POSTMODERNISM IN ENGLISH LITERATURE

Postmodernismisacomplicatedterm,orsetofideas,onethathasonlyemergedasan
areaofacademicstudysincethemid1980s.Postmodernismishardtodefine,becauseitisa
conceptthatappearsinawidevarietyofdisciplinesorareasofstudy,includingart,
architecture,music,film,literature,sociology,communications,fashion,andtechnology.It's
hardtolocateittemporallyorhistorically,becauseit'snotclearexactlywhenpostmodernism
begins.
Perhapstheeasiestwaytostartthinkingaboutpostmodernismisbythinkingabout
modernism,themovementfromwhichpostmodernismseemstogroworemerge.Modernism
hastwofacets,ortwomodesofdefinition,bothofwhicharerelevanttounderstanding
postmodernism.
Thefirstfacetordefinitionofmodernismcomesfromtheaestheticmovementbroadly
labeled"modernism."Thismovementisroughlycoterminouswithtwentiethcentury.
Modernismisthemovementinvisualarts,music,literature,anddramawhichrejectedthe
oldVictorianstandardsofhowartshouldbemade,consumed,andwhatitshouldmean.In
theperiodof"highmodernism,"fromaround1910to1930,themajorfiguresofmodernism
literaturehelpedradicallytoredefinewhatpoetryandfictioncouldbeanddo:figureslike
Woolf,Joyce,Eliot,Pound,Stevens,Proust,Mallarme,Kafka,andRilkeareconsideredthe
foundersoftwentiethcenturymodernism.
Fromaliteraryperspective,themaincharacteristicsofmodernisminclude:
1.anemphasisonimpressionismandsubjectivityinwriting(andinvisualartsaswell);an
emphasisonHOWseeing(orreadingorperceptionitself)takesplace,ratherthanonWHAT
isperceived.Anexampleofthiswouldbestreamofconsciousnesswriting.
2.amovementawayfromtheapparentobjectivityprovidedbyomniscientthirdperson
narrators,fixednarrativepointsofview,andclearcutmoralpositions.Faulkner'smultiply
narratedstoriesareanexampleofthisaspectofmodernism.
3.ablurringofdistinctionsbetweengenres,sothatpoetryseemsmoredocumentary(asin
T.S.EliotorE.ECummings)andproseseemsmorepoetic(asinWoolforJoyce).
4.anemphasisonfragmentedforms,discontinuousnarratives,andrandomseemingcollages
ofdifferentmaterials.
5.atendencytowardreflexivity,orselfconsciousness,abouttheproductionoftheworkof
art,sothateachpiececallsattentiontoitsownstatusasaproduction,assomething
constructedandconsumedinparticularways.
6.arejectionofelaborateformalaestheticsinfavorofminimalistdesigns(asinthepoetryof
WilliamCarlosWilliams)andarejection,inlargepart,offormalaesthetictheories,infavor
ofspontaneityanddiscoveryincreation.
7.Arejectionofthedistinctionbetween"high"and"low"orpopularculture,bothinchoice

ofmaterialsusedtoproduceartandinmethodsofdisplaying,distributing,andconsuming
art.
Postmodernism,likemodernism,followsmostofthesesameideas,rejectingboundaries
betweenhighandlowformsofart,rejectingrigidgenredistinctions,emphasizingpastiche,
parody,bricolage,irony,andplayfulness.Postmodernart(andthought)favorsreflexivityand
selfconsciousness,fragmentationanddiscontinuity(especiallyinnarrativestructures),
ambiguity,simultaneity,andanemphasisonthedestructured,decentered,dehumanized
subject.
Whilepostmodernismseemsverymuchlikemodernismintheseways,itdiffersfrom
modernisminitsattitudetowardalotofthesetrends.Modernism,forexample,tendsto
presentafragmentedviewofhumansubjectivityandhistory(TheWasteland,forinstance,or
Woolf'sTotheLighthouse),butpresentsthatfragmentationassomethingtragic,something
tobelamentedandmournedasaloss.Manymodernistworkstrytoupholdtheideathat
worksofartcanprovidetheunity,coherence,andmeaningwhichhasbeenlostinmostof
modernlife;artwilldowhatotherhumaninstitutionsfailtodo.Postmodernism,incontrast,
doesn'tlamenttheideaoffragmentation,provisionality,orincoherence,butrathercelebrates
that.Theworldismeaningless?Let'snotpretendthatartcanmakemeaningthen,let'sjust
playwithnonsense.
Anotherwayoflookingattherelationbetweenmodernismandpostmodernismhelpsto
clarifysomeofthesedistinctions.AccordingtoFredericJameson,modernismand
postmodernismareculturalformationswhichaccompanyparticularstagesofcapitalism.
Jamesonoutlinesthreeprimaryphasesofcapitalismwhichdictateparticularcultural
practices(includingwhatkindofartandliteratureisproduced).Thefirstismarket
capitalism,whichoccurredintheeighteenththroughthelatenineteenthcenturiesinWestern
Europe,England,andtheUnitedStates(andalltheirspheresofinfluence).Thisfirstphaseis
associatedwithparticulartechnologicaldevelopments,namely,thesteamdrivenmotor,and
withaparticularkindofaesthetics,namely,realism.Thesecondphaseoccurredfromthelate
nineteenthcenturyuntilthemidtwentiethcentury(aboutWWII);thisphase,monopoly
capitalism,isassociatedwithelectricandinternalcombustionmotors,andwithmodernism.
Thethird,thephasewe'reinnow,ismultinationalorconsumercapitalism(withtheemphasis
placedonmarketing,selling,andconsumingcommodities,notonproducingthem),
associatedwithnuclearandelectronictechnologies,andcorrelatedwithpostmodernism.
thesecondfacet,ordefinition,ofpostmodernismcomesmorefromhistoryandsociology
thanfromliteratureorarthistory.Thisapproachdefinespostmodernismasthenameofan
entiresocialformation,orsetofsocial/historicalattitudes;moreprecisely,thisapproach
contrasts"postmodernity"with"modernity,"ratherthan"postmodernism"with"modernism."
"Modernism"generallyreferstothebroadaestheticmovementsofthetwentiethcentury;
"modernity"referstoasetofphilosophical,political,andethicalideaswhichprovidethe
basisfortheaestheticaspectofmodernism."Modernity"isolderthan"modernism;"thelabel
"modern,"firstarticulatedinnineteenthcenturysociology,wasmeanttodistinguishthe
presenterafromthepreviousone,whichwaslabeled"antiquity."Scholarsarealways
debatingwhenexactlythe"modern"periodbegan,andhowtodistinguishbetweenwhatis
modernandwhatisnotmodern;itseemslikethemodernperiodstartsearlierandearlier

everytimehistorianslookatit.Butgenerally,the"modern"eraisassociatedwiththe
EuropeanEnlightenment,whichbeginsroughlyinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury.
(OtherhistorianstraceelementsofenlightenmentthoughtbacktotheRenaissanceorearlier,
andonecouldarguethatEnlightenmentthinkingbeginswiththeeighteenthcentury.
Modernityisfundamentallyaboutorder:aboutrationalityandrationalization,creatingorder
outofchaos.Theassumptionisthatcreatingmorerationalityisconducivetocreatingmore
order,andthatthemoreorderedasocietyis,thebetteritwillfunction(themorerationallyit
willfunction).Becausemodernityisaboutthepursuitofeverincreasinglevelsoforder,
modernsocietiesconstantlyareonguardagainstanythingandeverythinglabeledas
"disorder,"whichmightdisruptorder.Thusmodernsocietiesrelyoncontinuallyestablishing
abinaryoppositionbetween"order"and"disorder,"sothattheycanassertthesuperiorityof
"order."Buttodothis,theyhavetohavethingsthatrepresent"disorder"modernsocieties
thuscontinuallyhavetocreate/construct"disorder."Inwesternculture,thisdisorderbecomes
"theother"definedinrelationtootherbinaryoppositions.Thusanythingnonwhite,non
male,nonheterosexual,nonhygienic,nonrational,(etc.)becomespartof"disorder,"andhas
tobeeliminatedfromtheordered,rationalmodernsociety.
Inmanyways,postmodernartistsandtheoristscontinuethesortsofexperimentationthatwe
canalsofindinmodernistworks,includingtheuseofselfconsciousness,parody,irony,
fragmentation,genericmixing,ambiguity,simultaneity,andthebreakdownbetweenhighand
lowformsofexpression.Inthisway,postmodernartisticformscanbeseenasanextension
ofmodernistexperimentation.However,othersprefertorepresentthemoveinto
postmodernismasamoreradicalbreak,onethatisaresultofnewwaysofrepresentingthe
worldincludingtelevision,film(especiallyaftertheintroductionofcolorandsound),andthe
computer.Manydatepostmodernityfromthesixtieswhenwewitnessedtheriseof
postmodernarchitecture.
Someofthethingsthatdistinguishpostmodernaestheticworkfrommodernistworkareas
follows:

1)Extremeselfreflexivity
Postmoderniststendtotakethisevenfurtherthanthemodernistsbutinawaythattendsoften
tobemoreplayful,evenirreverant(asinLichtenstein's"Masterpiece").Thissameself
reflexivitycanbefoundeverywhereinpopculture,forexamplethewaytheScreamseriesof
movieshascharactersdebatingthegenericrulesbehindthehorrorfilm.Inmodernism,self
reflexivitytendedtobeusedby"high"artistsindifficultworks(eg.Picasso'spainting).In
postmodernism,selfreflexivestrategiescanbefoundinbothhighartandeverythingfrom
SeinfeldtoMTV.Inpostmodernarchitecture,thiseffectisachievedbykeepingvisible
internalstructuresandengineeringelements(pipes,supportbeams,buildingmaterials,etc.).
Forexample,FrankGehry'spostmodernNationaleNederlandenBuilding,whichplayswith
structuralformsbutinadecidedlyhumorousway(whichhasledtothenicknameforthe
building,FredandGinger,sincethetwostructuresclearlymaleandfemaleappeartobe
dancingaroundthecorner).

2)Ironyandparody

Connectedtotheformerpoint,isthetendencyofpostmodernartists,theorists,andcultureto
beplayfulorparodic.(WarholandLichtensteinare,again,goodexamples.)Popcultureand
mediaadvertisingaboundwithexamples;indeed,showsorfilmswilloftenstepoutsideof
mimeticrepresentationaltogetherinordertoparodythemselvesinmidstride.

3)Abreakdownbetweenhighandlowculturalforms.
Whereassomemodernistsexperimentedwiththissamebreakdown,eventhemoderniststhat
playedwithpopforms(eg.JoyceandEliot)tendedtobeextremelydifficulttofollowintheir
experimentations.Postmodernistsbycontrastoftenemploypopandmassproducedobjectsin
moreimmediatelyunderstandableways,eveniftheirgoalsarestilloftencomplex(eg.Andy
Warhol'scommentaryonmassproductionandonthecommercialaspectsof"high"art
throughtheexactreproductionofasetofCambell'sSoupboxes).

4)Retro
Postmodernistsandpostmodernculturetendtobeespeciallyfascinatedwithstylesand
fashionsfromthepast,whichtheywilloftenusecompletelyoutoftheiroriginalcontext.
Postmodernarchitectsforexamplewilljuxtaposebaroque,medieval,andmodernelementsin
thesameroomorbuilding.Inpopculture,thinkoftheendlesslyrecycledtvshowsofthepast
thatarethengivennewlifeonthebigscreen(ScoobyDoo,Charlie'sAngels,andsoon).
JamesonandBaudrillardtendtoreadthistendencyasasymptomofourlossofconnection
withhistoricaltemporality.

5)Aquestioningofgrandnarratives
Lyotardseesthebreakdownofthenarrativesthatformerlylegitimizedthestatusquoasan
importantaspectofthepostmoderncondition.Ofcourse,modernistsalsoquestionedsuch
traditionalconceptsaslaw,religion,subjectivity,andnationhood;whatappearstodistinguish
postmodernityisthatsuchquestioningisnolongerparticularlyassociatedwithanavant
gardeintelligentsia.Postmodernartistswillemploypopandmasscultureintheircritiques
andpopcultureitselftendstoplaywithtraditionalconceptsoftemporality,religion,and
subjectivity.

6)Visualityandthesimulacrumvs.temporality
Giventhepredominanceofvisualmedia(tv,film,mediaadvertising,thecomputer),both
postmodernartandpostmodernculturegravitatetowardsvisual(ofteneventwodimensional)
forms,asinthe"cartoons"ofRoyLichtenstein.Agoodexampleofthis,andofthe
breakdownbetween"high"and"low"forms,isArtSpiegelman'sMaus,aPulitzerprize
winningrenditionofVladekSpiegelman'sexperiencesintheHolocaust,whichArt(hisson)
choosestopresentthroughthemediumofcomicsorwhatisnowcommonlyreferredtoasthe
"graphicnovel."Anothersymptomofthistendencyisageneralbreakdowninnarrative
linearityandtemporality.ManypointtothestyleofMTVvideosasagoodexample.Asa
result,Baudrillardandothershaveargued(forexample,throughthenotionofthe
simulacrum)thatwehavelostallconnectiontorealityorhistory.Thistheorymayhelpto
explainwhywearesofascinatedwithrealitytelevision.Popculturealsokeepscomingback

totheideathatthelineseparatingrealityandrepresentationhasbrokendown(WagtheDog,
DarkCity,theMatrix,theTrumanShow,etc.).

7)Latecapitalism
Thereisalsoageneralsensethattheworldhasbeensotakenoverbythevaluesofcapitalist
acqusitionthatalternativesnolongerexist.Onesymptomofthisfearisthepredominanceof
paranoianarrativesinpopculture(Bladerunner,XFiles,theMatrix,MinorityReport).This
fearis,ofcourse,aidedbyadvancementsintechnology,especiallysurveillancetechnology,
whichcreatesthesensethatwearealwaysbeingwatched.

8)Disorientation
MTVcultureis,again,sometimescitedasanexampleasispostmodernarchitecture,which
attemptstodisorientthesubjectenteringitsspace.Anotherexamplemaybethepopularityof
filmsthatseektodisorienttheviewercompletelythroughtherevelationofatruththat
changeseverythingthatcamebefore(theSixthSense,theOthers,Unbreakable,theMatrix).

PostmodernCultureor"Postmodernity"
Ourcurrentperiodinhistoryhasbeencalledbymanythepostmodernage(or
"postmodernity")andmanycontemporarycriticsareunderstandablyinterestedinmaking
senseofthetimeinwhichtheylive.Althoughanadmirableendeavor,suchcriticsinevitably
runintodifficultiesgiventhesheercomplexityoflivinginhistory:wedonotyetknowwhich
elementsinourculturewillwinoutandwedonotalwaysrecognizethesubtlebutinsistent
waysthatchangesinoursocietyaffectourwaysofthinkingandbeingintheworld.One
symptomofthepresent'scomplexityisjusthowdividedcriticsareonthequestionof
postmodernculture,withanumberofcriticscelebratingourliberationandanumberof
otherslamentingourenslavement.Inordertokeepclearthedistinctionbetween
postmodernityandpostmodernism,eachsetofmodulesincludesaninitialmoduleonhow
eachcriticmakessenseofourcurrentpostmodernage(or"postmodernity").

PostmodernTheoryor"Postmodernism"
"Postmodernism"alsoreferstotheaesthetic/culturalproductsthattreatandoften
critiqueaspectsof"postmodernity."Themodulesintroducesomeoftheimportantconcepts
thathavebeenintroducedbypostmodernisttheoriststosupplantortemperthevaluesof
traditionalhumanism.Givenhowthe"postmodern"referstoourentirehistoricalperiod,
someofthetheoristswhohaveinfluencedpostmoderntheoryareincludednotintheModules
butinothersectionsofthisGuidetoTheory.JudithButler'suseoftheconceptof
performativityhasbeenextremelyinfluentialonpostmodernism.

Postmodernismisabroadrangeof:
a.Responsestomodernism,refusalsofsomeofitstotalizingpremisesandeffects,andofits
implicitofexplicitdistinctionbetween,,high,,cultureandcommonlylivedlife
b.Responses to such things as a world lived under nuclear threat and threat to the

geosphere, to a world of faster communication, mass mediated reality, greater diversity

of cultures and mores and a consequent pluralism
c. Acknowledgments of and in some senses struggles against a world in which, under a
spreading technological capitalism, all things are are commodified and fetishized (made
the object of desire), and in which genuine experience has been replaced by simulation
and spectacle
d. Reconceptualizations of society, history and the self as cultural constructs, hence as
rhetorical constructs

Postmodern literature
is literature characterised by heavy reliance on techniques like fragmentation,
paradox and questionable narrators and often is defined as a style or trend which
emerged in the post World War II Era. Postmodern works are seen asa reaction against
Enlightenment thinking and Modernist approaches to literature. Postmodern literature,
like Postmodernism as a whole is tending to resist definition or classification as a
movement. Postmodern literature is commonly defined in relation to a precursor. For
instance post-modern literary work tends not to conclude with the neatly tied - up
ending as is often found in modernist literature (Woolf, Joyce, Faulkner) but often
parodies it. Authors are trying to celebrate chance over craft. Another characteristic of
postmodern literature is the questioning of distinctions between high and low culture
through the use of pastiche, the combination of subjects and genres not previously
deemed fit for literature.
Both modern and postmodern literature represent a break from 19th century
realism. In character development both modern and postmodern literature explore
subjectivism turning from external reality to examine inner states of consciousness from
the works of Virginia Woolf and James Joyce or explorative poems like The Waste Land
by T.S Eliot. Both literatures explore fragmentariness in narrative and character
construction. Modernist literature sees fragmentation and extreme subjectivity as an
existential crisis, a problem that must be solved and the artist is often cited as the one
to solve it. Postmodernists demonstrate that the chaos is insurmountable, the artist is
impotent and the only recourse against ,,ruin,, is to play within chaos. Playfulness is
present in many modernist works and seem very similar to postmodern works but with
postmodernism playfulness becomes central and the actual achievement of order and
meaning becomes unlikely.
As with all stylistic eras, there is no definite date which tells us when was the rise
and fall of postmodernisms popularity. As the rough boundary for the start of
postmodernism is often taken the year when Irish novelist James Joyce and English
novelist Virginia Woolf died, the year of 1941. Others argue that the beginning of
postmodern literature could be marked by significant publications or literary events. For
example the first publication of John Hawkes ,, The Cannibal,, in 1949, ,, Waiting for
Goddot,, in 1955, the first publication of ,,Howl,, in 1956. Although many postmodern

works have developed out of modernism, modernism is characterised by an

epistemological dominant while postmodernism are primarily concerned with questions of
ontology. Although postmodern literature doesnt include everything written in the
postmodern period several post - war developments have significant similarities, like the
Theatre of Absurd, the Beat Generation, and Magic Realism. Or some key figures like
Samuel Beckett, William S. Burrpughs, Gabriel Marquez are cited as significant
contributors to the postmodern aesthetic.
The term Theatre of Absurd was describing a tendency in theatre in 1950s and is related
to Albert Camuss concept of the absurd. The most important figure as both Absurdist
and postmodern is Samuel Beckett. His work is often seen as marking the shift from
modernism to postmodernism in literature. He was considered as one of the fathers of
the postmodern movement in fiction which has continued undermining the ideas of
logical coherence in narration.
The Beat Generation was the youth of America during the materialistic 1950s. It includes
several groups of post - war American writers who have occasionally been referred to as
the postmoderns. One writer more often appeared on this list of postmodern writers and
his name is William S. Burroughs. His work ,,Naked Lunch,, published in Paris in 1959
and America in 1961 is by some considered the first truly postmodern novel because it is
fragmentary with no central narrative arc, it is full of parody, paradox and playfulness.
He is also noted for the creation of the ,, cut up ,, technique in which words and phrases
are cut from a newspaper or other publication and then rearranged to form a new
message.
Magic Realism is a technique popular among Latin American writers in which
supernatural elements are treated as mundane. This technique has its roots in traditional
storytelling it was a centre piece of the Latin American boom a movement coterminous
with postmodernism. Some of the major figures of the ,,Boom,, and Magic Realism are
Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Julio Cortazar and are sometime listed as postmodernists.

Postmodernism in literature doesnt represent organised movement with leaders or

central figures so we cannot say if it is ended or when it will end. It reached its peak in
the 60s and 70s with the publication of some very important woks, Catch 22, Lost in the
Funhouse, Slaughterhouse Five, Gravitys Rainbow,

Common Themes and Techniques used in

Postmodernism

Irony, playfulness, black humour - although the idea of employing these in

literature didnt start with the postmodernists ( the modernists were often playful and
ironic), they became central features in many postmodern works. Postmodern novelists
labeled as black humorists were John Barth, Joseph Heller, Bruce Jay Friedman.
Intertextuality - is actually the relationship between one text (a novel) and
another or one text within the interwoven fabric of literary history. Intertextuality in
postmodern literature can be a reference or parallel to another literary work, an
extended discussion of a work or the adoption of a style. In postmodern literature this
manifests as references to fairy tales. example of intertextuality which influenced later
postmodernists is Pierre Menard Author of the Quixote by Jorge Louis Borges, a story

with significant references to Don Quixote which is also a good example of intertextuality
with its references to Medieval romances. Another examples of intertextuality in
postmodernism are The Sot - Weed Factor by John Barth, The Name of the Rose by
Umberto Eco.
Pastiche - pastiche means ,, to combine,, or ,,to paste,, together multiple
elements. In postmodernist literature this can be an homage to or a parody of past
styles. It can be a combination of multiple genres to create a unique narrative or to
comment on situations in postmodernity.
Metafiction - is writing about writing or ,, foregrounding the apparatus ,,.
Metafiction is often employed to undermine the authority of the author, to advance the
story in a unique way or to comment of the act of the storytelling.
Fabulation - is a term sometimes used interchangeably with metafiction and
relates to pastiche and Magic Realism. It is a rejection of realism which embraces the
notion that literature is a created work and not bound by notions of mimesis and
verisimilitude. Fabulation challenges some traditional notions of literaturethe traditional
structure of a novel or role of the narrator, for exampleand integrates other traditional
notions of storytelling, including fantastical elements, such as magic and myth, or
elements from popular genres such as science fiction. The term was coined by Robert
Scholes in his book The Fabulators.
Poioumena - Poiuomenon (plural: poioumena from Ancient Greek meaning
product, a term coined by Alastair Fowler to ever to a specific type of metafiction in
which the story is about the process of creation. It offers opportunities to explore the
boundaries of fiction and reality - the limits of narrative truth.
Temporal Distortion - a common technique in modernist fiction: fragmentation
and non-linear narratives are central features in both modern and postmodern literature.
In postmodern fiction was used in a variety of ways often for the sake of irony.
Magic Realism - may be literary work marked by the use of still, sharply
defined, smoothly painted images of figures and objects depicted in a surrealistic
manner. The themes and subjects are often imaginary, somewhat outlandish and
fantastic and with a certain dream-like quality. Some of the characteristic features of this
kind of fiction are the mingling and juxtaposition of the realistic and the fantastic or
bizarre, skillful time shifts, convoluted and even labyrinthine narratives and plots,
miscellaneous use of dreams, myths and fairy stories, expressionistic and even
surrealistic description, arcane erudition, the element of surprise or abrupt shock, the
horrific and the inexplicable. Colombian novelist Gabriel Garcia Marquez is also regarded
as a notable exponent of this kind of fictionespecially his novel One Hundred Years of
Sollitude.
Paranoia - The sense of paranoia or the belief that there is an ordering system
behind the chaos of the world is another recurring postmodern theme. For the
postmodernists, no ordering is extremely dependant upon the subject so paranoia often
straddles the line between delusion and brilliant insight.
Fragmentation - another important aspect of postmodern literature. Various
elements, concerning plot, characters, themes, imagery and factual references are
fragmented and dispersed throughout the entire work. In general, there is an interrupted
sequence of events, character development and action which can at first glance look
modern, it purports, however, to depict a metaphysically unfounded, chaotic universe.
Fragmentation can occur in language, sentence structure or grammar.

Conclusion - Different perspectives

John Barth , wrote an influential essay in 1967 ,, The Literature of Exhaustion,,

where he stated about the need for the new era in literature after modernism had
exhausted itself. Many of the well - known postmodern novels deal with WWII, one of the
most famous was Joseph Hellers Catch 22. The antiwar and anti government feelings in
the book belong to the period following the WWII. The general disintegration of belief
took place then and it affected Catch 22 in that the form of the novel almost
disintegrated. The novelist Umberto Eco explains his idea of postmodernism as a kind of
double coding and as a transhistorical phenomenon in his book ,, The Name of the
Rose,,. Barbara Cartland thinks that postmodernism is not a trend to be chronologically
defined but as a ideal category or a way of operating.
Postmodernism ... can be used at least in two ways firstly, to give a label to the period
after 1968 and secondly to describe the highly experimental literature produced by
writers beginning with Lawrence Durrell and John Fowles in the 1960.
Examples of postmodern literature:

Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes