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Word count: 750 words

The evolutionary success of insects is largely due to their exoskeleton. This external
skeleton consists of three tagmata (body sections): head, thorax and abdomen. The
extraordinary diversity of insect form and function has evolved upon this simple body
plan (Hickman, 2011). However, the exoskeleton confers advantages and disadvantages
upon growth, movement and survival.
The plasticity of the exoskeleton has enabled insects to colonise almost all habitats on
earth (Lattin, 1976). This plasticity, or variation in segment shape, size and function
while the simple body plan of three tagmata remains constant, has enabled many
specialised appendages and sensory organs to develop. The evolution of insect wings 250
million years before birds wings was a great evolutionary leap in terms of the aerial
niche being previously inaccessible for colonisation (Lattin, 1976). Wings, which are
extensions of the exoskeleton (Hickman, 2011), allowed insects to fly to new areas to
find food and avoid predators. Variation in the size, shape and function of wings, from
flies with thin, membranous wings solely for flying, to beetles with rigid forewings to
protect the hindwings, emerged by adaptive radiation (Mayhew, 2007). Structural
modifications of legs also occurred from those primarily for walking (ants), to legs for
collecting pollen (honeybees) (Hickman, 2011). As insects moved into new niches,
individuals specialised on particular foods, and adaptive radiation of mouthparts (formed
from the hardened cuticle of the exoskeleton) occurred (Mayhew, 2007). By natural
selection herbivorous insects evolved chewing mouthparts, predatory insects developed
sharp mouthparts for piercing prey, and parasitic insects (mosquitoes) specialised by
elongating mouthparts to form a needle to suck blood (Hickman, 2011). Specialised parts
of the exoskeleton are also involved in vision (compound eyes), hearing and smell
(antennae) (Hickman, 2011). This functional flexibility of the exoskeleton has enabled
the colonisation of many different habitats.
The insect exoskeleton confers advantages and disadvantages on the growth of the insect.
Metamorphosis, which is the marked change in body form during development from a
larval insect to an adult (Lattin, 1976), allows the life stages to grow without competition
from the other stages (Mayhew, 2007). This successful strategy enhances the insects
ability to grow and reproduce. However, the exoskeleton is non-living and rigid
(Hickman, 2011), qualities which prevent insects from growing incrementally, and they
must instead undergo a series of moults (Knox et al., 2005). Moulting is an energetically
expensive process whereby the insect outgrows its old exoskeleton and replaces it with a
new, larger exoskeleton (Hickman, 2011). The insect is highly vulnerable during the
moult as it is susceptible to predators (Lattin, 1976). The presence of an exoskeleton
therefore both positively and negatively affects growth.
Insect movement is influenced by the exoskeleton. The external skeleton is composed of
a number of plates which are joined by supple hinged joints (Hickman, 2011). This plate
and hinge mechanism not only provides structure to the insects body, but also allows
movement and flexibility which would otherwise be lacking if the hard exoskeleton were
continuous across the body of the insect. Although the stiffness of the exoskeleton

confers support and protection to the internal organs of the insect (Ritcher, 1976), this
rigidity comes at a cost. The exoskeleton is heavy, and the only feasible way of carrying
this load is if the body size of the insect is small. Indeed, while insects range in size from
0.2mm to 30cm (Lattin, 1976), the majority are less than 2.5cm in length (Hickman,
2011). However, while the small size of insects may limit their capability to colonise new
areas, it allows them to utilise water and wind currents for distribution (Hickman, 2011).
It can therefore be concluded that the exoskeletal properties of rigidity and heaviness
both limit and enhance movement.
The external skeleton of insects provides multiple benefits for increasing an insects
chances of survival. Because the hard and rigid exoskeleton is difficult to penetrate, it
protects insects from attacks by predators (Ritcher, 1976). Protection can also be more
subtle: exoskeletons come in varied shapes and colours for camouflage in katydids, while
the bright warning colouration in butterflies advertises their unpalatability (Hickman,
2011). The waxy epicuticle of the exoskeleton also enhances survival as it is permeable
to gases but impermeable to water (Mayhew, 2007), making insects efficient at
conserving water in dry environments by limiting water loss.
Insects would not be the largest class were it not for the exoskeleton. Although the
plasticity of the exoskeleton allowed enormous adaptive radiation to occur, it initially
limited insect growth and movement. However, such challenges were overcome by
ingenious evolutionary strategies.

REFERENCES:
HICKMAN, C. P. J., ROBERTS, L. S., KEEN, S. L., EISENHOUR, D. J., LARSON, A.,
L'ANSON, H. (2011) Integrated Principles of Zoology, New York, McGraw-Hill.
KNOX, B., LADIGES, P., EVANS, B., SAINT, R. (2005) Biology: An Australian Focus,
Australia, McGraw-Hill.
LATTIN, J. D. (1976) Insect Diversity and Systematics. The American Biology Teacher,
38, 231-234+238.
MAYHEW, P. J. (2007) Why are there so many insect species? Perspectives from fossils
and phylogenies. Biological Reviews, 82, 425-454.
RITCHER, P. O. (1976) Insect Abundance. The American Biology Teacher, 38, 235-238.