean current, is given by
I s = I D 1 = I o I Df = 10.8A 5.46A = 5.34A
v.
(11.40)
R 2 + ( L )2
(11.39)
and
I rms = I o2 +
iv. Integration of the diode current given in equation (11.36) yields the average freewheel diode current.
1
1
I Df =
i Df (t ) d t =
I o 1 e t /tan d t
2 0
2 0
Dividing each harmonic output voltage component by the corresponding load impedance at that
frequency gives the harmonic output current, whence rms current. That is
In =
169.7V
tan = L / R
= 2 50Hz 0.05H / 10 = 1.57 or = 57.5 1rad
From section 11.1.5, equation (11.35)
1 + e /tan
I o 2 = 2V sin /tan
Z
e
e /tan
1 + e /1.57
= 3.41A
I o 2 = 2 240V
sin(tan1 1.57) /1.57
18.62
e /1.57
e
Hence, from equation (11.36)
I o 1 = I o 2 e /tan = 3.41 e /1.57 = 25.22A
Since I o 2 = 3.41A > 0 , continuous load current flows.
240V / 2
= 102 + (2 50Hz 0.05)2
) sin )
2V
2V
sin t
+
2
iii. The load impedance is characterised by
(ohms)
In figure 11.6b it will be seen that although the load current can be continuous, the supply current is
discontinuous and therefore has a high harmonic content.
The output voltage Fourier series (Vo + V1 + Vn = 2, 4, 6..) is (see equation (11.6))
v o (t ) =
From equation (11.29), the mean output voltage is given by
Vo = 2V = 2 240V = 108V
During the period t 2, when the supply current i = 0, the freewheel diode current and hence
load current are given by
i o (t ) = i Df (t ) = I o 1 e (t )/tan
(A)
t 2
(11.36)
for
I o 1 = I o 2 e /tan
(A)
For discontinuous load current (the freewheel diode current iDf falls to zero before the rectifying diode D1
recommences conduction), the appropriate integration gives the average diode currents as
I D1 =
an expression for the current hence the current extinction angle

the average load voltage hence average load current
the rms load voltage and current
the power delivered to the load and supply power factor
ii. The mean output current, equation (11.29), is
for
2V
50 mH.
the mean and rms values of the load voltage, Vo and Vrms
the mean value of the load current, I o
the current boundary conditions, namely Io1 and Io2
the average freewheel diode current, hence average rectifier diode current
the rms load current, hence load power and supply rms current
the supply power factor
(11.35)
0 t
I o 2 =
From the rms and average output voltages and currents, determine the load form and ripple factors.
During the period 0 t , when the freewheel diode current is given by iDf = 0, the supply current,
which is the load current, are given by
10 ohms, and L
Solution
and when the freewheel diode conducts
i (t ) = i o (t ) = 2V
If the freewheel diode is removed from across the load, determine
= 1
1 = FFv 1
2
After a large number of ac supply cycles, steady-state load current conditions are established, and from
Kirchhoffs voltage law, the load current is defined by
438
2
The output ripple (ac) voltage is defined as
2
The load voltage harmonics given by equation (11.38) can be used to evaluate the load current at
the load impedance for that frequency harmonic.
2V
2V
2 2V
v (t ) =
sin t
cos (n t )
+
2
2
n = 2,4,6 ( n 1 )
.
Power Electronics
439
Chapter 11
The following table shows the calculations for each frequency component.
harmonic
Z n = R + (n L )
2 2V
2
1)
Vn =
(n
In =
Vn
Zn
i rms =
I n2
=
(V)
()
(A)
(108.04)*
10.00
10.80
(116.72)
(169.71)*
18.62
9.11
41.53
72.03
32.97
2.18
2.39
14.41
63.62
0.23
0.03
6.17
94.78
0.07
0.00
3.43
126.06
0.03
0.00
I o2 + I n2 =
see equation (11.38) for first two terms
I n2 =
160.7 = 12.68A
n =1, 2, 4..
The freewheel diode rms current is
1
I Df =
I o 1 e t /tan
2 0
2 240 V
18.62
+ sin e-t /tan
{sin (t - 1.0)
FF = rms/ave
RF = FF2-1
Voltage factor
169.7V/108V = 1.57
1.21
181.6V/86V = 2.1
1.86
Current factor
12.68A/10.8A = 1.17
0.615
9.68A/8.60A = 1.12
0.517
+ 0.841 e-t /1.57
0 t 2
(11.41)
(11.42)
sin2 t d t = I o rms R = V
0
and the power dissipated in the load, specifically the load resistor R, is
2V
Vo rms =
= 18.23 sin (t - 1.0) + 0.841 e-t /1.57
2V sin t
The rms voltage across the load, and rms load current, are 2 greater than the half-wave case,
specifically
Pout
1606.7W
=
= 0.74
Vr ms I r ms 240V 9.09A
{sin (t - )
ripple factor
RF = FF2-1
vii. If the freewheel diode Df is removed, the current is given by equation (11.15), that is
2V
form factor
FF = rms/ave
v o (t ) = i o R =
vi. The input ac supply power factor is
circuit without freewheel diode
ripple factor
The average dc output current and voltage are double the half-wave case and are given by
1
2 2
Vo = I o R = 2V sin t d t =
V = 0.90V
= 12.682 8.832 = 9.09A
i (t ) =
circuit with freewheel diode

form factor
The simplest meaningful single-phase full-wave load to analyse is the resistive load. The supply is
impressed across the load every ac cycle half period, when load current flows.
The load voltage and current shown in figure 11.7a are defined by
I D 1r ms = I sr ms = I r2ms I Df2 r ms
pf =
= 9.68A
11.1.6 Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a resistive load, R
d t
2
1
=
25.22A e t /1.57rad d t = 8.83A
2 0
Thus the input (and rectifying diode) rms current is given by
.
1
sin 4.08 cos ( 4.08 + 1.57 )
240V
4.08
18.62 2
cos1.57

160.67
The power dissipated in the load resistance is therefore

2
P10 = I rms
R = 12.68A 2 10 = 1606.7W
The load power is reduced without a load freewheel diode, from 1606.7W with a load freewheel
diode, to
2
P10 = i rms
R = 9.682 10 = 937W
The supply power factor is also reduced, from 0.74 to
Pout
937W
pf =
=
= 0.40
V rms I rms 240V 9.68A
Load factor
sin cos ( + + )

cos
Removal of the freewheel diode decreases the rms load current from 12.68A to 9.68A.
x.
The rms load current is
I rms = I o2 +
V
Z
440
Po = I o2rms R =
V2
R
(11.43)
(11.44)
The ac current in the load is

(A)
0 t
(rad)
The current extinction angle is found by setting i = 0 and solving iteratively for . Figure 11.3a
gives an initial estimate of 240 (4.19 rad) when = 57.5 (1 rad). That is
0 =sin ( - 1.0) + 0.841 e- /1.57
gives = 4.08 rad or 233.8, after iteration.
V
R
(11.45)
1 2
The load voltage harmonics are (twice the half-wave case, without the supply frequency component)
2 2V 4 2V 1
1
1
(11.46)
v o (t ) =
cos 2t +
cos 4t .. + 2
cos n t .........
1 3
35
n 1
for n = 2, 4, 6,
I ac = I o2rms I o2 =
viii. The average load voltage from equation (11.19) is
Vo =
2V
2
(1 cos ) =
2 240V
2
(1 cos 4.08) = 86.0V
The average load current is

I o = Vo / R = 86.0V/10 = 8.60A
ix.
The load rms voltage is 169.7V with the freewheel diode and increases without the diode to, as
given by equation (11.20)
V rms =V 12 { sin 2 }
= 240V 12 {4.08 sin 2 4.08}
= 181.6V
The rms load current from equation (11.20) is decreased to
11.1.7 Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a resistive and back emf load, R-E
With an opposing emf E in the load circuit, the load current and voltage waveforms are as shown in
figure 11.7b. Load current commences when
t = = sin1
(11.47)
2V
and ceases when
t = = sin1
E
2V
(11.48)
Power Electronics
441
Chapter 11
Diodes conduct every ac half cycle for a period = - 2, during which energy is delivered to both the
load resistor R and load back emf E.
The load average and rms voltages are
1
Vo = 2E + 2V sin t d t

(11.49)
2
2V cos
= 2E +
Vo rms
2

1

= 2 E 2 + V 2 1 2 + sin 2

(11.50)
vo
v
R
D4
io
vo
D2
D1 D2
2V/R
io
D3 D4
Solution
With a 100V back emf, the circuit and waveforms in figure 11.7b are applicable.
The current starts conducting when
E
100V
t = = sin1
= sin1
= 17.9
2V
2 230V
The current conducts for a period = - 2 = 180 - 217.9 = 144.2, ceasing at t = - = 162.1.
i. The average and rms load currents and voltages are given by equations (11.49) to (11.52).
2
2V cos
Vo = 2E +
D1 D2
D3 D4
1 2 2 230 V
144.2
sin 144.2 100V
= 11.7A
10
180
Vo rms = 2
(a)
ac supply
voltage
D1
D3
R
D4
D2
load
voltage
I o rms =
vo
E
vo
E
o
io
io
D1 D2
D3 D4
(2V-E)/R
D1 D2
(b)
ac supply
voltage
D3 D4
1 2302
4 2
144.2
sin144.2
230V 100V sin 144.2 + ( 2302 + 1002 )
10
180
The back emf represents the source of electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
PE = E I o = 100V 11.7A = 1170W
The supply power factor is defined as the ratio: supply power delivered to apparent supply
power
P + PE
2082.2W + 1170W
P
=
= 0.98
pf = = R
230V 14.43A
S V I o rms
The motor efficiency is
The load average and rms currents are

1 2 2V
Io =
sin E

R
which is double the half-wave case and
(11.51)
PE
1170W
=
100 = 36.0%
PR + PE 2082.2W + 1170W
which is 2 greater than the half-wave case.

The total power delivered to the load is (double the half-wave case):
Po = PR + PE = I o2rms R + E I o
Example 11.4:
1 V 2
4 2
V E sin + (V 2 + E 2 )
sin
R
ii. The motor loss is the loss in the 10 resistance in the dc motor equivalent circuit
PR = I o2rms R = 14.432 10 = 2082.2W
1 V 2
4 2
V E sin + (V 2 + E 2 )
sin
= 14.43A
The diode maximum reverse voltage is 2230+100=425.3V.
Figure 11.7. Single-phase full-wave rectifiers:

(a) purely resistive load, R and (b) resistive load R with back emf, E.
I o rms =
2
1

+ sin 2

vo
io
E 2 + V 2 1 2
17.9
17.9 1

= 2 1002
+ 2302 1 2
+ sin 2 17.9 = 231.4V
180
180
2V
vo
17.9 2
2 230V cos17.9 = 216.9V
+
180
1 2 2V
sin E
Io =
R

load
voltage
vo
io
D3
442
= 2 100V
2V
D1
(11.52)
(11.53)
Full-wave rectifier with resistive and back emf load
A dc motor, with series armature resistance of 10 and a back emf of 100V dc, is fed via a full-wave
rectifier from the single-phase 230V 50Hz ac mains. Calculate
i. The average and rms motor voltages and currents, and diode maximum reverse voltage
ii. The supply power factor and motor efficiency
11.1.8 Single-phase, full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with an R-L load

Single-phase full-wave diode bridge circuits are shown in figures 11.8a and 11.8b. Both circuits appear
identical as far as the load and supply are concerned. It will be seen in part b that two fewer diodes can
be employed but this circuit requires a centre-tapped secondary transformer where each secondary has
only a 50% copper utilisation factor. For the same output voltage, each of the secondary windings in
figure 11.8b must have the same rms voltage rating as the single secondary winding of the transformer
in figure 11.8a. The rectifying diodes in figure 11.8b experience twice the reverse voltage, (22 V), as
that experienced by each of the four diodes in the circuit of figure 11.8a, (2 V).
Figure 11.8c shows bridge circuit voltage and current waveforms. Assuming a 1:1(:1) transformer turns
ratio, and with an inductive passive load, (no back emf) continuous load current flows, which is given by
2V
2 sin
(11.54)
i o (t ) =
sin (t ) +
0 t
e t /tan
Z
1 e /tan
Power Electronics
443
Chapter 11
I rms
(11.55)
The load experiences the transformer secondary rectified voltage which has a mean voltage (thence
mean load current) of
(11.56)
(V)
Vo = 1 2V sin t d t = I o R = 2 2V
= 0.90V
0
Since the average inductor voltage is zero, the average resistor voltage equals the average R-L voltage.
The rms value of the load circuit voltage v0 is
1
2
Vrms =
2
0
2V sin t d t =
(V)
(11.57)
From the load voltage definitions in section 11.4, the load voltage form factor is constant:
FFv =
V rms
V
=
Vo
2 2V
2 2
= 1.11
444
hence the load voltage ripple factor is
Appropriate integration of the load current squared, gives the rms load (and ac supply) current:
V
=
1 + 4 sin2 tan (1 + e /tan ) = I s
Z
(11.58)
RFv VRI /Vo = FFv 2 1

RFv = 1 ( 2
) /2
2
FFv = / 2 2 = 1.11
1 = 0.483
(11.60)
which is significantly less (better) than the half-wave rectified value of 1.211 from equation (11.32).
The output voltages and currents (rms and average) can be derived from the voltage Fourier expansion
in equation (11.46):
2 2V
2 2V
2
v o (t ) =
cos n t
+
(11.61)
n = 2,4,6 n 2 1
The first term is the average output voltage, as given by equation (11.56). Note the harmonic
2 2
2
2
magnitudes decrease rapidly with increased order, namely 3 : 15 : 35 : 63 : ... . The output voltage is
therefore dominated by the dc component and the harmonic at 2.
The output current can be derived by dividing each voltage component by the appropriate load
impedance at that frequency. That is
Io =
Vo 2 2V
=
R
R
In =
Vn
2 2V
n2 1
=
Zn
R 2 + ( n L )
(11.62)
n = 2, 4, 6..
for
The load rms current whence load power, critical load inductance, and power factor, are given by
I rms = I o2 +
q =2 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=2
n = 2,4,
I n2
2
PL = I rms
R
(11.63)
I R
PL
R
Lcritical =
(see equation 11.67)
= rms
V I rms
V
3
Each diode rms current is I rms / 2 . For the circuit in figure 11.8a, the transformer secondary winding
pf =
rms current is Irms, while for the centre-tapped transformer, for the same load voltage, each winding has
an rms current rating of Irms / 2. The primary current rating is the same for both transformers and is
related to the secondary rms current rating by the turns ratio. Power factor is independent of turns ratio.
11.1.8i - Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with an output L-C filter
A with an output L-C filter and continuous inductor current
Table 11.1 shows three typical single-phase, full-wave rectifier output stages, where part c is a typical
output filtering stage used to obtain a near constant dc output voltage.
If it is assumed that the load inductance is large and the load resistance small such that continuous load
current flows, then the bridge average output voltage V o is the same as the average voltage across the
load resistor since the average voltage across the filter inductor is zero. From equation (11.61), the
dominant load voltage harmonic is due to the second harmonic therefore the ac current is predominately
the second harmonic current, I o , ac I o , 2 . By neglecting the higher order harmonics, the various circuit
currents and voltages can be readily obtained as shown in table 11.1. From equation (11.61) the output
voltage is given by
v o (t ) = V o
+
Vo , 2 cos 2t
=
i o (t ) =
The load ripple voltage is

2
VRI V rms
Vo2
= V 2 (2
) V
2
=V 1
= 0.435V
(V)
(11.59)
2 2V
n2 1
cos n t
for n = 2
(11.64)
2
cos 2t
3
= 0.90V + 0.60V cos 2t
With the filter capacitor across the load resistor, the average inductor current is equal to the average
resistor current, since the average capacitor current is zero.
With continuous inductor current, the inductor current is
=
Figure 11.8. Single-phase full-wave rectifier bridge: (a) circuit with four rectifying diodes;
(b) circuit with two rectifying diodes; and (c) circuit waveforms.
2 2V
Io
Vo
+
R
2 2V
2 2V
I o , 2 cos 2t
2 Vo
cos 2t
3 Z2
0.90V
0.60V
R 2 + ( 2L )
cos 2t
(11.65)
Power Electronics
445
Chapter 11
From equation (11.65) for continuous inductor current, the average current must be larger than the peak
second harmonic current magnitude, that is
I o > I o ,2
(11.66)
Vo
2 Vo
>
R
3 Z2
I o + I o2, ac =
I o + I o2, 2
(11.68)
and the power delivered to resistance R in the load is

PR = I o2, rms R
(11.69)
B with an output L-C filter and discontinuous inductor current

If the inductor current reduces to zero, at angle , all the load current is provided by the capacitor. Its
voltage falls to Vo (<2 V) and inductor current recommences when
v L = 2V sin t Vo
at an angle
= sin1
2V s sin t = Ri o + L
di o
+E
dt
(11.75)
which in steady state yields
where tan =
L
;
R
tan
sin
+ 2V s sin (t )
cos
Z = R 2 + 2L2 ;
sin =
(11.76)
E
2V s
and the boundary conditions give
Io =
2V s 2 sin
1 e tan
For continuous conduction, io (t = ) 0 in equation (11.76) gives the condition
2 sin tan
sin
e sin ( ) +
cos
1 e tan
(11.77)
If the left hand side is less than the right hand side, discontinuous current flows in the load, and if the
current extinction angle is , then the average output voltage is given by
+
1
V o = 2V s sin t d t + E d t
(11.70)
Vo
446
The output current is found by solving
i o (t ) = I o e
Since the load resistance must be low enough to ensure continuous inductor current, then 2L > R such
that Z 2 = R 2 + ( 2L )2 2L . Equation (11.66) therefore gives the following load identity for continuous
inductor current
1
2 1
1
(11.67)
that is L > 1
>
=
generally L > 1
R
R
3
m ( m 2 1)
R
3 Z 2 3L
The load and supply (peak) ac currents are I o , ac = I s , ac = I o , 2 . The output and supply rms currents are
I o , rms = I s , rms =
Vo =
2V
cos cos + ( + ) sin

(11.78)
11.1.8ii Single-phase, full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with an R-L-E load
In the general solution to the circuit differential equation in equation (11.76), for discontinuous output
current, (zero current boundary conditions), Io for equation (11.76) becomes (during conduction)
2V s
sin
Io =
sin ( ) +
Z
cos
The conduction period is found by iteratively solving

sin
(11.79)
sin ( ) = 1 e tan
e tan sin ( )
cos
An R-L load incorporating a back emf E, is shown in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1: Single-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuits continuous inductor current
2V
By integrating v = L di/dt for i, the inductor current is of the form
1
2V ( cos cos t ) Vo (t )
i L (t ) =
(11.71)
(11.72)
where t . The voltage Vo is found from equation (11.72) by iterative techniques.
For continuous output current
Full-wave rectifier circuit
When continuous load current flows, the rectified supply is continuously impressed across the series LR-E load, therefore the average and rms output voltages respectively are
1
2 2
V o = 2V s sin t d t =
V
o
s
(11.73)
2
1
V =
2Vs sin t d t = Vs
o
Hence the output voltage form and ripple factors are
FFv =
Vo
=
Vo 2 2
RFv = VFF2 1 =
(11.74)
1
If the input current is approximated by its fundamental, 4I o / , the following input characteristics are
realised
input displacement factor = DPF = cos i = cos 0 = 1
I
2 2
distortion factor = DF i 1 = i 1 =
Io
power factor = pf = DPF DF i 1 =
THDi 1 =
1 DF i 12
DF i 12
100 =
2 2
2
8
1 100
Load
circuit
(a)
Io
2nd harmonic
current
Io,2
average output
current
output power
Io
PR+PE
(A)
(A)
(W)
Vo
R
R-L
see
section
11.1.8i
and
12.2.3
=0
Vs
Is
Vo
R 2 + ( 2L )
I o2, rms R
(b)
Io
R-L-E
see
section
11.8ii
and
12.2.4
=0
Vo ,2
Vo E
R
Vo ,2
Is
Vo
L
R
Vs
2 2V
E+
R 2 + ( 2L )
1 2 2V
=
E
R
I o2, rms R + I o E
Power Electronics
447
Chapter 11
v.
Io,dc
Is
Vs
The input and output rms current is
Vo ,2
2L
Vo
Ra
b
see
section
11.1.8i
I s = I o , rms = I o + I o2, 2 = 10A 2 + 4A 2 = 10.8A
Vo
R
Io,ac
L-R//C
448
Io
(c)
I o2, rms R = I o R
=
2 2V
Assuming the input power equals the output power, then from part i, Po = Pi = 2070W. The
supply power factor is
P
P
2070W
pf = i = i =
= 0.83
S V s I s 230V 10.8A
11.1.8iii - Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier with highly inductive load constant load current
Example 11.5:
Full-wave diode rectifier with an L-C filter and continuous load current
A single-phase, full-wave, diode rectifier is supplied from a 230V ac, 50Hz voltage source and uses an
L-C output filter with a resistor load, as shown in the last circuit in Table 11.1. The average inductor
current is 10A with a 4A rms ripple current dominated by the 100Hz component. Ignoring diode voltage
drops and initially assuming the output voltage is ripple free, determine
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
dc output voltage, hence load resistance and power

dc filter inductance and its average voltage, whilst neglecting any capacitor voltage ripple
dc filter capacitance if its peak-to-peak ripple voltage is 5% the average voltage
diode average, rms, and peak current
supply power factor
Solution
Since
2 I o rms , 2 < I o
i.
The dc output voltage is V o = 0.9230V = 207V. Assuming the 207V is ripple free, that is, Vrms =
Vdc, then the load resistance and power dissipated are
2 4A < 10A , the output current is continuous.
R=
Vo
207V
= 20.7
10A
Io
PR = V o I o = 207V 10A = 2070W
ii.
2 2V
2
cos 2t
3
= 0.60 230V cos 2t = 138 cos 2t
which has an rms value of 138/2 = 97.6V. The 100Hz rms current I o , 2 / 2 produced by this
voltage is 4A thus
Io, 2
from
L=
Vo , 2
2I o , 2
Vo , 2
2L
97.6V
= 38.8mH
2 2 50Hz 4A
The average inductor voltage is zero.

iii.
From part i, the dc output voltage is 207V. The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is 5% of 207V, that is
10.35V. This gives an rms value of 10.35V /22 = 3.66V. From
Vo , 2
2
C =
iv.
Io, 2
Io, 2
2
X c , 100Hz =
Io, 2
2 Vo , 2
2C
The mean current in each diode is

I D = 1p I o = I o
(A)
(11.80)
(A)
(11.81)
and the rms current in each diode is
ID = 1
Io =Io /
whence the diode current form factor is
RF ID = I D / I D = p = 2
Since the load current is approximately constant, power delivered to the load is
Po V o I o =
V 2R
(W)
(11.82)
(11.83)
The supply power factor is pf =Vo /V = 22/ = 0.90, since I o = I rms .

11.1.8iv - Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a C-filter and resistive load
The 100Hz voltage component in the output voltage is given by equation (11.64), that is
2 2V
2
cos n t
Vo , 2 =
2
n 1
=
With a highly inductive load, which is the usual practical case, virtually constant load current flows, as
shown dashed in figure 11.8c. The bridge diode currents are then square wave 180 blocks of current of
magnitude I o . The diode current ratings can now be specified and depend on the pulse number p. For
this full-wave single-phase application each input cycle comprises two 180 output current pulses, hence
p = 2.
4A
= 1.7mF
2 2 50Hz 3.66V
The capacitor smoothed single-phase full-wave diode rectifier circuit shown in figure 11.9a is a common
power rectifier circuit used to obtain unregulated dc voltages. The circuit is simple and cheap but the
input current has high peak and rms values, high harmonics, and a poor power factor. The full-wave
rectified case is an extension of the half-wave case considered in section 11.1.4.
The capacitor reduces the ripple voltage, so large voltage-polarised capacitance is used to produce an
almost constant dc output voltage. Isolation and voltage matching (step-up or step down) are obtained
by using a transformer before the diode rectification stage as shown in figures 11.8a and b. The resistor
R across the filter capacitor represents a resistive dissipative load.
As the ac supply voltage rises to its extremes each half cycle, as shown in figure 11.9b, a pair of rectifier
diodes D1-D2 or D3-D4, alternately become forward biased at time t = . The ac supply provides load
resistor current and simultaneously charges the capacitor, its voltage having drooped whilst providing
the load current during the previous diode non-conduction period. The capacitor charging current period
c around the ac supply extremes is short, giving a high peak to rms ratio of diode and supply current.
When all the rectifier diodes are reverse biased at t = because the capacitor voltage is greater than
the instantaneous supply ac voltage, the capacitor supplies the load current and its voltage decreases
with an R-C time constant until t = +. The output voltage and diode voltages, plus load current vo /R,
and capacitor current C dvo /dt are defined in Table 11.2.
The start of diode conduction, , the diode current extinction angle, , hence diode conduction period,
c, are specified by the following equations.
From ic + iR = 0 at t = :
2V
2V
cos +
sin = 0
(11.84)
X
R
1
= tan ( RC ) = tan1 (RC )

By equating the two expression for output voltage at the boundary t = + gives
The diode currents are

2
I D , rms = I o , rms / 2 = I o + I
2
2
o ,2
I D , rms = I o , rms / 2 = I o + I o2, 2
/ 2 = 10A + 4A / 2 = 10.8A / 2 = 7.64A

2
I D = I o + I o , 2 = 10A + 2 4A = 15.7A
2V sin ( + ) = 2V sin e
( + ) /tan
and a transcendental expression for results:

+ ) /RC
sin sin e (
=0
(11.85)
(11.86)
Power Electronics
449
Chapter 11
D1
ic
iR
is
vo
Vs
D2
D3
(a)
(a)
vo
D1
D3
D2
D4
D1
D3
D2
D4
conducting
diodes
The resistor average voltage and current are

2V (1 cos c )
= IR R
VR =
cos
(11.88)
The maximum output voltage occurs at t = when vo =Vlo = Vls =2V, while the minimum output
voltage occurs at the end of the capacitor discharge period when t = and vo =V o =2Vsin. The
output peak-to-peak ripple voltage is therefore the difference:
V = Vl V = 2V 2V sin = 2V (1 sin )
(11.89)
o
By assuming , , and a series expansion for the exponent

2V
V
V o
=
RC
2f RC
2 V
vo
vo
vo
(11.90)
The ac source current is the sum of the diode currents, that is

i s = i D 1,2 i D 3,4 = i R + i c
(b)
ICap
Since the capacitor voltage is in steady-state, the average capacitor current is zero, thus for full-wave
rectification, the average diode current is half the average load current.
The peak capacitor current occurs at t = , when the diodes first conduct. From the capacitor current
equation in table 11.2:
I = 2V C cos
(11.92)
c
From table 11.2, the peak diode current occurs at the same time as the peak capacitor current, t = :
I = i ( + ) + i ( + )
iD
iR
Example 11.6:
Table 11.2: Single-phase, full-wave rectifier voltages and currents
vs(t) = 2Vsint
Capacitor current
Diodes non-conducting
vD(t)
ic(t)
Resistor current
iR(t)
Diode bridge
current
ID(t)=
ic(t)+ iR(t)
t +
2V sin t
vo(t)
0
and - 2V sin t
2V
X
2V
2V sin e
2V sin e
2V
cos t
sin t
2V
sin (t + )
R cos
The diode current conduction period c is given by

c =
When the diodes conduct, R and C are in parallel and tan = C R .
Z
2V
2V
sin =
2V
cos +
2V
sin =
2V Z
sin ( + )
(11.93)
Similar expressions can be derived for the half-wave rectifier case. For the non-conduction period,
=2+. The output ripple voltage is about twice that given by equation (11.90) and the average resistor
voltage in equation (11.88) (after modification), is reduced. The diode PIV rating is 22V in both cases.
Figure 11.9. Single-phase full-wave rectifier bridge:

(a) circuit with C-filter capacitor and (b) circuit waveforms.
Diodes conducting
= 2V C cos +
(b)
Diode voltage
(11.91)
when < t < . Otherwise is = 0.
Vs
Output voltage
450
When the diodes are not conducting, the output circuit current flows in a series R-C circuit with a
fundamental impedance of:
Z = R 2 + X 2 and X = 1
iD
D4
(t ) /tan
(t ) /tan
+ 2V sin t
(t ) /tan
(t ) /tan
= i c (t )
Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with C-filter and resistive load
A single-phase, full-wave, diode rectifier is supplied from a 230V ac, 50Hz voltage source and uses a
capacitor output filter, 1000F, with a resistor 100 load, as shown in Figure 11.9a. Ignoring diode
voltage drops, determine
i. expressions for the output voltage
ii. output voltage ripple vo and the % error in using the approximation equation (11.90)
iii. expressions for the capacitor current
iv. diode peak current
v. average load voltage and current
Assuming the output ripple voltage is triangular, estimate
vi. average output voltage and rms output ripple voltage
vii. capacitance C for vo = 2% of the maximum output voltage
Solution
The supply voltage is vs = 2230 sin2 50t, which has a peak value of Vls = 325.3V.
RC = 2 50Hz 100 1000F = 31.416 rad
Thus X = 1/C = 3.1831 and Z = 100.0507.
(5 figure accuracy is used because of the sensitivity of the applicable equations around = 90.)
(11.87)
From equation (11.84) the diode current extinction angle is

= tan1 (RC ) = tan1 ( 31.416rad) = 1.6026 rad = 91.8
Power Electronics
451
Chapter 11
The diode current turn-on angle is solve iteratively from equation (11.86), that is
sin sin e
( + ) /RC
C +
Np:1:1
=0
D1
115V/230V
ac
input
i.
Vs
C +
From table 11.2, the output voltage, which is the capacitor voltage, is given by
v o (t ) =
2V sin t
= 325.27V sin t
v o (t ) = 2 230V sin1.6026rad e
= 325.13 e
The output voltage ripple vo is given by equation (11.89), that is
(a)
V
230V
=
= 32.5V
2 f RC
2 50Hz 100 1000F
The approximation predicts a higher ripple: a +21% over-estimate.
V o
From table 11.2, the capacitor current is
i c (t ) = 2V C cos t = 2 230V 2 50Hz 1000F cos t = 102.2 cos t

66.5 t 91.8
i c (t ) =
iv.
2V sin
(t ) /RC
2230V sin1.16
(t 1.16 ) /31.4
(t 1.16 ) /31.4
e
= 3.0 e
100
91.8 t 246.5
The peak diode current is given by equation (11.93):

2V
I D = 2V C cos +
sin
= 2 230V 2 50Hz 1000F cos1.16026 +
2 230V
sin1.16026
100
= 40.7A + 3A = 43.7A
The peak diode current is dominated by the capacitor initial charging current of 40.7A
v.
The average load voltage and current are given by equation (11.88)
2V (1 cos c )
VR =
cos
2 230V
IR =
vi.
(1 cos 0.4417 ) = 312.3V
cos1.603
V R 312.3V
=
= 3.12A
100
R
If the ripple voltage is assumed triangular then

(a) The average output voltage is the peak output voltage minus half the ripple voltage, that is
Vl - v = 2230V - 26.9V = 311.8V
s
which is less than that given by the accurate equation (11.89), 312.3V.
(b) If the 26.9V p-p ripple voltage is assumed triangular then its rms value is 26.9/3 =7.8V
rms.
vii.
Re-arrangement of equation (11.90), which under-estimates the capacitance requirement for

2% ripple, gives
Vls
V
1
C =
=
=
2f R 2%
2 f R Vo 2f R 2% of Vls
.
1
=
= 5, 000F
2 50Hz 100 0.02
(b)
Figure 11.10. Bridge rectifiers: (a) split rail dc supplies and (b) voltage doubler.
11.1.8v - Other single-phase bridge rectifier circuit configurations
From equation (11.90)
iii.
C2 +
D2
t 1.6026rad /31.416rad
Vo = 2V (1 sin ) = 2 230V (1 sin1.16026 ) = 26.94V p-p
115V
66.5 t 91.8
t 1.6026rad /31.416rad
91.8 t 246.5
ii.
Vo
Vs
0V
C1 +
230V
( + 1.603) /31.416
sin sin1.603 e
=0
gives = 1.16095 rad or 66.5. The diode conduction period is c = - =1.6026 -1.16095 = 0.44167rad
or 25.3.
452
Figure 11.10a shows a transformer used to create a two-phase supply (each phase is 180 apart), which
+
upon rectification produce equal split-rail dc output voltages, V and V . The electrical characteristics
can be analysed as in the case of the single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a capacitive Cfilter and resistive load, in section 11.1.8iv. In the split rail case, the rectifiers conduct every 180,
alternately feeding each output voltage rail capacitor. Thus the diode average and rms currents are
increased by 2 and 2 respectively, above those of a conventional single phase rectifier.
The voltage doubler in figure 11.10b can be used in equipment that must be able to operate from both
115Vac and 230V ac voltage supplies, without the aid of a voltage-matching transformer. With the
switch in the 115V position, the output is twice the peak of the input ac supply. The capacitor C1 charges
through diode D1, and when the supply reverses, capacitor C2 charges through D2. Since C1 and C2 are
in series, the output voltage is the sum VC1+VC2, where each capacitor is alternately charged (half-wave
rectified) from the ac source Vs. The other, unused, two diodes remain reverse biased, and are only
necessary if the dual input voltage function is required.
With the switch in the 230V ac position (open circuit), standard rectification occurs, with the two series
capacitors charging simultaneously every half cycle. In dual frequency applications (110V ac, 60Hz and
230V ac, 50Hz), the capacitance requirements are based on the supply with the lower frequency, 50Hz.
11.2
Three-phase uncontrolled rectifier converter circuits
Single-phase supply circuits are adequate below a few kilowatts. At higher power levels, restrictions on
unbalanced loading, line harmonics, current surge voltage dips, and filtering require the use of threephase (or higher - polyphase) converter circuits. Generally it will be assumed that the output current is
both continuous and smooth. This assumption is based on the dc load being highly inductive.
The characteristics of three-phase rectifiers with a purely resistive load are summarised in table 11.6.
11.2.1 Three-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with an inductive R-L load
Figure 11.11 shows a half-wave, three-phase diode rectifier circuit along with various circuit voltage and
current waveforms. A transformer having a star connected secondary is required for neutral access, N.
The diode with the highest potential with respect to the neutral conducts a rectangular current pulse. As
the potential of another diode becomes the highest, load current is transferred to that device, and the
previously conducting device is reverse-biased and naturally (line) commutated. Note that the load
voltage, hence current never reaches zero, when the load is passive (no opposing back emf).
In general terms, the mean output voltage for an n-phase p-pulse system is given by (see example 11.8)
/p
1
Vo =
2V cos t d t
(V)
2 / p / p
(11.94)
sin( / p )
= 2V
(V)
/p
For a three-phase, half-wave circuit (p = 3) the mean output voltage, (thence average current) is
5 /6
2 V sin t d t
V =I R = 1
o
3
= 2V
/3
/6
(11.95)
= 1.17 V
(V)
The rms load voltage is
V rms =
(
5 /6
/6
2V
3
sin2 t d t = 2V
2
3
+
4
3
= 1.19 V
(11.96)
Power Electronics
453
Chapter 11
q =3 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=3
The input displacement factor cos is unity and the input power factor (and displacement factor),
assuming diode square currents, is
3 6
Vs I o
VI
3
=
(11.102)
pf = o o = 2
I
3V s I irms
2
3V s o
3
mmf = N ( i a i c + i R )
mmf = N ( i b i a + iY
3N
iR
R-L
iY
mmf = N ( i c i b + i B )
454
iB
i R + iY + i B = 0 = mmf
1:N:N
3
q =3 r =1 s =1
p=qxrxs
p=3
Figure 11.12. Three-phase zig-zag interconnected star winding, with three windings per limb, 1:N:N:
(a) transformer connection showing zero dc mmf in each limb (phase) and
(b) phasor diagram of transformer primary and secondary voltages.
Figure 11.11. Three-phase half-wave diode rectifier:

(a) circuit diagram and (b) circuit voltage and current waveforms.
The load voltage form factor is
FFv = V rms
= 1.19V / 1.17V = 1.01
(11.97)
( )
ac voltage across the load

= Vrms 1 = 0.185
(11.98)
V
dc voltage across the load
The diode conduction angle is 2/n, namely . The peak diode reverse voltage is given by the
maximum voltage between any two phases, 32 V = 6 V.
From equations (11.80), (11.81), and (11.82), for a constant output current, I o = I o rms , the mean diode
current is
I D = 1n I o = 1 3 I o
(A)
(11.99)
RFv = ripple factor =
and the rms diode current is
ID =
n Io
rms
nIo
Io
(A)
(11.100)
The diode current form factor is
FF ID = I D / I D = 3
(11.101)
If neutral is available, a transformer is not necessary. Then the full load current is returned via the
neutral supply. This neutral current is generally not acceptable other than at low power levels. The
simple delta-star connection of the supply in figure 11.11a is not appropriate since the unidirectional
current in each phase is transferred from the supply to the transformer. This may result in increased
magnetising current and iron losses if dc magnetisation occurs. As discussed in section 11.3.5, this
problem is avoided in most cases by the special interconnected star winding, called zig-zag, shown in
figure 11.12a and discussed in section 11.3.7. Each transformer limb has two equal voltage secondaries
which are connected such that the magnetising forces balance. The resultant phasor diagram is shown
in figure 11.12b. 15% more turns are needed than with a star connection. This transformer mmf problem
resulting from half-wave rectification is considered in section 11.3.
As the number of phases increases, the windings become less utilised per cycle since the diode
conduction angle decreases, from for a single-phase circuit, to for the three-phase case.
11.2.2 Three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit with an inductive R-L load
Figure 11.13a shows a three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit where no neutral is necessary and it will be
seen that two series diodes (not in the same bridge leg) are always conducting. One diode (one of D1,
D3, or D5, at the highest potential) can be considered as being in the feed circuit, while the other (one of
D2, D4, or D6, at the lowest potential) is in the return circuit. As such, the line-to-line voltage is impressed
across the load. Given no two series connected bridge leg diodes conduct simultaneously, there are six
possible diode pair combinations. The rectifier circuit waveforms in figure 11.13b show that the load
ripple frequency is six times the supply. Each diode conducts for and experiences a reverse voltage
of the peak line voltage, 2 VL.
Power Electronics
455
Chapter 11
The critical load inductance (see figure 12.12) for continuous load current, is Lcritical = R
a
456
p ( p 2 1)
The output harmonics of a p-pulse voltage output are
V an = 1
= 1
2V
sin
p 2
n 1
(11.104)
Vo
n 2 1
where n = mp and m = 1, 2, 3, and Vo is the mean output voltage given by equation (11.94).
q =3 r =1 s =2
p=qxrxs
p=6
The output voltage harmonics for p = 6 are given by

6 VlL
Vo n =
(n 2 1)
source
voltages
(11.105)
for n = 6, 12, 18, ..

The rms output voltage is given by
ab
ac
bc
ba
ca
ca
6,1
1,2
2,3
3,4
4,5
5,6
2 /3
1
2VL sin2 t d t
2 / 6 /3
V rms =
= VL 1 +
output
voltage
(11.106)
3 3
= 1.352V L
2
.
Generally, for a p-pulse rectifier output, the rms output voltage is
V rms = VL 1 +
p
2
sin 2
(11.107)
The load voltage form factor = 1.352/1.35 = 1.001 and the ripple factor = form factor -1 = 0.06.
11.2.2i Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with continuous load current
If it is assumed that the load inductance is large, then (even with a load back emf), continuous load
current flows and the dominate load current harmonic is due to the sixth harmonic current, that is
let I o , ac = I o , 6 . By neglecting the higher order harmonics, the various circuit currents and voltages can
be readily obtained as shown in table 11.3. From equations (11.103) and (11.105) the output voltage is
given by
v o (t ) = V o
+
Vo , 6 cos 6t
i a = iD1 - i D4
i b = iD3 - i D6
i c = iD5 - i D2
2VL +
2VL
(n
2
cos n t
1)
3
3
2
= 2VL + 2VL
cos 2t
35
= 1.35VL + 0.077V L cos 2t
for n = 6
(11.108)
The fundamental voltage, hence current, Vo /R, is therefore much larger than the sixth harmonic current,
Vo,6 / Z6, that is I o > I o , 6 . The load and supply ac currents are I o , ac = I s , ac = I o , 6 . The output and
supply rms currents are
2
The mean load voltage is given by twice equation (11.95), that is

2 /3
Vo = I o R = 1
2 VL sin t d t
(V)
3
= 2V
/3
(11.103)
2VL = 1.35VL = 2.34V
where VL is the line-to-line rms voltage (VL =3V).
Generally the peak-to-peak ripple voltage for n-phases is 2V 2V cos
and the power delivered to resistance R in the load is

PR = I o2, rms R
(11.109)
(11.110)
11.2.2ii Three-phase full-wave bridge circuit with highly inductive load constant load current
/3
I o , rms = I s , rms = I o + I o2, ac = I o + I o2, 6
Figure 11.13. Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier:

(a) circuit connection and (b) voltage and current waveforms.
. (see table 11.4)
For a highly inductive load, that is a constant load current the average output voltage and current are
given by equation (11.103), the rms output voltage by equation (11.106), and:
the mean diode current is
I D = 1n I o = 1 3 I o
(A)
(11.111)
Power Electronics
457
Chapter 11
458
The output, that is, load current, is found from
and the rms diode current is

I D rms = 1 n I o rms 1 n I o = 1 3 I o
(A)
and the power factor for a constant load current is

3
p f = = 0.995
(11.112)
2
I o rms
3
di o
+ Ri o + E = 2V s sin t
dt
i o (t ) = I o e
(11.113)
The rms input line currents are
I L rms =
(11.114)
where tan =
L
;
R
t 1 3
tan
2V s
sin
sin (t )
Z
cos
Z = R 2 + 2L2 ;
sin =
E
2V s
and
(11.126)
Io =
2V s
sin
3
1 e tan
Table 11.3: Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier circuits
The diode current form factor is
FF ID = I D rms / I D = 3
(11.115)
Full-wave rectifier circuit
The diode current ripple factor is
RFID = FF ID 1 = 2
2
(11.116)
A phase voltage and current are given by
v a = 2V sin t
(11.117)
sin ( n 1) t sin ( n + 1) t
(11.118)
+
ia =
I o sin t +
n = 6, 12, 18, ..
n 1
n +1
with phases b and c shifted by . That is substitute t in equations (11.117) and (11.118) with t.
2 3
S = 3V L I s rms
R-L
Vs
Vo
Is
output power
Io
PR+PE
(A)
(A)
(W)
Io
(a)
average output
current
Vo , 6
R 2 + ( 6L )
Vo
R
I o2, rms R
Vo E
R
I o2, rms R + I o E
Vo
R
I o2, rms R = I o R
Vo
R
I o2, rms R
(11.119)
Io
(11.120)
(11.121)
(b)
11.2.2iii
while the ac power, in terms of apparent ac resistance, is
V2
Pac = 3
Rac
circuit
see
section
11.2.2i
Each load current harmonic n produces harmonics n+1 and n-1 on the input current.
The total load instantaneous power is given by
cos n t
p (t ) = 3 2V I o 2
n 1
The supply apparent power is
load
6th harmonic
current
Io, 6
R
Vs
Is
Vo
E+
Vo , 6
R 2 + ( 6L )
R-L-E
Using the output voltage from equation (11.103), the output power is
Pdc = 2V
/
/ 3 Rdc
Is
Vo
C
R-L-C
3 o
The input power factor, with unity displacement power factor, is therefore
3
pf = DF DPF = = 0.955
Io,dc
Io,ac
Vs
The rms value of the fundamental line current

2 3
6
I L 1,rms =
I
=
I = 0.78I o
o / 2 o
The input distortion, DF, is
6
I
I
3
DF = o ,1 = o = = 0.955
2
(c)
9
Since Pac = Pdc , then Rdc = 2 2 Rac 2Rac .

At the ac input, for a constant load current:
Io
Io
(11.122)
Io
(11.123)
(d)
11.2.2iv
(11.124)
Vo , 6
6L
Io,dc
Io,ac
Vs
Is
Vo
C
R-C
The input total harmonic distortion is
THD =
11.2.2iii
I L2 I L2,1
I Ls ,1
I o2
6
Io
I o2
= 0.3108
(11.125)
Three-phase full-wave bridge circuit with highly inductive load with an EMF source
With continuous load current, the output voltage and input characteristics are unaffected by a load back
emf, with the average and rms output voltages given by equations (11.103) and (11.106) respectively.
The input power factor and distortion factor are 3/, as per equation (11.125).
11.2.2iv Three-phase full-wave bridge circuit with capacitively filtered load resistance
Part d in Table 11.1 shows a three-phase full-wave rectifier circuit with a parallel R-C load.
Interval t
In the interval t , two diodes are conducting connecting the supply voltage across the load. The
input current provides both the resistive load and the output filter capacitor across the load.
Power Electronics
459
i s = io + iC =
vo
dv o
+C
where v o = Vs = 2V s sin t
R
dt
That is
is =
io
i s (t ) =
=
where tan =
RC
2V s sin t
Io =
2V s
cos (t )
R cos
460
i. From equation (11.103) the average output voltage and current are
Vo = I o R = 1.35VL = 1.35 415V = 560.45V
iC
1 + 2C 2R 2 cos (t ) =
Solution
is the line-to-line voltage )
+ 2V s C cos t
2V s
(Vs
Chapter 11
(11.127)
Vo 560.45V
=
= 56.045A
R
10
ii. The rms load voltage is given by equation (11.106)

V rms = 1.352V L = 1.352 415V = 560.94V
The ac component across the load is
2
Vac = V rms
Vo2
and = +
= 560.94V 2 560.447V 2 = 23.52V
Interval t +
In the interval t + , the bridge diodes are all reverse biased, isolating the source from the
load (discontinuous input current), and the load current is provided from the output capacitor.
i s = i o + iC = 0 =
vo
dv o
+C
R
dt
harmonic
n
In satisfying a boundary condition yields

vo (t ) = vC (t ) = v R (t ) =
= 2V s
RC
1 + 2 R 2C 2
(t )
RC
iii. The rms load current is calculated from the harmonic currents, which are calculated from the
harmonic voltages given by equation (11.105).
R cos
= 2V s
e
XC
(t )
(11.128)
RC
= io R
6 VlL
(n 2 1)
Z n = R 2 + (n L )
RC
1+ R C
2
1 6 tan1 1
RC
In =
Vn
Zn
I n2
(560.45)
10.00
56.04
32.03
94.78
0.34
0.06
12
7.84
188.76
0.04
0.00
I o2 + I n2 =
3141.07
Note the 12th harmonic current is not significant
Equating the two output voltage expressions, equations (11.127) and (11.128), at the boundary t = +
yields an equation for determining iteratively.
sin =
Vn =
(3141.01)
The rms load current is
I rms = I o2 + I n2
RC
= 3141.07 = 56.05A
The power absorbed by the 10 load resistor is
2
PL = I rms
R = 56.05A 2 10 = 31410.7W
The supply power factor is
PL
PL
31410.7W
=
=
= 0.955
pf =
V rms I rms
3V L I L
2
3 415V
56.05A
3
This power factor of 0.955 is as predicted by equation (11.113), 3 , for a constant current load.
.
is
is
io
io
t
CR=3
(a)
t
CR<3
(b)
iv. The percentage output power error in assuming the load current is constant is given by
I 2R
Pi
56.045A 2 10
31410.1W
0 oo
1 L = 1 2o
=1
=1
PL
I rms R
56.05A 2 10
31410.7W
v. The diode average and rms currents are given by equations (11.111) and (11.112)
I D = 1 3 I o = 1 3 56.045 = 18.7A
I D rms =
Figure 11.14. Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier a capacitive output filter:

(a) verge of discontinuous conduction and (b) continuous current conduction.
3Io
rms
3 56.05
= 23.4A
Example 11.8: Rectifier average load voltage

Example 11.7: Three-phase full-wave rectifier
Derive a general expression for the average load voltage of a p-pulse rectifier.
The full-wave three-phase dc rectifier in figure 11.13a has a three-phase 415V 50Hz source (240V
phase), and a 10, 50mH, series load. During the problem solution, verify that the only harmonic that
need be considered is the sixth.
Solution
Determine
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
average output voltage and current

rms load voltage and the ac output voltage
rms load current hence power dissipated and supply power factor
load power percentage error in assuming a constant load current
diode average and rms current requirements
Figure 11.15 defines the general output voltage waveform where p is the output pulse number per cycle
of the ac supply. From the output voltage waveform
/n
1
Vo =
2V cos t d t
2 / p /n
=
2V
2 / p
( sin(
/ p ) sin( / p ) ) =
2V
2 / p
2 sin( / p )
Power Electronics
461
Vo =
2V
sin( / p )
/p
Chapter 11
The Fourier expression for the output voltage, which is also dominated by the dc component, is
(V)
v o (t ) = Vo + Vo
where
k =1
for p = 2 for the single-phase (n = 1) full-wave rectifier in figure 11.8.

for p = 3 for the three-phase (n = 3) half-wave rectifier in figure 11.11.
for p = 6 for the three-phase (n = 3) full-wave rectifier in figure 11.13.
2 ( 1)
k +1
k n 1
2
cos kn t
(11.131)
Table 11.4 summarizes the various rectifier characteristics that are independent of the transformer
winding configuration.
Table 11.4: Rectifier characteristics with q phases (see section 11.6)
V3
V2
V1
q
phases
Parallel connected secondary windings
Series connected secondary windings
Star, thus neutral always exists
Polygon, hence no neutral
vo
v 1 = 2V sin t
Io
v 2 = 2V sin t
t
Io
Half-wave
Full-wave
Vo
2V sin
2
2V sin
Load
harmonics
n=q
Io
t
2V cos
Vo
The output waveform smoothness, termed harmonic or ripple factor RF is defined by

effective values of acV V ac
Ripple factor = RFv =
=
average value of V
Vdc
VlDR
12
48.2
18.27
4.18
0.994
DC MMFs in converter transformers
Half-wave rectification whether controlled, semi-controlled or uncontrolled, is notorious for producing a

dc mmf in transformers and triplen harmonics in the ac supply neutral of three-phase circuits.
Generally, a transformer based solution can minimise the problem. In order to simplify the underlying
concepts, a constant dc load current Io is assumed, that is, the load inductance is assumed infinite. The
transformer is assumed linear, no-load excitation is ignored, and the ac supply is assumed sinusoidal.
Independent of the transformer and its winding connection, the average output voltage from a rectifier,
when the rectifier bridge input rms voltage is VB and there are q pulses in the output, is given by
VB
Vo =
2 / q
/q
/q
cos t d t = V B
sin / q
/q
(11.129)
The rectifier bridge rms voltage output is dominated by the dc component and is given by
Vo rms
q
=
2
2V
2V
2V cos
2q
even
2 2V
odd
2 2V cos
2q
cos2 (t ) d t = VB 1 +
q
2
sin
(11.130)
No of diodes
ID
q diodes
even
odd
I D rms
Is
Is = Io
Po = VoIo
S = qVsIs
2q
pf load
P
= o
S
Io
q
Is = Io
q even
sin
2V
2q diodes
ID =
2q
2 q
sin
q odd
2q diodes
I D rms =
2
Io
q
I s = I o
I s = I o
q even
q2 1
q
2 2
sin
q even
q odd
2q
Ripple factors for constant output current rectifiers with different number of pulses, n
11.3
n=q
n=2q
2 sin
n =1
where FF is termed the form factor. RFv is a measure of the voltage harmonics in the output voltage.
n
%
q
2V
q even
q odd
2 2V cos
2
q
2V
2
Vdc2
V rms
V2
= rms2 1 = FF 2 1
Vdc2
Vdc
n=q
n=2q
2V
Vlo
Figure 11.15. A half-wave n-phase uncontrolled rectifier: output voltage and current waveforms.
V ac = 12 (v an2 + v bn2 )
v q = 2V sin t (q 1)
t
I3
where
2
q
I2
.
.
i1
462
2 2
q odd
q even
q2 1
q odd
11.3.1 Effect of multiple coils on multiple limb transformers

The transformer for a single-phase two-pulse half-wave rectifier has three windings, a primary and two
secondary windings as shown in figure 11.16. Two possible transformer core and winding configurations
are shown, namely shell and core. In each case the winding turns ratios are identical, as is the load
voltage and current, but the physical transformer limb arrangements are different. One transformer,
figure 11.16a, has three limbs (made up from E and I laminations), while the second, figure 11.16b, is
made from a circular core (shown as a square core). The reason for the two possibilities is related to the
Power Electronics
463
Chapter 11
mmf 1 = i p N p + i s 1N s
fact that the circular core can use a single strip of wound cold-rolled grain-orientated silicon steel as
lamination material. Such steels offer better magnetic properties than the non-oriented steel that must
be used for E core laminations. Single-phase toroidal core transformers are attractive because of the
reduced size and weight but manufacturers do not highlight their inherent limitation and susceptibility to
dc flux biasing, particularly in half-wave type applications. Although the solution is simple, the
advantageous features of the toroidal transformer are lost, as will be shown.
i.
mmf 2 = +i p N p + i s 2N s
ip
Np
Np
Ns
Ns
Ns
(11.133)
Vp
+ipNp
ip
Np
Vs 1 =Vs 2
Io
Vs1
+is1Ns
+is2Ns
(11.134)
V
=Vs =V p s =
Np 2 2 o
S p =Vp I p =
D1
is1
Vs1
Ns
V I =
P = 1.11Po
Np p o 2 2 o
Ns
+is1Ns
RL
Np
Vo =
Vs
mmf2
Vs1
Vo
Vo
t
Vs1
t
VD1
4 2
Since the transformer primary current is the line current, the supply power factor is
2
Vs I o
P V I
2 2
=
= 0.9
pf = o = o o =
2 2
VD1
VD1
(11.136)
Po = 1.34Po
Np Ns
V
I
Ns s Np o
D2
Io
Io
(11.137)
is2
D1
D1
Vp I p
LL
Vs1
is1
Io
D2
D2
Ns
(11.138)
ip
Np
is1
is2
mmf
(a)
Ns
Np
Io
D2
ip
Np
D2
Io
t
Io
t
D1
Ns
t
VD = 2 V s
Io
D1
Io
The two-limb strip core transformer
Figure 11.16b shows the windings equally split on each transformer leg. In practice the windings can all
be on one leg and the primary is one coil, but separation as shown allows visual mmf analysis. The load
and diode currents and voltages are the same as for the E-I core arrangement, as seen in the
waveforms in figure 11.16b. The mmf analysis necessary to assess the primary currents and core flux,
is based on analysing each limb.
+is2Ns
is2
Thus
1+ 2
Vs2
Ns
mmf1
Vo
(11.135)
Po = I oVo
S =
RL
D1
VD1
Np
mmf2
is1
D2
is2
+ipNp
ip
Ns
Io
LL
mmf
Vo
Vs1
Vp2
Np
Vo
N
1+ 2
S = (S s + S p ) = p V p I o
2
Ns
The average output voltage, hence output power, are
N
2 2
2 2 Ns
Vo =
Vs =
V p = 0.9 s V p
Np
mmf1
Vo
Ns
Vs2
mmf
Therefore the transformer input, output and average VA ratings are

N

S s = V s 1I s 1 + V s 2 I s 2 = 2 s V p I o = Po = 1.57Po
Np
2
-ipNp
Vp1
ip
The various transformer voltages and currents are
Ns
Np
i s2
Vp
From the waveforms in figure 11.16a, since is2 is1 is alternating, an average primary current of zero in
equation (11.133) can only be satisfied by mmf = 0.
I p = Io
Io
is1
mmf
I s1 = I s 2 = I s =
mmf2
Np
Ns
Thus the primary current ip is
ip
mmf1
ip
The key feature of the three-limb shell is that the three windings are on the centre limb, as shown in
figure 11.16a. The area of each outer limb is half that of the central limb. Assuming a constant load
current Io and equal secondary turns, Ns, excitation of only the central limb yields the following mmf
equation
mmf = i p N p + i s 1N s i s 2N s
(11.132)
ii.
(11.139)
mmf 1 = mmf 2 = mmf
The E-I three-limb transformer (shell)
N
mmf
i p = s (i s 2 i s 1 ) +
Np
Np
464
Ns
Np
Io
NsIo
mmf
(b)
Figure 11.16. Single-phase transformer core and winding arrangements:

(a) E-I core with zero dc mmf bias and (b) square/circular core with dc mmf bias.
Power Electronics
465
These equations yield
Chapter 11
Ns
(i i )
N p s1 s 2
(11.140)
These two equations are used every ac half cycle to obtain the plots in figure 11.16b. It will be noticed
that the core has a magnetic mmf bias of NsIo associated with the half-wave rectification process.
In figure 11.17, each limb of the core has an extra secondary winding, of the same number of turns, Ns.
MMF analysis of each limb in figure 11.17 yields
limb1: mmf o = -i p N p - i s 2N s + i s 1N s
(11.147)
limb 2: mmf o = i p N p + i s 2N s i s 1N s
Adding the two mmf equations gives mmfo = 0 and the resulting alternating primary current is given by
ip =
The various transformer ratings are
I s1 = I s 2 = I s =
V p 1 = V p 2 = V p
Io
N
I p = Io s
Np
V s 1 = V s 2 = V s = V p
Vp =
Ns
N p
=Vp
Ns
Np
(11.141)
Np
V
Ns 2 2 o
S p = V p 1I p + V p 2 I p =
The transformer apparent and real power are rated by the same equation as for the previous winding
arrangements, namely

S = (S p + S s ) =
Po + Po = 1.34Po
2
2 2
(11.149)
Ns 2 2
Vp
where Po = Vo I o and Vo =
= 2 Po = 1.57Po
Po = 1.11Po
=
2 2
(11.142)
ip
1 + 2 Ns
S = (S s + S p ) =
Vp I o
2 Np
(11.143)
Po = I oVo
Np
Np
Ns
Ns
Ns
Ns
Io
is1
S =
4 2
Vs
Vs1
Vo
Vo
t
Vs1
i s2
VD1
VD1
Po = 1.34Po
(11.144)
4 2
and the supply power factor is pf = Po / S = 0.9.
-ipNp
The fundamental ripple in the output voltage, at twice the supply frequency, is Vo.
The two cores give the same rated transformer apparent power and supply power factor, but
importantly, undesirably, the toroidal core suffers an mmf magnetic bias.
In each core case each diode conducts for 180 and
Io
VlD = 2 2
VD = 4 V s
Vp
The interpretation for equations (11.142) and (11.144) (and equations (11.135) and (11.137)) is that the
transformer has to be oversized by 11% on the primary side and 57% on the secondary. From equation
(11.144), in terms of the average VA, the transformer needs to be 34% larger than that implied by the
rated dc load power. Further, the secondary is rated higher than the primary because of a dc component
in the secondary. This core saturation aspect requires special attention when dimensioning the core
size. Additionally, a component of the over rating requirement is due to circulating harmonics that do not
contribute to real power output. This component is particularly relevant in three-phase delta primary or
secondary connections when co-phasal triplens circulate. This discussion on apparent power aspects is
relevant to all the transformer connections considered. Generally the higher the phase number the
better the transformer core utilisation, but the poorer the secondary winding and rectifying diode
utilisation since the percentage current conduction decreases with increased pulse number.
I D rms =
Vo =
mmfo
VD1
Thus
I D = I o
ip
mmfo
The average output voltage, hence output power, are

2 2
2 2 Ns
2 2 Ns
Vo =
V =
V
V p =
s
N p
Np p
1+ 2
(11.148)
Np
Ns
V I
Np p o
Ns
V I
Np p o
Ns
(i i )
N p s1 s 2
Since the transformer primary current is the ac line current, the supply power factor is pf = Po / S = 0.9.
The general rule to avoid any core dc mmf is, each core leg must be effectively excited by a net
alternating current.
Therefore the transformer VA ratings are
S s = V s 1I s 1 + V s 2I s 2 = 2
466
11.3.2 Single-phase toroidal core mmf imbalance cancellation zig-zag winding
mmf = N s ( i s 1 + i s 2 ) = N s I o
ip =
Ns
V
Np p
With a purely resistive load, a full-wave rectifier with a centre-tapped primary gives
I D = I o
I D rms = I o
S s = 1.75Po
S p = 1.23Po
S = 1.49Po
(11.145)
(11.146)
Vp1
Np
Np
ip
Vp2
+ipNp
Vs2
-is1Ns
is1
Io
D1
ip
Io
is2
-is2Ns
Vs1
Ns
Ns
D2
Ns
+is1Ns
Vs1
Ns
is1
mmfo
D1
ip
RL
Vo
LL
Io
Ns
Vs2
Np
D2
mmfo
Io
+is2Ns
is2
D2
D1
mmf
mmf
Ns
Np
Io
mmf o
Figure 11.17. Single-phase zig-zag transformer core and winding arrangement

using square/circular core with zero dc mmf bias.
Power Electronics
467
Chapter 11
468
11.3.3 Single-phase transformer connection, with full-wave rectification
Y-y (WYE-wye) connection
The secondary current is ac with a zero average , thus no core mmf bias occurs.
The average output voltage and peak diode reverse voltage, in terms of the transformer secondary rms
voltage, are
2 2
Vo =
Vs
V Dr = 2V s
(11.150)
Electrically, the Y-y transformer connection shown in figure 11.18, can be summarized as follows.
The rms output voltage is the bridge input rms voltage:

Vo rms = V s
The various harmonic currents are
2 2
I s1 =
I o = 0.9I o
Ish =
I s1
h
(11.151)
for h odd
(11.152)
S =
Po = 1.11Po
V AB = V AN + V NB = V AN VBN = 3VAN e j 30 = 3VAN 30

V BC = V BN + VNC = VBN VCN VCA = VCN + V NA = VCN V AN
(11.160)
V ab = V an V bn = 3Van e j 30 = 3V an 30
V bc = V bn Vcn Vca = Vcn Van
In = Ia + Ib + Ic
Po
(11.161)
(11.153)
IY =
3 = S
3V
3
(11.154)
2 2
Since the line current is the primary current, the supply power factor is
P
2 2
pf = o =
(11.159)
The output current rating is
The transformer primary and secondary apparent powers are

2 2
The transformer average VAr rating is
N p V AN I a I a V BN I b VCN I c
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
N s V an I A I L1 V bn I B Vcn I C
I N = I A + I B + IC
The power factor angle of the fundamental is unity, while the THD is 48.43%.
Sp = Ss =
Y y =
(11.155)
IB
N
IC
A
IN
b
IA
Ib
n
Ic
a
In
Ia
The fundamental ripple in the output voltage, at twice the supply frequency, is Vo.
With a purely resistive load (as opposed to a constant load current), a full-wave bridge rectifier gives
Io =
I D = I o
I D rms = I o
Vo
V
I o rms = s
R
R
S s = 1.23Po
S p = 1.23Po
S = 1.23Po
(11.156)
Vbn
VBN
11.3.4 Three-phase transformer connections
VCA
-VBN
VCN
VAB
Vca
-Vbn
Vcn
Vab
Basic three-phase transformers can have a combination of star (wye) and delta, primary and secondary
winding arrangements. For a given line voltage and current, a wye connection reduces the phase
winding voltage by 3, while a delta configuration reduces the phase winding current by 3.
i.
ii.
Y - y (WYE-wye) is avoided due to imbalance and third harmonic problems, but with an
extra delta winding, triplen problems can be minimised. The arrangement is used to
interconnect high voltage networks, 240kV/345kV or when two neutrals are needed for
grounding.
VAN
VBN
Van
Vbn
Y - (WYE-delta) is commonly used for step-down voltage applications.

VBC
iii. (DELTA-delta) is used in 11kV medium voltage applications where neither primary nor
neutral connection is needed.
IC
iv. - y (DELTA-wye) is used as a step-up transformer at the point of generation, before

transmission.
Independent of the three-phase connection of the primary and secondary, for a balance three-phase
load, the apparent power, VA, from the supply to the load is
S = 3V line I line = 3V phase I phase

Also the sum of the primary and secondary line voltages is zero, that is
V AB + V BC + VCA = 0
(11.157)
(11.158)
V ab +V bc + Vca = 0
where upper case subscripts refer to the primary and lower case subscripts refer to the secondary.
Vbc
Ic
IA
IB
Ia
Ib
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.18. Three-phase Y-y transformer:
(a) winding arrangement and (b) phasor diagrams.
Power Electronics
469
Chapter 11
470
Y- (WYE-delta) connection
- (DELTA-delta) connection
The Y- transformer connection in figure 11.19 can be summarized as follows.
N p V AN I ba V BN I cb VCN I ac
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
N s V ab
I A V bc
I B Vca
IC
In figure 11.20, the - transformer connection can be summarized as follows.

(11.162)
V AB = V AN VBN = V AN V AN e j 120 = 3V AN e j 30
N p V AB I a I ba VBC I b I cb VCA I c I cb
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
N s Vab I A I AB V bc I B I BC Vca I C I CA
I A = I AB I CA = 3 I A B e j 30 = 3I A B 30
I B = I BC I AB
I C = I CA I BC
I A + IB + IC = 0
I a = I ba I ac = I ba I ba e j 240 = 3 I ba e j 30
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
S
I =
(11.164)
(11.163)
(11.165)
I a = I ab I ca = 3 I ab e j 30 = 3I ab 30
I b = I cb I ba
I c = I ac I cb
Ic + Ib + Ic = 0
3 = S
3V
S
B
IB
N
IC
A
IN
Ib
IA
Ic
IY =
Iab
VBN
VCN
3 = S
3V
3
(11.166)
IC
Ib
IA
Ia
Ica
Vbc
Ibc
IBC
Vca
Iab
IAB
VCA
VAN
Ic
ICA
VBC
VAB
-VBN
IB
Ibc
Ia
Ica
Vbc
VCA
Vca
Vab
VAB
Vbc
VBN
Ic
Vab
VBC
Vbc
Ic
IC
VBC
Ica
IC
Ica
ICA
Iab
IA
Iab
IAB
IB
Ib
(a)
Ibc
-Ica
(b)
Ia
IB
IBC
-ICA
(a)
Figure 11.19. Three-phase Y- transformer:

IA
Ib
Ibc
-Ica
(b)
Figure 11.20. Three-phase - transformer:

Ia
Power Electronics
471
Chapter 11
-y (DELTA-wye) connection
mmf o = N s i s 1 N p i p 1
The -y transformer connection in figure 11.21 can be summarized as follows.
y =
I
V AB V AB e
V
=
= AN = a* =
V ab V ab
V an I A
3
*
j 30
Ia
(11.167)
I A = I AB I CA = I AB I AB e j 240 = 3 Ian e j 30
S
IY =
B
IB
3 = S
3V
3
(11.168)
IC
IA
Ib
n
Ic
a
In
Ia
ICA
VBC
IBC
n
IAB
By symmetry and balance, the mmf in each leg must be equal.

If iN is the neutral current then the equation for the currents is
i p1 + i p 2 + i p 3 = i N
i p2 =
Ns 1
2
1
i + i i
N p 3 s 1 3 s 2 3 s 3
ip3 =
Ns
Np
1
2
3 is1 3 is 2 + 3 is 3
Vcn
Vab
Specifically, the core has an mmf dc bias of NsIo.

Waveforms satisfying these equations are show plotted in figure 11.22a. The various transformer
currents and voltages are
I s1 = I s 2 = I s 3 = I s =
Io
3
Van
VAB
2 Ns
Io
3 Np
I p1 = I p 2 = I p 3 = I p =
VBC
Vbn
V p 1 = V p 2 = V p 3 = V p = Vo
IC
V s 1 = V s 2 = V s 3 = V s = Vo
ICA
Ic
IAB
Ia
IBC
-ICA
(a)
IA
Ib
(b)
Figure 11.21. Three-phase -y transformer: (a) winding arrangement and (b) phasor diagrams.
11.3.5 Three-phase transformer, half-wave rectifiers - core mmf imbalance

A delta secondary connection cannot be used for half-wave rectification since no physical neutral
connection exists.
i.
(11.171)
is1 + is 2 + is 3 1
= 3 Ns Io
3
VCA
IB
(11.170)
The same mmf equations are obtained if the load is purely resistive.
Any triplens in the primary will add algebraically, while any other harmonics will vectorially cancel to
zero. Therefore the neutral may only conduct primary side triplen currents. Any input current harmonics
are due to the rectifier and the rectifier harmonics of the order h = cp 1 where c = 0,1,2, and p is the
pulse number, 3. No secondary-side third harmonics can exist hence h 3k for k = 1, 2, 3, . Therefore no
primary-side triplen harmonic currents exist to flow in the neutral, that is iN = 0. In a balanced load
condition, the neutral connection is redundant. The system equations resolve to
N
i p1 = s 2 i s 1 1 i s 2 1 i s 3
3
3
Np 3
mmf o = N s
Vbn
Vca
(11.169)
3 I AB e j 30
472
Star connected primary Y-y (WYE-wye)
The three-phase half-wave rectifier with a star-star connected transformer in figure 11.22a is prone to
magnetic mmf core bias. With a constant load current Io, each diode conducts for 120. Each leg is
analysed on an mmf basis, and the current and mmf waveforms in figure 11.22a are derived as follows.
N p 2
Ns 3 6
Vo
2
=
3 6 1.17
The fundamental ripple in the output voltage, at three times the supply frequency, is Vo.
The various transformer VA ratings are
2
S s = V s 1I s 1 +V s 2 I s 2 + V s 3I s 3 = 3V s I s =
Po = 1.48Po
3
2
S p = V p 1I p + V p 2 I p + V p 3I p = 3V p I p =
Po = 1.21Po
3 3
S = ( S s + S p ) = Po
The average output power is
2+ 6
3 3
Po = I oVo
(11.172)
(11.173)
= 1.34Po
(11.174)
Since with a wye connected transformer primary, the transformer primary phase current is the line
current, the supply power factor is
3
3
2V s
I
P
VI
2 o = 0.827
pf = o = o o =
(11.175)
N
S 3V p I p
3 Ns
3 p Vs
Io
2 Np
Ns
Although the neutral connection is redundant for a constant load current, the situation is different if the
load current has ripple at the three times the rectified ac frequency, as with a resistive load. Equations in
(11.171) remain valid for the untapped neutral case. In such a case, when triplens exist in the load
current, how they are reflected into the primary depends on whether or not the neutral is connected:
Power Electronics
473
ii.
Chapter 11
No neutral connection a triplen mmf is superimposed on the mmf dc bias of NsIo.

Neutral connected a dc current (zero sequence) flows in the neutral and the
associated zero sequence line currents in the primary, oppose the generation of any
triplen mmf onto the dc mmf bias of NsIo.
Each diode conducts for 120 and
Io
(11.184)
Vl D = 6 s V p
Np
3
The primary connection, delta or wye, does not influence any dc mmf generated in the core, although
the primary connection does influence if an ac mmf results.
ID =
Io
I D rms =
Delta connected primary -y (DELTA-wye)
i L1 = i p 1 i p 3
i L 2 = i p 2 i p1
A
Vp1
(11.176)
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
iL3 = i p 3 i p 2
Vs1
Vp2
Ns
iN
mmfo
Vs3
Vs2 Ns
Ns
i L2
i L3 =
ip2
Vp3
Np
ip3
mmfo
mmfo
Vs1
is1
is2
is3
LL
mmfo
Ns
Ns
is1
is2
Vs3
Vs2 Ns
D3
Io
D2
Vs1
Vs2
Vs3
mmfo
Vs1
3 3
2
D1
is3
LL
D3
Io
D2
Vs
V
Vs1
Vs2
Vs3
Vs1
t
(11.178)
(11.179)
D1
is2
6Vs
D1
Io
Io
D3 t
D3
ip1
Io
ip1=is1-is2-is3
Io
Io
Ns
Np
-Io
Np
ip3
-Io
pf =
Vo I o
== 0.827
3V p I L
(11.182)
Although with a delta connected primary, the ac supply line currents are not the transformer primary
currents, the supply power factor is the same as a star primary connection since the proportions of the
input harmonics are the same.
Ns
IL1
i L1 = i p 1 i p 3
Io
Ns
Np
NsIo
(a)
-Io
mmf
Ns
Np
NsIo
(b)
The rms output voltage is
Vo rms = 2V s
3
3
+
2 3
4
(11.183)
Np
ip3
mmf
Ns
that is I L = 3 I p
ip2
Ns
Np
ip2
D3 t
D3
(11.181)
D2
is3
D2
ip1
Io
D2
Io
D1
is2
Vs3 -Vs1
is3
(11.180)
Io
Vs2 -Vs1
D2
Ns
(i i )
N p p3 p2
is1
VD1
D1
S = 1.34Po
RL
Vo
Vo =
is1
3
Io
2
Np
Ns
(i i )
N p p1 p 3
Ns 3
N
I and I L = s
Np 2 o
Np
Np
ip1
Vp2
Vo
The waveforms for these equations are shown plotted in figure 11.22b, where
Ip =
IL3
IL2
+isNs
RL
The line currents are
N
= s (i p 2 i p 1 )
Np
Vp1
N
n
(11.177)
These line-side equations are the same as for the star connected primary, hence the same real and
apparent power equations are also applicable to the delta connected primary transformer, viz. equations
(11.173) and (11.174).
i L1 =
C
VL2
IL12
-ipNp
Vp3
Np
ip3
D1
i p2 = is 2 1 Io s = s 1 is1 + 2 is 2 1 is 3
3 Np
3
3
Np 3
Ns 1
1 Ns
1
2
i p3 = is 3 Io
=
i i + i
3 Np
N p 3 s 1 3 s 2 3 s 3
mmfo
mmfo
The line-side currents have average values of zero and if it is assumed that the core mmf has only a dc
component, that is no alternating component, then based on these assumptions
i + i + i
mmf o = N s s 1 s 2 s 3 = 1 N s I o
3
3
The primary currents are then
N
i p1 = i s 1 1 I o s = s 2 i s 1 1 i s 2 1 i s 3
3 Np
3
3
Np 3
B
VL1
The three-phase half-wave rectifier with a delta-star connected transformer in figure 11.18b is prone to
magnetic mmf core bias. With a constant load current Io each diode conducts for 120. Each leg is
analysed on an mmf basis, and the current and mmf waveforms in figure 11.22b are derived as follows.
474
Figure 11.22. Three-phase transformer winding arrangement with dc mmf bias:

(a) star connected primary and (b) delta connected primary.
Power Electronics
475
Chapter 11
Figure 11.23 shown a tri-hexaphase half-wave rectifier, which can employ a wye or delta primary
configuration, but only a star secondary connection is possible, since a neutral connection is required.
The primary configuration can be shown to dictate core mmf bias conditions.
The mmf balance for the wye primary connection in figure 11.23a is
N s i s 1 N s i s 4 N p i p1 = 0
Ns is 3 Nsis 6 N pi p2 = 0
Ns is5 Nsis 2 N pi p3 = 0
Ns
(i i )
N p s1 s 4
i p2 =
Ns
(i i )
Np s3 s6
ip3 =
The primary currents expressed in terms of the secondary current are
Ns 2
( i + 1i 1i 2i 1i + 1i )
N p 3 s1 3 s 2 3 s 3 3 s 4 3 s 5 3 s 6
N
= s ( 13 i s 1 + 13 i s 2 + 23 i s 3 + 13 i s 4 13 i s 5 23 i s 6 )
Np
N
= s ( 13 i s 1 23 i s 2 13 i s 3 + 13 i s 4 23 i s 5 13 i s 6 )
Np
Ns
(i i )
Np s5 s2
1
(i s 1 i s 2 + i s 3 i s 4 + i s 5 i s 6 )
3
These line side equations are plotted in figure 11.23a. Notice that an alternating mmf exists in the core
related to the pulse frequency, n = 2q = 6.
Ns
( i s 1 + i s 3 + i s 4 i s 6 )
Np
iL3 = i p 3 i p 2 =
Ns
( i s 2 i s 3 + i s 5 + i s 6 )
Np
(11.192)
(11.193)
(11.194)
The transformer power ratings (which are relatively poor) are

I
Ss = 6
Vo o =
Po = 1.81Po
3
3 2 6

Sp = 3
S =
(11.187)
2
Io
3
iL =
3 2
3
Io
Vo
Po +
Po = 1.28Po
Po =
(11.195)
1
1 +
Po = 1.55Po
3
2
The same primary and secondary apparent powers result for a purely resistive load.
iL =
not
i L2 = i p 2 i p1 =
(11.186)
mmf = N s
2
Io
3
Note that because of the zero sequence current, triplens, in the delta primary that
iL = 2 i p
Ns
(i + i i i )
N p s1 s 2 s 4 s 5
The transformer primary currents and the line currents are

1
ip =
Io
3
i p1 =
The transformer primary currents and the line currents are

2
ip =
Io
3
i L1 = i p 1 i p 3 =
(11.185)
i p1 + i p 2 + i p 3 = 0
i p3
i p1 =
The line currents are
Y-y (WYE-wye) connection
i p2
476
Thus since each limb experiences an alternating current, similar to is1 - is4 for each limb, with an average
value of zero, the line currents can be calculated from
11.3.6 Three-phase transformer with hexa-phase rectification, mmf imbalance
i.
The supply power factor is pf = 3/ = 0.955.

(11.188)
iL = 3 i p
Independent of the primary connection, the average output voltage is

3 2
Vo =
Vs
(11.196)
and the rms output voltage is

The transformer power ratings are

1
Ss = 6
Vo
Io =
Po
3
3 2 6

2
Sp = 3
Vo
I o = Po
3 2 3
3

S =
Po + Po =
3 + 1 Po = 1.43Po
3 6
3
ii.
Vo rms = 2V s
ID =
Io
6
I D rms =
Io
6
(11.197)
(11.198)
The maximum diode reverse voltage is
V Dr = 2 2V s
-y (DELTA-wye) connection
When the primary is delta connected, as shown in figure 11.23b, the mmf equations are the same as
with a wye primary, namely
N s i s 1 N s i s 4 N p i p1 = 0
(11.190)
Ns is5 Nsis 2 N pi p3 = 0
but Kirchhoffs electrical current equation becomes of the following form for each phase:
1 2
mmf =
N s ( i s 1 i s 4 ) d t = 0
2 0
3
+
6
The diode average and rms currents are

(11.189)
Ns is 3 Nsis 6 N pi p2 = 0
6
2
(11.191)
(11.199)
The line currents are added to the waveforms in figure 11.23a and are also shown in figure 11.11b. The
core mmf bias is zero, without any ac component associated with the 6-pulse rectification process. Zero
sequence, triplen currents, can flow in the delta primary connection. A star connected primary is
therefore not advisable.
If a single-phase inter-wye transformer is used between the neutrals of the two star rectifier groups, the
transformer apparent power factors improve significantly, to
S s = 1.48Po S p = 1.05Po giving S = 1.26Po
(11.200)
Power Electronics
477
Chapter 11
A
A
Vp1
N
n
RL
Vo
B
Vp2
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
is4
is6
Vs4
D4
D6
Vs1
LL
Io
Vs1
-ip1Np
ip3
mmfo
Ns
Ns
Ns
D1
D3
is1
is3
D2
Vs6
Ns
Ns
Vs3
Vs2
-is4Ns
+is1Ns
Vs5
RL
Vo
D5
Vs4
Vs5
Vs6
Vo =
V
Vs4
Vs1
LL
mmf
is5
Vs3
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
Io
Vs1
Vs2
VL2
Vp2
is6
D4
D6
In figures 11.24a and 11.25a, for balanced input currents and equal turns number Ns in the six windings
N s ( I aa ' + I nc ' ) = N s ( I an I cn )
Vp3
Np
whence
ip3
mmfo
is4
Ns
mmfo
If the same windings were connected in series in a Y configuration the mmf would be 2NIan. Therefore
1.15 times more turns (2/3) are needed with the zig-zag arrangement in order to produce the same
mmf.
Ns
Ns
D1
D3
is1
is3
Vs3
D2
Vs6
Vs2
Ns
Vs3
(11.201)
N s ( I an I cn ) = 3 N s I an 30
is2
Ns
Ns
Similarly for the output voltage, when compared to the same windings used in series in a Y secondary
configuration:
V na = V na ' + V a ' a
Vs5
= V a ' n + V a ' a
D5
Vs5
Vs6
Vs 1
c
Vcc=Vbn
Vna
(11.202)
= 3V a ' a 30
That is, for a given line to neutral voltage, 1.15 times as many turns are needed as when Y connected.
is5
Vs4
478
11.3.7 Three-phase transformer mmf imbalance cancellation zig-zag winding
IL3
IL2
mmfo
is2
Ns
Vs2
Vp1
Vp3
Np
mmfo
mmfo
IL1
VL1
Vna
a
Vbb=Van
Vaa=Vcn
b
Icn
a
VD1
VD1
Ian
a
c
22Vs
Io
is1
D1
is2
Io
D2
is3
D3
Io
is4
D1
Io
Io
D2
Io
D1
D6
D3
D4
D4
is5
D5
Io
D6
Io
D5
D4
D1
D6
D1
IoNs/Np
D1
-Vbn
Ian-Icn
D4
D4
ip2
(b)
Figure 11.24. Three-phase transformer secondary zig-zag winding arrangement:

(a) secondary windings and (b) current and voltage phasors for the fork case.
D4
Io
Io
D3
D6
D3
D6
i.
-Io
Io
ip3
D5
D2
-Io
t
(a)
Ibn
(a)
Io
D2
mmf
D3
D2
-Io
Io
D6
iL1
D3
D2
t
ip1
is6
IL1
Io
mmf
-Io
o
star connected primary Y-z (WYE-zigzag)
In figure 11.25, each limb of the core has an extra secondary winding, of the same number of secondary
turns, Ns.
MMF analysis of each of the three limbs yields
limb1:- mmf o = -i p 1N p + i s 1N s i s 3N s
limb 2:-
mmf o = i p 2N p + i s 2N s i s 1N s
limb 3:-
mmf o = i p 2N p + i s 3N s i s 2N s
(11.203)
i p1 + i p 2 + i p 3 = 0
(b)
Adding the three mmf equations gives mmfo = 0 and the alternating primary (and line) currents are
Figure 11.23. Three-phase transformer winding arrangement with hexa-phase rectification:
(a) star connected primary with dc mmf bias and (b) delta connected primary.
(the transformer secondary and diode currents are the same in each case)
i p1 =
Ns
(i i )
N p s1 s 3
i p2 =
Ns
(i i )
N p s 2 s1
These equations are plotted in figure 11.25a.
ip3 =
Ns
(i i )
Np s3 s2
(11.204)
Power Electronics
479
Chapter 11
A
Vs31
A
Vp1
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
C
Vp2
Vp3
Np
ip3
mmfo
mmfo
Vp1
Vs11
Vs21
IL1
IL2
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
Vp2
ip3
mmfo
mmfo
Vp3
Np
mmfo
The various transformer ratings are

2 2
S s = 3I sV s 0 + 3I sV s 1 = 6I sV so =
Po
3 3
-Vs3o
Vs1o
Ns
Ns
Vs2o
Vs3o
Ns
Vs1o
-ip1Np
Vs2o
Ns
Ns
Vs3o
Ns
Ns
Vs31
Vs21 Ns
RL
is1
is2
D1
Vs1
is3
D2
Vs2
Vs3
Io
is1
Vo =
3 3
2
Vs 1
is2
D1
mmfo
Vs1
Vs21 Ns
Ns
Vs1
(11.206)
2 + 1 = 1.46Po
Vs2
is3
D2
Vs3
Carrying out an mmf balancing exercise, assuming no alternating mmf component, and the mean line
current is zero, yields
LL
D3
Io
Vs1
VL-L
VCB
VBA
VAC
VCB
VD1
t
Vs2 -Vs1
6Vs
D1
Io
is2
Io
is1
D1
D1
D2
Io N
Io
Ns
Io N
ip1
t
Ns
Io N
Io N
Io N
-2Io N
iL2
mmf
i L3 = i p 3 i p 2 =
Ns
(i + i 2i s 2 )
N p s 3 s1
(11.207)
The primary and secondary currents are the same whether for a delta or star connected primary,
therefore
S = ( S s + S p ) = 1.46Po
(11.208)
Ip =
2
Io
3
(11.209)
I L = 3I p
A zig-zag secondary can be a Y-type fork for a possible neutral connection or alternatively, a -type
polygon when the neutral is not required.
Each diode conducts for 120 and
ID =
Io
I D rms =
Io
3
Vl D = 6
Ns
V
Np p
(11.210)
11.3.8 Three-phase transformer full-wave rectifiers zero core mmf

Ns
t
Ns
-2Io N
(a)
Ns
(i + i 2i s 1 )
Np s2 s3
Io N
Ns
-Io N
mmf
-Io N
Ns
Ns
-Io N
Ns
Ns
iL1
i L2 = i p 2 i p1 =
Ns
Ns
-Io N
D3
Ns
D2
is3
D3
ip1
D2
Io
is3
Ns
(i + i 2i s 3 )
N p s1 s 2
D1
Io
is2
D2
i L1 = i p 1 i p 3 =
If a 1:1:1 turns ratio is assumed, the line, primary and load current are related according to
2 2 4 2
IL =
I o + I o = 2I o
3
3
Vs3 -Vs1
Io
delta connected primary -z (DELTA-zigzag)
ii.
RL
Vs31
ip3
(
3
Po
Vo
+is1Ns
LL
D3
Ns
Vs11
Vo
ip2
2
3 3
Vs1
Vs11
is1
S p = 3I pV p =
S = ( S s + S p ) = Po
-is3Ns
Vs1
Ns
480
If a 1:1:1 turns ratio is assumed, the power ratings of the transformer (which is independent of the turns
ratio) involves the vectorial addition of the winding voltages.
G
G
G
v s 1 = v s 11 v s 2o
G
G
G
v s 2 = v s 21 v s 3o
(11.205)
G
G
G
v s 3 = v s 31 v s 1o
IL3
Vs2
mmfo
C
VL2
VL1
(b)
Figure 11.25. Three-phase transformer winding zig-zag arrangement with no dc mmf bias:
(a) star connected primary and (b) delta connected primary.
Full-wave rectification is common in single and three phase applications, since, unlike half-wave
rectification, the core mmf bias tends to be zero. In three-phase, it is advisable that either the primary or
secondary be a delta connection. Any non-linearity in the core characteristics, namely hysteresis,
causes triplen fluxes. If a delta connection is used, triplen currents can circulate in the winding, thereby
suppressing the creation of triplen core fluxes. If a Y-y connection is used, a third winding set, delta
connected, is usually added to the transformer in high power applications. The extra winding can be
used for auxiliary type supply applications, and in the limit only one turn per phase need be employed if
the sole function of the tertiary delta winding is to suppress core flux triplens.
The primary current harmonic content is the same for a given output winding configuration, independent
of whether the primary is star or delta connected.
Power Electronics
481
i.
Chapter 11
Star connected primary Y-y (Wye-wye)
The Y-y connection shown in figure 11.26a (with primary and secondary neutral nodes N, n
respectively) is the simplest to analyse since each phase primary current is equal to a corresponding
phase secondary current.
(11.211)
482
The full-wave, three-phase rectified average output voltage (assuming the appropriate turns ratio, 3:1,
to give the same output voltage for a given input line voltage) is
3 3
3
Vo =
V p = VL
(11.223)
The transformer apparent power components are

S s = 1.05Po S p = 1.05Po hence
S = 1.05Po
(11.224)
The fundamental ripple in the output voltage, at six times the supply frequency, is 0.057Vo.
Adding the three mmf equations gives

3
i =1
i =1
3 mmf o = N p i pi N s i si
(11.212)
i p1 + i p 2 + i p 3 = 0
(11.213)
but
pf =
= 0.955
(11.225)
and the secondary currents always sum to zero, then mmfo = 0.

Additionally
i L1 = i p 1 =
Ns
i
N p s1
iL2 = i p 2 =
Ns
i
Np s2
iL3 = i p 3 =
Ns
i
Np s3
iii.
(11.214)
Generally
Ip =
Ns
N
I = s
Np s Np
2
Io
3
2
3 3
Po = 1.21Po
2
Ss =
3 3
2
Po = 1.48Po
3
(11.216)
n >0
(11.217)
The full-wave, three-phase rectified average output voltage (assuming the appropriate turns ratio, 1:1, to
give the same output voltage for a given input line voltage) is
3 3
3
Vo =
V p = VL
(11.218)
Ns
i
N p s1
The secondary phase currents in figure 11.26b are the same as for the Y-y connection, but the line
currents are composed as follows
(11.220)
i L1 = i p 1 i p 3
i L 2 = i p 2 i p1
i L3 = i p 3 i p 2
Such that
Ns
N
I = s
Np s Np
IL = 3 I p =
Ns
Np
2
Io
3
3 Is =
i L2 =
Ns
(i i ) = i p 2 i p 3
Np s2 s3
iL2 =
Ns
(i i ) = i p 3 i p1
N p s 3 s1
(11.226)
Ns
Np
(11.227)
Thus the transformer currents are related to the supply line currents by
i p1 =
Ns
i = 2i 2i
N p s 1 3 L1 3 L 2
i p2 =
Ns
i = 2i 2i
N p s 2 3 L2 3 L3
i p3 =
Ns
2
2
i = i i
N p s 3 3 L 3 3 L1
where
(11.228)
i L1 + i L 2 + i L 3 = 0
(11.229)
Ip =
Ns
N 2 2
I o
I = s
Np s Np 3
(11.230)
The full-wave, three-phase rectified average output voltage (assuming the appropriate turns ratio, 3:1,
to give the same output voltage for a given input line voltage) is
3 3
3
Vo =
V p = VL
(11.231)
The secondary harmonic currents are given by

1
1 6
I s h = I s1 =
I o for h = 6n 1
Ns
i
Np s3
Generally
Delta connected primary -y (Delta-wye)
Ip =
i p3 =
Ns
(i i ) = i p 1 i p 2
N p s1 s 2
Since with a star primary the line currents are the primary currents, the supply power factor is
P
3
(11.219)
pf = o = = 0.955
ii.
Ns
i
Np s2
i L1 =
i p2 =
where
Po +
i p1 =
and i s 1 + i s 2 + i s 3 = 0
2
Po = 1.35Po
3
The secondary harmonic currents are given by

1
1 6
I s h = I s1 =
I o for h = 6n 1
S =
In the Y- configuration in figure 11.27a, there are no zero sequence currents hence no mmf bias
arises, mmfo = 0, and both transformer sides have positive and negative sequence currents.
(11.215)
whence
Sp =
Star connected primary Y- (Wye-delta)
(11.221)
The fundamental ripple in the output voltage, at six times the supply frequency, is 2/57 = 0.057Vo.
2 Io
n >0
pf =
(11.222)
for an output power, Po = Vo Io,
= 0.995
(11.232)
Power Electronics
483
iv.
Chapter 11

A
Delta connected primary - (Delta-delta)

A
The phase primary and secondary voltages are in phase.

As shown in figure 11.27b the line currents are composed as follows
i L1 = i p 1 i p 3
i L 2 = i p 2 i p1
iL3 = i p 3 i p 2
Vp1
(11.233)
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
i p1
N
= s is1
Np
i p2
and
N
= s is2
Np
i p3
N
= s is3
Np
Vs1
(11.234)
is1
3 9 3
Vo rms = 2V s
+
2 4
is2
is3
D6
D3
D2
D5
Io
ab
ac
LL
RL
bc
ba
ca
cb
ab
Vo =
ac
Vbn
Vcn
Van
Vs1
Vs2
Vs3
Vs1
(11.240)
ID =
1
Io
3
Np
I D rms =
1
3
Io
pf =
3 3
Vs 1
ab
VlDR = 3 2V s
c
D1
D3
D5
Io
LL
RL
ac
bc
ba
ca
cb
ab
ac
Van
Vbn
Vcn
Van
Vs1
Vs2
Vs3
Vs1
t
Io
D1
D1
D4
-Io
ip2=is2
VD1
6Vs
Io
Io
Io
ip1=is1
D1
Io
D3
ip1=is3
Io
D5 t
D5
D2
D2
-Io
2Io
Io
iL1
D3
D6
D6
-Io
ip1=is3
-Io
Io
-2Io
D5 t
D5
D2
mmf
D6
D4
-Io
D3
D6
D1
D4
Io
D3
-Io
is3
D4
ip2=is2
VL
is2
(11.239)
Po 3
= = 0.955
S
3 Ns
is1
VD4
Vp =
Vs3
Vs2 Ns
D6
Independent of the transformer primary and secondary connection, for a specified input and output
voltage, the following electrical equations hold.
3 3
Ns
D2
(11.238)
In summary, when the primary and secondary winding configurations are the same (- or Y-y) the input
and output line voltages are in phase, otherwise (-y or Y-) the input and output line voltages are
shifted by 30 relative to one another.
Vo =
mmfo
Vo
Van
Thus the supply power factor is
for an output power, Po = Vo Io,
Vp3
Np
ip3
D4
mmf
ip1=is1
Po = 1.05Po
Ns
The primary and secondary apparent powers are
pf =
ip2
Vo
Np
ip1
mmfo
Vs1
D1
(11.236)
The rms output voltage is
Sp = Ss =
IL3
Vp2
Np
mmfo
Vs3
Vs2 Ns
Ns
D4
The full-wave, three-phase rectified average output voltage (assuming the appropriate turns ratio, 1:1, to
give the same output voltage for a given input line voltage) is
3 3
3
Vo =
V p = VL
(11.237)
IL2
+is1Ns
(11.235)
Ns
I
Np s
Ns
is1 + is 2 + is 3 = 0
i L1 + i L 2 + i L 3 = 0
Ip =
mmfo
VL2
i p1 + i p 2 + i p 3 = 0
Generally
ip3
Vp1
-ip1Np
Vp3
Np
mmfo
mmfo
The transformer primary and secondary currents are
IL12
C
Vp2
VL1
484
D2
-Io
Io
iL2
(a)
(b)
mmf
-2Io
o
Figure 11.26. Three-phase transformer wye connected secondary winding with full-wave rectification
and no resultant dc mmf bias: (a) star connected primary Y-y and (b) delta connected primary -y.
Power Electronics
Chapter 11
A
A
Vp1
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
C
Vp2
Np
ip3
mmfo
mmfo
Ns
Ns
is1
is2
D4
D1
D3
D2
LL
RL
mmf
D5
IL2
Np
Np
ip1
ip2
Ns
Ns
is1
is2
Van
Vbn
Vs1
ip3
mmfo
Vs3
Ns
is3
D1
D3
LL
RL
D5
Van
Vs3
Vo =
Vs1
3 3
Voltage multipliers
Io
ID3
ID2
Vs 1
C1
C3
+
+
D2
t
ID1
D1
0V
D1
-Io
Io
D1
D1
D4
-Io
ip3=is3
D2
-Io
ip3=is3
D2
2Io
Io
iL1
t
C1 = C2 = Cn
-Io
Io
D2
-Io
D5 t
D2
D5 t
D5
Io
D5
D6
D3
D6
-Io
t
D3
D6
Io
D3
D6
Io
D3
-Io
2X F
X F
2X F
X F
-2Io
Io
iL2
Io
(a)
(b)
mmf
-2Io
o
(b)
Vp-p
mmf
ip2=is2
D4
(a)
ID4
Vo
ip1=is1
D4
Vout
+ hv dc
C4
D1
D4
Io
ip1=is1
D3
+
C2
Io
Io
Io
output voltage
2Vs
D4
Vac
VD1
486
Voltage multipliers are ac to dc power conversion circuits, comprised of diodes and capacitors that are
interconnected so as to produce a high potential dc voltage from a lower voltage ac source. As in figure
11.28a, multipliers are made up of cascaded stages each comprised of a diode and a capacitor.
Voltage multipliers are a simple way to generate high voltages at relatively low currents. By using only
capacitors and diodes, the voltage multipliers can step up relatively low voltages to extremely high
values, while at the same time being far lighter and cheaper than transformers. The advantage of the
circuit is that the voltage across each cascaded stage is only equal to twice the peak input voltage, so it
requires relatively low cost components and is easy to insulate. An output can also be tapped from any
stage, like a multi-tapped transformer.
The voltage multiplier has poor voltage regulation, that is, the voltage drops rapidly as a function the
output current, as in figure 11.28b. The output I-V characteristic is approximately hyperbolic, so it is
suitable for charging capacitor banks to high voltages at near constant charging power. Furthermore, the
ripple on the output, particularly at high loads, is high. The output voltage is not isolated from the input
voltage source, although transformer coupling provides general isolation.
The most commonly used multiplier circuit is the half-wave series multiplier. Other multiplier circuits can
be derived from its operating principles.
Vp3
Np
Vo
Vcn
Vs2
Vp2
D4
Vo
11.4
IL3
D6
D2
Io
VL22
mmfo
+is1Ns
is3
IL12
mmfo
Vs3
Ns
D6
-ip1Np
mmfo
Vp1
Vp3
VL12
output ripple voltage
485
Figure 11.27. Three-phase transformer with delta connected secondary winding with full-wave
rectification and no resultant dc mmf bias: (a) star connected primary Y- and (b) delta connected
primary - .
output current
Figure 11.28. Charging sequence of a half-wave series positive output voltage multiplier
and output characteristics dependence on output current and stage capacitance.
The following description for a two-stage series voltage multiplier assumes no losses and represents
sequential reversals of polarity of the source transformer Ts in the figure 11.28a. The number of stages
is equal to the number of smoothing capacitors between ground and Vout, which in this case is two,
capacitors C2 and C4.
Power Electronics
487
Chapter 11
Vac = Negative Peak: C1 charges through D1 to Vpk by current ID1

Vac = Positive Peak: Vpk of Ts adds arithmetically to existing potential C1, thus C2 charges
to 2 Vpk thru D2 by current ID2
Vac = Negative Peak: C3 is charged to 2Vpk through D3 by current ID3
Vac = Positive Peak: C4 is charged to 2Vpk by current ID4 through D4 then Vpk.
Io
+
D4
Io
Vout
+ hv dc
11.4.1 Half-wave series multipliers

The capacitors are in series, so effectively capacitance is as for series connected capacitors, C/N, but
voltage rating is the cumulative sum of the series capacitors between the output terminals. This
multiplier is the most common, and is versatile, being used in high-voltage, low-current applications. The
basic charging sequence in figure 11.29 is as for the circuit shown in figure 11.28a, where the diodes
conduct in the order D1 to D4, for both output polarity versions.
D3
Once a load is connected at the output, the output voltage decreases due to the voltage regulation. Also,
any small fluctuation of load impedance causes a large fluctuation in the multiplier output voltage due to
the number of stages involved. For this reason, voltage multipliers are used only in special applications
where the load is constant and has a high impedance or where voltage stability is not critical.
Half-wave Output Voltage
The open-circuit output voltage Vo/c of each stage is nominally twice the peak input voltage Vpk.
Assuming the ac input voltage and frequency are constant, for N cascaded stages, the output voltage is
Vo /c = 2N V pk
(11.241)
In practice, several cycles are required to reach full output voltage. The output voltage follows an RC
network exponential curve, where R is the output impedance of the ac source, whilst C is the effective
dynamic capacitance of the voltage multiplier, NC. This charging occurs only upon switch-on of the
voltage multiplier from a discharged state, and does not repeat itself unless the output is short circuited.
The most common input ac waveforms are sine waves and square waves.
Output Voltage Regulation
DC output voltage drops as the dc output current increases, as shown in figure 11.28b. Regulation is the
drop in dc output voltage from the ideal at a specified dc output current (assuming the ac input voltage
and input frequency are constant). The voltage drop under load is mostly reactive and is calculated as:
4N 3 + 3N 2 N
4N 2 + 3N 2 1
= Io
V reg = I o
(11.242)
6f C
6f C
Io is the load or output dc current (A)

C is the stage capacitance (F)
f is the ac frequency (Hz)
N is the number of stages
C/N is the effective output capacitance (F).
Regulation voltage droop is not a power loss in a multiplier. Power losses are primarily diode forward
conduction and rarely result in excessive multiplier temperatures at the low current loadings.
Substituting Vreg from equation (11.242):
4N 3 + 3N 2 N
(11.243)
Vout = Vo /c V reg = 2NVpk I o
6f C
Vout
- hv dc
D3
C3
+
D2
C1
C2
C1
D1
Vac
D2
C2
Half-wave series voltage multiplier features include:

a wide range of multiplication stages
low cost
uniform stress per stage on diodes and capacitors, 2Vpk and Vpk
488
C4
C3
Any one capacitor can be eliminated from the capacitor filter bank if the load is capacitive. Whether full
wave or half-wave, the series diodes prevent the output voltage from swinging negative. At high
discharges, part of the output current is also drawn via a diode, hampering rapid high current discharge.
Dual polarity output voltage is produced by connecting positive and negative multipliers as shown in the
four stage circuit is shown in figure 11.29c, where an unlimited stage number can be cascaded. Since
regulation is proportional to N, a large number of stages eventually becomes ineffective. A centre
tapped capacitor string connection reduces the maximum voltage potential with respect to ground. An
odd number of stages can be produced as well as an even number of stages. The output voltage may
be tapped at any point on the capacitor series filter bank.
D4
C4
For N stages (series capacitors) the output voltage is NVpk.
where:
D1
Vac
0V
(a)
0V
(c)
(b)
Vac
C1
-Vout
Io
C6
+
C2
C5
C3
0V
+
C6
C4
+Vout
+
C8
Io
Vac
Figure 11.29. Series half-wave voltage multipliers:

(a) two stage positive hv output voltage; (b) two stage negative hv output voltage; and
(c) four stage multiplier configured with output hv voltage.
Output Voltage Ripple

Ripple voltage is the magnitude of fluctuation in dc output voltage at a specific output current. This
assumes the ac input voltage and frequency are maintained constant. The ripple voltage in the case
where all stage capacitances, C1 through C2N, are equal, is:
N2 +N
(11.244)
Vripple = I o
2f C
The ripple grows rapidly as the number of stages increases, with N squared. A common modification to
the design is to make the stage capacitances larger at the input, with C1 = C2 = NC, C3 = C4 = (N-1)C,
and so forth. Then the ripple is:
V ripple =
Io
f C
(11.245)
For a large number of stages, N 5, the N3 term in the voltage drop equation dominates. Differentiating
the Vout equation without the negligible terms, with respect to the number of stages and equating to zero,
gives an equation for the optimum (integer) number of stages Nopt for the equal valued capacitor design:
dVout
Io
d
=
4N 3 = 0
2NV pk
6f C
dN
dN
:
V f C
N opt = int pk
(11.246)

I o

Increasing the frequency can dramatically reduce the ripple, and the voltage drop under load, which
accounts for the popularity of driving a multiplier stack with a switching power supply.
Power Electronics
489
Chapter 11

Vac
If the driving voltage Vpk and the required output voltage Vo/c are known, the optimum number of
cascaded stages is:
3V
(11.247)
N opt = int out
4V pk
C1
C3
11.4.2 Half-wave parallel multipliers
0V
Io
D4
C3
Vout
Vout
+ hv dc
- hv dc
D4
D3
C4
C4
D3
Vout
+
C2
C4
Figure 11.31. Two-stage series full-wave voltage multiplier.
Io
C3
Io
C6
+
Vac
Parallel multipliers offer the following features:

uniform stress on diodes
compact
voltage stress on capacitors increases with successive stages by Vpk
highly efficient
C5
Opposite polarity half-wave parallel voltage multipliers are shown in figure 11.29. The output capacitors
share a common connection but must have a high voltage rating. The output is usually low voltage but
with high currents. The basic charging sequence in figure 11.30 is the same as shown in figure 11.28,
where the diodes conduct in the order D1 to D4, for both output polarity versions.
490
Full-wave Output Voltage

As with the half-wave voltage multiplier, the full-wave voltage multiplier output voltage is given by:
Vo /c = 2NV pk
(11.248)
Output Voltage Regulation
DC output voltage decreases as dc output current increases. Regulation is the drop in dc output voltage
from the ideal at a specified dc output current, assuming constant ac input voltage and frequency. The
voltage drop under load is mostly reactive and is:
N 3 + 2N
N2 + 2
= Io
V reg = I o
(11.249)
6f C
6f C
D2
C1
C1
D2
C2
C2
+
D1
D1
Vac
0V
(a)
Vac
0V
(b)
Figure 11.30. Parallel half-wave voltage multipliers:

(a) two stage positive hv output voltage and (b) two stage negative hv output voltage.
where:
Io is the load or output dc current (A)

C is the stage capacitance (F)
f is the ac frequency (Hz)
N is the number of stages
C/N is the effective output capacitance (F).
Regulation voltage droop is not a power loss in a multiplier. Power losses are primarily diode forward
conduction and rarely result in excessive multiplier temperatures at the low current loadings. Substituting
equation (11.249) for Vreg:
N 3 + 2N
Vout = Vo /c V reg = 2N V pk I o
(11.250)
6f C
Output Voltage Ripple
The ripple voltage, in the case where all stage capacitances are equal, is given by:
11.4.3 Full-wave series multipliers

Increasing the frequency can dramatically reduce the ripple, and the voltage drop under load, which can
be achieved by driving a multiplier stack with a switched mode power supply.
Figure 11.31 shows a typical full-wave two-stage series voltage multiplier. It is comprised of two antiphase ac input half-wave multipliers sharing a common series output capacitor string. This effectively
doubles the number of charging cycles per second, and thus reduces the voltage drop and ripple factor.
The input is usually fed from a centre-tapped ac transformer or MOSFET H-bridge circuit.
The full-wave series voltage multiplier has the following general features:
uniform stress on components
highly efficient
high voltage
high power capability
easy to produce
increased voltage stress on capacitors with successive stages
wide range of multiplication stages
V ripple = I o
N
2f C
(11.251)
If the driving voltage Vpk and the required output voltage Vo/c are known, the optimum number of
cascaded stages is:
0.521Vout
(11.252)
N opt = int
V pk
Example 11.9: Half-wave voltage multiplier

A three-stage half-wave series voltage multiplier, is driven by a 50kHz peak voltage of 10kV, with 1nF
capacitances, and a load current of 10mA.
i.
Calculate the open circuit output voltage, regulated output voltage, ripple voltage, and
optimal number of stages for the required voltage transfer function.
ii. What is the capacitance and voltage rating of each stage of a parallel connected multiplier?
iii. What is the output ripple if progressively smaller capacitance is used?
Power Electronics
491
Chapter 11

D1
Solution
i.
(a)
In a three-stage voltage multiplier, the no load voltage Vo/c = 2NVpk = 2310kV = 60kV
4N 3 + 3N 2 N
33 + 3 32 3
= 10mA
= 1.7kV
V reg = I o
6f C
6 50kHz 1nF
iii.
D4
C4
C2
D5
C5
(b)
D6
Vpk
An equivalent parallel multiplier would require each capacitor stage to equal the total series
capacitance of the series capacitor bank.
In this case, the three capacitors in the dc bank would equal 1000pF/3 or 330pF. The parallel
equivalent would require 330pF capacitors in each stage. However, each successive stage,
from the input, would require a higher voltage capacitor, 20kV, 40kV and 60kV, respectively.
When C1 = C2 = NC = 3nF, C3 = C4 = (N-1)C = 2nF, C5 = C6 = (N-2)C = 1nF.
I
10mA
V ripple = o =
= 200V
f C 50kHz 1nF
This modification reduces the ripple voltage from 3kV to just 200V.
Vpk
C2
C1
+
D1
Vpk
C6
C3
Io
D8
D3
C3
D7
D2
Vout = 60kV - 1.7kV = 58.3kV

So the output voltage will swing between 60kV and 58.3kV, depending on the load current.
The output ripple voltage is
N2 +N
32 + 3
= 10mA
= 3kV
V ripple = I o
2f C
2 50kHz 1nF
The optimal number of stages, from equation (11.252), is
0.521 Vout
0.521 58.3kV
N opt = int
= int
=3
10kV
V pk
ii.
C1
492
D2
D3
Vout
D9
D4
D5
D6
0V
Io Vout
2Vpk
C4
(c)
C3 +
Example 11.10: Full-wave voltage multiplier

Vpk
A three-stage full-wave parallel voltage multiplier, is driven by a 50kHz peak voltage of 10kV, with 1nF
capacitances, and a load current of 10mA. Calculate the output voltage and ripple voltage.
C2 +
C1 +
Solution
In a three-stage voltage multiplier, the no load voltage Vo/c = 2NVpk = 2310kV = 60kV.
N 3 + 2N
33 + 2 3
= 10mA
= 1.1kV
Vreg = I o
6f C
6 50kHz 1nF
Full-wave rectification reduces the regulation voltage drop from 1.7kV in example 11.9, to 1.1kV. The
output voltage is increased by 600V, from 58.3kV in example 11.9, to Vout = 60kV - 1.1kV = 58.9kV.
The ripple voltage reduces from 3kV for half-wave multiplication in example 11.9, to
N
3
V ripple = I o
= 10mA
= 200V
2f C
2 50kHz 1nF
11.4.4 Three-phase voltage multipliers

The full-wave multiplier in figure 11.32 is a special case of a poly-phase (0 and 180) multiplier where
more than one multiplier share a common series stack of load capacitors. In figure 11.32, the phase
angle between phases is 0, 120, and 240, respectively. The peak voltage supplied by each secondary
winding is Vpk.
The three-phase circuit in figure 11.32b can be modified by disconnecting the centre point of the Y
configuration from ground and omitting the first capacitor in each charging stack, as shown in figure
11.32c. As a result, the open-circuit dc voltage per stage is reduced from 2Vpk to 3Vpk. The output
impedance, however, decreases dramatically, so the output voltage under load may be even higher,
depending on the load current. Therefore, this variant is preferred if the multiplier has to supply higher
currents.
Vpk
Vpk
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
D8
+
0V
D9
D10
D11
D1
Vout
C4
3NVpk
C5
Figure 11.32. Three-phase Y configuration voltage multipliers:

(a) series diode output stage; (b) grounded centre point; and (b) floating centre point.
11.5
Marx voltage generator
The Marx generator shown in figure 11.33, charges the energy storage capacitor of each stage in
parallel with a relatively low voltage (1kV to 6kV), and then discharges them by means of active switches
in series, into the load. The output voltage is then equal to the charging voltage multiplied by the number
of stages. The series inductance of this type of generators is low, as a result the rise time and fall time of
the output pulses can be less than 1s. The pulse repetition rate can be more than 20kHz for short
pulses, and the pulse length can be several ms.
Vdc
SG
L
C
C
SG
C
SG
SG
11.4.5 Series versus parallel voltage multipliers

The theory of operation is the same for both series and parallel connected voltage multipliers. Parallel
multipliers require less capacitance per cascaded stage than their series counterparts, however parallel
multipliers require higher capacitor voltage ratings on successive cascaded stages. The parallel
multiplier output is easier to RC filter in applications requiring low output ripple voltage.
Io
Figure 11.33. The hv Marx generator.
Vout
Power Electronics
493
11.6
Chapter 11
Definitions
i (t ) = 2 I n sin (n t n )
n =0
2
1
2
2
2
3
where
n =0
distortion current
harmonic current
I s = I + I + I + ...I n
2
V1 = (V12a +V12b )
v (t ) = 2V n sin (n t n )
2
I dis = I + I + ...I n
2
2
2
2
3
V1a =
circuit power factor
pf = =
cf =
crest factor
form factor
V ka =
Is
11.7
V kb =
v (t ) sin 2 kt T dt
o
V1
V rms
2
1 DFv 2
V k
=
DFv 2
k =0 1
k 1
Output pulse number
Output pulse number p is the number of pulses in the output voltage that occur during one ac input
cycle, of frequency fs. The pulse number p therefore specifies the output harmonics, which occur at p x
fs, and multiples of that frequency, mpfs, for m = 1, 2, 3, ...
p =
I o average output current

I rms rms output current
l
I
peak output current
l
Load voltage crest factor = CFv = V
Vo

Load current crest factor = CF i = I
Io
Waveform smoothness = Ripple factor = RFv =
Vo
I Ri
= FF i 2 1
Io
RF i = RFv for a resistive load

dc load power
Rectification efficiency = =
ac load power + rectifier losses
Vo I o
V rms I rms + Lossrectifier
Vrms
Irms
effective values of acV (or I ) VRi

=
average value of V (or I )
Vo
2
2
V V
= rms 2 o = FFv 2 1
similarly the current ripple factor is RF i =
v (t ) sin 2 t T dt
rms value
average value
= 12 (v an2 + v bn2 )
n =1
v (t ) cos 2 kt T dt
THDv =
Irms
The total harmonic distortion is
1 + THD 2
is
v (t ) dt
Load current form factor = FF i =
DFv =
Vs I s
Vo average output voltage

Vrms rms output voltage
Vl peak output voltage
V
Load voltage form factor = FF = rms
VRi
Distortion factor is defined as
active input power
and
V1b =
where
The average (or mean or dc) rms (or effective) values, respectively, of a waveform, are defined by
T
1
Vo = v o (t ) dt
v (t ) cos 2 t T dt
V k = (V ka2 +V kb2 )
cos 1
Vrms =
and for the k harmonic component
I
DF = k = dis
Is
I dis
total harmonic distortion THD =
I1
displacement power factor DPF = cos 1 = 1
th
total
harmonic factor
distortion factor
where
494
Waveform fundamental and harmonic rms components are define by
total current
period of input supply voltage

period of minimum order harmonic in the output V or I waveform
The pulse number p is specified in terms of

q
the number of elements in the commutation group
r
the number of parallel connected commutation groups
s
the number of series connected (phase displaced) commutating groups
Parallel connected commutation groups, r, are usually associated with (and identified by) intergroup
reactors (to reduce circulating current), with transformers where at least one secondary is effectively star
connected while another is delta connected. The rectified output voltages associated with each
transformer secondary, are connected in parallel.
Series connected commutation groups, s, are usually associated with (and identified by) transformers
where at least one secondary is effectively star while another is delta connected, with the rectified output
associated with each transformer secondary, connected in series.
q =3 r =2 s =2
p=qxrxs
p = 12
The mean rectifier output voltage Vo can be specified by
Vo = s
2V sin
For a full-wave, single-phase rectifier, r = 1, q = 2, and s = 1, whence p = 2

2
2 2V
Vo = 1
2V sin =
2
For a full-wave, three-phase rectifier, r = 1, q = 3, and s = 2, whence p = 6
3
3 2V
Vo = 2
2V sin =
(11.253)
Power Electronics
495
11.8
Chapter 11
Voltage form factor
AC-dc converter generalised equations
Alternating sinusoidal voltages

V1 = 2V sin t
V 2 = 2V sin t
.
q
2
+
sin
q
4
V rms
FFv =
=
q
Vo
sin
Vq = 2V sin t (q 1) 2q
where q is the number of phases (number of voltage sources)

On the secondary or converter side of any transformer, if the load current is assumed constant I o then
the power factor is determined by the load voltage harmonics.
Voltage form factor
FFv =
whence the voltage ripple factor is
1
2
Vo2 = FFv 2 1
RFv = V rms
V
o
Diode reverse voltage
Vl DR = 2 2V
Vl
V rms
Vo
if q is even
= 2 2V cos
2q
DR
if q is odd
For a constant load current Io, diode currents are
whence the voltage ripple factor is
1
2
Vo2 = FFv 2 1
RFv = V rms
V
ID = I o
ID =
Io
q
I D rms =
Io
q
The power factor on the secondary side of any transformer is related to the voltage ripple factor by
P
VI
1
pf = d = o o =
S qVI rms
RFv 2 + 1
On the primary side of a transformer the power factor is related to the secondary power factor, but since
the supply is assumed sinusoidal, the power factor is related to the primary current harmonics.
Relationship between current ripple factor and power factor
1 2
1
2
RFi =
I 12
I h = I rms
I1
I1
I1
1
pf =
=
I rms
RF i 2 + 1
For a constant load current Io the output power is

Pd = Vo I o
The apparent power is
S = qVI rms
The power factor on the secondary side of any transformer is
P
V I
1
pf = d = o o =
S
qVI rms
RFv 2 + 1
h =3
2V sin
Io
q
1
qV I o
2q
sin
q
The supply power factor is related to the primary power factor and is dependent of the supply
connection, star or delta, etc.
The primary side power factor is supply connection and transformer construction dependant.
Half-wave diode rectifiers [see figures 11.2, 11.11]
For two-phase half-wave p=q=2
Pulse number p=q. Pulse number is the number of sine crests in the output voltage during one input
voltage cycle. There are q phases and q diodes and each diode conducts for 2/q, with q crest (pulses)
in the output voltage
pf 1 , =
For three-phase half wave p=q=3
pf 3 , =
Mean voltage
Vo =
=
+ q
2V sin t d t
2 V sin
+ q
pf 6 , =
2 V sin t
q
2
sin
= 2V +
q
4
Normalised peak to peak ripple voltage
v p p
= 2V 2 V cos
q
Vnp p =
v p p
=
Vo
2 V sin
==
3 3
= 0.827
2
= 0.995
K s/c =
Lc
2 2V
sin
Lc
q
Commutation overlap angle
1 cos
sin
(Y conection)
The short circuit ratio (ratio actual s/c current to theoretical s/c current) is
q 2V
d t
Vo I o
3V I o
1 cos =
2 V 2 V cos
Vo I o
3V I o
For six-phase half-wave p=q=6
RMS voltage
q
V rms =
2
Vo I o 2 2
=
= 0.90
V Io
2 sin
Lc I o
2V sin
The commutation voltage drop
v com = q L I where 2Lc = Ls / c

c o
2
496
Power Electronics
497
p=q=
Isec rms
Io /2
Io /3
Io /6
Chapter 11
VlD
%Vp-p
Ks/c
pfsec
pfprim
p, q
Isec
RFv
Vo
VlD
%Vp-p
Ks/c
pfY prim
0.90V
22 V
0.157
0.636
0.90
p=q=2
Io
0.483
1.80V
22 V
0.157
2/
0.90
0.90
0.68
1.17V
6 V
0.604
1.73
0.675
0.827
p=2 q=6
Io
0.31
2.34V
6 V
0.140
6/
0.995
0.995
0.31
1.35V
22 V
0.140
0.55
0.995
K s/c =
+
FFi output = 227
V
= 13 +
1 R
.3
4
2 2
3
6 .3
I L =
V 2
+
R 3
.3
2
K s/c =
1
I 2 = I 2 I 12
I 1 h =3 h I 1 rms
I
1
pf = 1 =
I rms
1 + RFi 2
RFi =
For single phase p=2
RFi =
2
I rms
I 12
I1
1 4
2
1 4
Mean voltage
q
2V sin t d t
q
2q
=
2V sin
pf =
Diode reverse voltage
1 + RFi 2
if q is odd
2q
For a constant load current Io, diode currents are
ID =
Io
q
I D rms =
Ih =
=
1+
2 8
2
p2
2V sin I o
q
qV I o
pf =
=
2 q
sin
sin2
1
1 + RFv 2
Commutation overlap angle

1 cos =
2 2
.
sin
p
Lc I o
The commutation voltage drop
For single-phase, full-wave p=q=2
v com = q L I where 2Lc = Ls / c

c o
V I
2 2
= o o =
= 0.90
V Io
For three-phase full-wave p=2 q=6

6
pf 3
2V sin
which is 2 larger than the half-wave case.
pf 1
For p-pulse
Io
RFv =
Pd
VI
= o o =
S
qVI rms
= 0.483
Io
V I
= o o =
3VI o
= 0.90
I1
I1
=
for k 1, 2, 3...
h kp 1
The current and power factor are
2q
2 8
if q is even
VlDR = 2 2V cos
ID = I o
8
The rms of the fundamental component is
1 4
I1 =
Io
2
The rms of the harmonic components are
if q is even
if q is odd
VlDR = 2 2V
Io
+ q
Pulse number
I rms = I o
q
for q = 2
I o2
p=q
p=2q
Relationship between current ripple factor and supply side power factor on the primary
q phases and 2q diodes
Vo =
q
2 sin
which is smaller by a factor than the half-wave case.
V
2 + .3
1 R 9 6
Time domain half-wave single phase R-L-E load
E Z
t
E
2V
i o (t ) = +
sin (t ) e tan
sin (t ) +
R
Z
R
2V
2 1
(
)
cos ( kq t )
v o (t ) = Vo 1 + 2 2
k =1 k q 1
Full-wave diode bridge rectifiers - star [see figures 11.8, 11.13]

I LY =
pf =
498
Vo
RFv
For three-phase resistive load, with transformer turns ratio 1:N
2V 3 3
V
Io =
I o rms = 13 + 4.3
R 2
R
I p
2V I o
2
3V
I
3 o
For p=q=2, only

1 cos =
= 0.955
2Lc I o
v com = 4 L I
c o
2V
pfsec
Power Electronics
499
Chapter 11
Load characteristics
500
Reading list
Io
I o rms
=
Io
Current Form Factor = FF I =
q
Io
Dewan, S. B. and Straughen, A., Power Semiconductor Circuits, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1975.
Sen, P.C., Power Electronics, McGraw-Hill, 5th reprint, 1992.
Full-wave diode bridge rectifiers delta
Shepherd, W et al. Power Electronics and motor control, Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition 1995.
Same expression as for delta connected secondary, except supply voltages V are replaced by
http://www.ipes.ethz.ch/
V
2 sin
http://www.celnav.de/hv/hv9.htm
http://www.physiqueindustrie.com/custom_converter.php
For example in three-phase, V is replaced by V/3, that is, V L L =

The mean output voltage is
2q
2q
2V sin =
Vo =
2 sin
q
sin
q
=
q
3V L N =
2V
3V phase
http://www.voltagemultipliers.com/html/multdesign.html
Problems
Pulse number
p=q
if q is even
p=2q if q is odd
diode reverse voltage and currents
2V
if q is even
VlDR =
sin
11.1.
Derive equations (11.35) and (11.36) for the circuit in figure 11.6.
11.2.
Assuming a constant load current, derive an expression for the mean and rms device current
and the device form factor, for the circuits in figure 11.8.
11.3.
The single-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier is operated from the 415 V line-to-line voltage,
50 Hz supply, with a series load of 10 + 5 mH + 40 V battery. Derive the load voltage
expression in terms of a Fourier series. Determine the rms value of the fundamental of the load
current.
11.4.
A single-phase uncontrolled rectifier has a 24 resistive load a 240V ac 50Hz supply. Determine
the average, peak and rms current and peak reverse voltage across each rectifier diode for
i.
an isolating transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio
ii.
centre-tapped transformer with turns ratio 1:1:1.
11.5.
A single-phase bridge rectifier has an R-L of R = 20 and L = 50mH and a 240V ac 50Hz
source voltage. Determine:
i.
the average and rms currents of the diodes and load
ii.
rms and average 50Hz source currents
iii.
the power absorbed by the load
iv.
the supply power factor
11.6.
A single-phase, full-wave uncontrolled rectifier has a back emf Eb in its load. If the supply is
240Vac 50Hz and the series load is R = 20, L = 50mH, and Eb = 120V dc, determine:
i.
the power absorbed by the dc source in the load
ii.
the power absorbed by the load resistor
iii.
the power delivered from the ac source
iv.
the ac source power factor
v.
the peak-to-peak load current variation if only the first ac term of the Fourier
series for the load current is considered.
11.7.
A three-phase uncontrolled rectifier is supplied from a 50Hz 415V ac line-to-line voltage source.
If the rectifier load is a 75 resistor, determine
i.
the average load current
ii.
the rms load current
iii.
the rms source current
iv.
the supply power factor.
11.8.
A three-phase uncontrolled rectifier is supplied from a 50Hz 415V ac line-to-line voltage source.
If the rectifier load is a series R-L circuit where R = 10 and L = 100mH, determine:
i.
the average and rms load currents
ii.
the average and rms diode currents
iii.
the rms source and power current
iv.
the supply power factor.
VlDR =
2V
if q is odd
2q
I D = Io /q
I D rms = I o / q
2 sin
I D = I o
rms current and power factor
I rms even =
I rms odd =
Io
q
2V I o
Vo I o
2 2
=
=
qVI rms
qV I o
.
pf q even =
2
2
I o q 1
q
2
pf q odd =
Vo I o
q
2 2
=
qVI rms
q 2 1
Commutation angle and voltage

1 cos =
LI o
v com = q L I
c o
2
1
v com = q L I 1
c o
q
2V
LI o
1
1
q
2V
.
1 cos =
q even
q odd
q
q 1
sin
K s/c even = sin
K s/c odd =
For single-phase resistive load, with transformer turns ratio 1:N

2V 4
2V
Io =
I o rms =
.
FFi output =
RFv = FF 2 1 =
2 2
.
Ip =
N
1
I sec =
N
1
2V
pf =
RF 2 + 1
2
8
2 2
.
Power Electronics
501
Chapter 11
Table 11.5. Characteristics of single-phase rectifier circuits with a resistive load

Table 11.7. Characteristics of rectifiers with an L-C output filter
P = I o2R
Vo = I o R
=
I o2
I o2 rms
Table 11.6. Characteristics of three-phase rectifier circuits with a resistive load
Three-phase double wye with a centre tapped inter-phase transformer.
502

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Chapter 11

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Chapter 11

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

The ac current in the load is

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters

The load voltage harmonics are

Single-phase uncontrolled converter circuits ac rectifiers

11.1.1 Half-wave circuit with a resistive load, R

Figure 11.1. Single-phase half-wave rectifiers:

The load average and rms voltages are

The total power delivered to the R-E load is

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

Half-wave rectifier with resistive and back emf load

2 230V cos17.9 = 158.5V

i. The peak supply and peak load voltage is 2V = 2230 = 325.3V.

= 0.8 5.85A + 0.025 10.22 = 7.3W

11.1.3 Single-phase half-wave rectifier circuit with an R-L load

+ sin e-t /tan

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

while the mean output voltage Vo is given by

The rms output (load) voltage and current are given by

Figure 11.2. Half-wave rectifier with an R-L load:

Z = (R2 + 2 L2) (ohms)

11.1.4 Half-wave rectifier circuit with an R load and capacitor filter

11.1.3ii - Load current zero slope criterion

Since is = 0 when t = , - = . That is

11.1.3i Inductor equal voltage area criterion

which has a mean current value of 2 V/L.

Solving for the source current is

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

Figure 11.4. Single-phase half-wave rectifier:

For the period t 2 +

Half-wave rectifier with source resistance

the mean value of the load voltage, Vo

the diode average and peak currents, ID, I D

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

11.1.5 Half-wave circuit with an R-L load and freewheel diode

The average diode current is given by

The rms value of the load circuit voltage v0 is given by

Example 11.3: Half-wave rectifier with load freewheel diode

From equation (11.30) the load rms voltage is

= 102 + (2 50Hz 0.05)2

iii. The load impedance is characterised by

From equation (11.29), the mean output voltage is given by

an expression for the current hence the current extinction angle

ii. The mean output current, equation (11.29), is

and when the freewheel diode conducts

If the freewheel diode is removed from across the load, determine

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

Naturally Commutating AC to DC Converters- Uncontrolled Rectifiers

see equation (11.38) for first two terms

The freewheel diode rms current is

+ sin e-t /tan

+ 0.841 e-t /1.57

= 18.23 sin (t - 1.0) + 0.841 e-t /1.57

vi. The input ac supply power factor is

circuit without freewheel diode

= 12.682 8.832 = 9.09A

circuit with freewheel diode

11.1.6 Single-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit with a resistive load, R

The power dissipated in the load resistance is therefore

The rms load current is

The ac current in the load is

viii. The average load voltage from equation (11.19) is

(1 cos 4.08) = 86.0V

RFv VRI /Vo = FFv 2 1