Professional Documents
Culture Documents
C
-150
-100
-50
0
20
40
60
80
kg.m-3
2.793
1.980
1.534
1.293
1.205
1.127
1.067
1.000
cp
kJ.(kg.K)
1.026
1.009
1.005
1.005
1.005
1.005
1.009
1.009
x10-6
k
-1
-1
w.(m K )
0.0116
0.0160
0.0204
0.0243
0.0257
0.0271
0.0285
0.0299
m2.s-1
3.08
5.95
9.55
13.30
15.11
16.97
18.90
20.94
bx10-3
Pr
-1
K
8.21
5.82
4.51
3.67
3.43
3.20
3.00
2.83
0.76
0.74
0.725
0.715
0.713
0.711
0.709
0.708
14
100
120
140
160
180
200
0.946
0.898
0.854
0.815
0.779
0.746
1.009
1.013
1.013
1.017
1.022
1.026
0.0314
0.0328
0.0343
0.0358
0.0372
0.0386
23.06
25.23
27.55
29.85
32.29
34.63
2.68
2.55
2.43
2.32
2.21
2.11
0.703
0.70
0.695
0.69
0.69
0.685
cp
x10-6
bx10-3
kN.m-2
kg.m-3
916.8
999.8
kJ.(kg.K)-1
kJ.kg-1
m2.s-1
K-1
4.210
1.792
-0.07
4.204
21.0
4.193
4.183
4.179
4.179
4.182
4.185
4.191
4.198
4.208
4.219
41.9
83.8
125.7
167.6
209.6
251.5
293.4
335.3
377.2
419.1
T
o
0
0.0
1
4
0.6
0.9
0.9
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1.2
2.3
4.3
7.7
12.5
20.0
31.3
47.5
70.0
101.3
3
1000.
0
1000.
0
999.8
998.3
995.7
992.3
988
983
978
972
965
958
Pr
13.67
0.160
1.304
1.004
0.801
0.658
0.553
0.474
0.413
0.365
0.326
0.295
0.088
0.207
0.303
0.385
0.457
0.523
0.585
0.643
0.665
0.752
9.47
7.01
5.43
4.34
3.56
2.99
2.56
2.23
1.96
1.75
Note:
T:
:
cp:
k:
:
temperature
density
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
kinematic viscosity
b:
Pa:
h:
Pr:
expansion coefficient
vapor pressure
enthalpy
Prandls number
If the air and water pass through a tube in different velocity, than they form unique
gas-liquid configuration. It is termed; flow-pattern. It has been investigated since several
decades.
15
For co-current up flow of gas and liquid in a vertical tube, the liquid and gas phases
distribute themselves into several recognizable flow structures. These are referred to as flow
patterns and they are depicted in
Figure 2.1 and can be described as follows:
Bubbly flow. Numerous bubbles are observable as the gas is dispersed in the form
of discrete bubbles in the continuous liquid phase. The bubbles may vary widely
in size and shape but they are typically nearly spherical and are much smaller than
system.
Annular flow. Once the interfacial shear of the high velocity gas on the liquid film
becomes dominant over gravity, the liquid is expelled from the center of the tube
and flows as a thin film on the wall (forming an annular ring of liquid) while the
gas flows as a continuous phase up the center of the tube. The interface is
16
stable and is the desired flow pattern for two-phase pipe flows.
Wispy annular flow. When the flow rate is further increased, the entrained droplets
may form transient coherent structures as clouds or wisps of liquid in the central
vapor core.
Mist flow. At very high gas flow rates, the annular film is thinned by the shear of
the gas core on the interface until it becomes unstable and is destroyed, such that
all the liquid in entrained as droplets in the continuous gas phase, analogous to the
inverse of the bubbly flow regime. Impinging liquid droplets intermittently wet
the tube wall locally. The droplets in the mist are often too small to be seen
without special lighting and/or magnification.
17
Bubbly flow. The gas bubbles are dispersed in the liquid with a high concentration
of bubbles in the upper half of the tube due to their buoyancy. When shear forces are
dominant, the bubbles tend to disperse uniformly in the tube. In horizontal flows,
tube, leaving thin films of liquid on the wall after the passage of the wave.
Intermittent flow. Further increasing the gas velocity, these interfacial waves
become large enough to wash the top of the tube. This regime is characterized by
large amplitude waves intermittently washing the top of the tube with smaller
amplitude waves in between. Large amplitude waves often contain entrained
bubbles. The top wall is nearly continuously wetted by the large amplitude waves
and the thin liquid films left behind. Intermittent flow is also a composite of the plug
and slug flow regimes. These subcategories are characterized as follows:
o Plug flow. This flow regime has liquid plugs that are separated by elongated
gas bubbles. The diameters of the elongated bubbles are smaller than the
tube such that the liquid phase is continuous along the bottom of the tube
below the elongated bubbles. Plug flow is also sometimes referred to as
elongated bubble flow.
o Slug flow. At higher gas velocities, the diameters of elongated bubbles
become similar in size to the channel height. The liquid slugs separating
18
film becomes dry first, so that the annular film covers only part of the tube
fUf2 and gUg2. A generalized flow pattern map for horizontal flow is that of Taitel and
Dukler (1976) (see Dukler and Taitel, 1986), and is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. This is plotted in
terms of the following parameters:
19
dp
F
dz
2
X
dp
F
dz
(2.1)
g
f g
ug
D.g . cos
(2.2)
gug
D.u f
K
f g .D.g. cos f
2
(2.3)
dp
F
dz
f
T
f g g. cos
(2.4)
gug2
fuf2
20
Fig. 2.3 Flow pattern map obtained by Hewitt and Roberts (1969) for vertical two-phase cocurrent upwards flow in a vertical tube., ThermopediaTM
Fig. 2.4 Flow pattern map for horizontal co-current flow obtained by Taitel and Dukler
(1976). (See Dukler and Taitel, 1986), ThermopediaTM
where (dpF/dz)f and (dpF/dz)g are the pressure gradients for the liquid phase and gas phase
respectively, flowing alone in the channel, f and g are the phase densities, uf and ug are the
superficial velocities of the phases, D the tube diameter, f the liquid kinematic viscosity, g the
acceleration due to gravity, and the angle of inclination of the channel.
Taitel et al. (1980) also produced a flow pattern map for vertical flow, but this has met with less
widespread use. Following similar approaches, Barnea (1987) has produced a unified model for
flow pattern transitions for the whole range of pipe inclinations.
21
The void fraction , ratio of gas cross section area Ag to total area A
Ag
A
1
, so
Af
A
(2.5)
22
The mass quality x, ratio of gas mass flow rate Wg to total mass flow rate W
x
Wg
(1 x)
Wg W f
Wf
Wg W f
, so
(2.6)
It is should be remarks, that the mass quality or some time called as quality only is
very different from void fraction. Because, quality is related to mass which strongly depend
on density . However, both of quality and void fraction have particular proportionality,
which will be discussed, later.
W
u
u
A
(2.7)
W f GA(1 x)
and
(2.8)
Wg
uf
g Ag
Wf
f Af
and
(2.9)
Where, the mass flow W is proportional to quantity, volume flow rate Q than;
ug
Qg
uf
Ag
and
Qf
Af
(2.10)
Therefore, the phase velocity can be formed as function of void fraction and quality,
u=f(, x);
23
Gx
g
ug
uf
G (1 x)
f (1 )
and
(2.11)
Qg
(1 )
Qg Q f
Qf
Qg Q f
so
(2.12)
All of forgoing equations are based on phase area (Ag and Af), in which is vary along
channel length z and time t. Accordingly, it is urgent to simply the equation based on total
cross section area A which is equal to tube cross section area, constant. This is superficial
velocity parameter j.
Q
A
jg
, so
j g u g j
Qg
A
jf
and
Gx
g
Qf
A
(2.13)
j f u f (1 ) j (1 )
G (1 x)
f
and
Gg j g g Gx
(2.14)
G f j f f G (1 x)
,
G Gg G f
in which
(2.15)
Superficial velocity is very important parameter for defining the phases velocity ug
and uf , by condition of which void fraction is known. Also, superficial velocity is easy
parameter to calculate, since the variables are easy to measure, as following measured
variables, quantity Q. This work, quantity of each phase was measured carefully, by means,
the phase is separated in separator tube, followed by quantifying liquid and gas volume Vg
and Vf in certain time interval and the last phase quantity is determined by;
Qg
Vg
Qf
tg
and
Vf
tf
(2.16)
24
Since the gas and liquid velocity is different. It is very important to define ratio in
between gas velocity ug and liquid velocity uf, termed as the slip factor S
ug
uf
Wg f A f
W f g Ag
1 x
f 1
(2.17)
Later, the control volume of instant two-phase flow in Fig. 2.5 can be solved
analytically.
2.5.1 Conservation of Mass
By assuming the system is adiabatic and the both of phase incompressible, then the
total phase mass flow rate is the sum of gas flow rate and liquid flow rate
Wg W f W
(2.18)
Because the total mass flow rate is constant, then the differentiation of equation 2.18
results;
dWg dW f
(2.19)
Wg Ag g u g Wx
Since;
(2.20)
W f A f f u f W (1 x)
And;
(2.21)
d
dx dWg
( Ag g u g ) W
dz
dz
dz
Then;
(2.22)
d
dx dW f
( A f f u f ) W
dz
dz
dz
(2.23)
2.5.2 Conservation of Momentum
Also, from Fig. 2.5 the momentum conservation is;
25
gF dz
dz
(dFg S ) Ag
dp
fF dz
dz
(dF f S ) A f
;
dp
(dFg dF f ) A
F dz
dz
The term
dp
F
dz
(2.28)
(2.29)
dz dz dz dz
(2. 30)
Where;
x 2 g 1 x 2 f
1 d
dp
2 d
a
(Wg u g W f u f ) G
1
A dz
dz
dz
(2.31)
26
And
A
Ag
dp
z g sin
g f f g sin g (1 ) f
A
dz
A
(2.32)
It should be emphasized at this point that the frictional component has been defined in
(dFg dF f )
terms of the force
To solve all of forgoing equation is hard due to existing two unknown differential
variable ug and uf. Therefore, approach solving is required. There are two approaching
models i.e. homogeneous model and separated model. Homogeneous model assumes that
both of phase gas and liquid pass in equal velocity, in its mean velocity. So as, the two
phase flow problem considers as single phase flow and all properties are determined based
on mean properties of both phases. Meanwhile, the separated model assumes that the
phases is artificially segregated into stream; one of is liquid and another one is gas, and
each phase velocity is the mean velocity of each phase, so that is constant. If both of phases
have equal mean velocity, the equation reduces to those of homogeneous model.
Continuity,
(2.33)
(2.34)
Q
j 1
x g (1 x ) f f x fg
W
G
Where
(2.35)
u f ug u
(2.36)
27
u G j
So that
(2.37)
And
x g
1 x f
1
(2.38)
dF W Pdz
(2.39)
Where P is wall perimeter of circular inner tube
u 2
W f TP
(2.40)
Where
1 dF W P f TP P u 2
dp
A dz
A
A 2
dz
(2.41)
2 f G 2 2 f TP Gj
dp
F TP
D
D
dz
(2.42)
(2.43)
dz
dz
dp dz
(2.44)
dz
(2.45)
28
2 f TP G 2 f
fg
G 2 f fg dx
dz
f
f
1 x
dp
dz
d g
dp
1 G 2 x
g sin
f 1 x fg
f
(2.46)
=0, g closed to
constant
Accordingly, general equation of pressure gradient along z for homogeneous modeling is;
2
dp 2 fTP G f
D
dz
fg
G 2 f fg dx
dz
f
f
1 x
g sin
f 1 x fg
(2.47)
dp
F
dz
fg
dp F
dz
f
1 x
fo
fg
1 x
(2.48)
fo
Where
dp
F
dz
2 f foG 2 f
fo
D
(2.49)
f
x=0,
g
; and x=1,
(2.50)
29
and the
correlation by
1
x 1 x
g
f
McAdam, et.al.
(2.51)
x g 1 x f
Cicchitti, et.al.
(2.52)
x g g 1 x f f
x g 1 x f
Dukler et.al.
(2.53)
tp
1 x x
Akers et al.
0.5
(2.54)
tp f
Owens
(2.55)
tp g 1 1 2.5 f
Beattie and Whalley
x g
f x fg
where
tp
(2.56)
(2.57)
f g
g x1.4 f g
Lin et al
(2.58)
Assuming that the friction factor may be expressed in term of the Reynolds number by
Blasius equation
f TP
GD
0.079
TP
1
4
GD
0.079
1
4
(2.59)
fo
fg
1 x
fg
1 x
(2.60)
30
In general equation;
dp
dp
F
F
dz
dz
fo
fo
(2.61)
fo 2
, known as the two-phase frictional multiplier;
fo 2
fg
1 x
fg
1 x
1
4
(2.62)
2
c. The use of empirical correlations or simplified concepts to relate
and
to
F G
g sin g (1 ) f
dz
(1 )
dz
dz
dp
dp
F
F
dz
dz
2 f foG 2 f
fo
2
fo
fo
(2.63)
(2.64)
F
F f
D
dz
dz f
(2.65)
31
(1 x)
ff
f fo
1
4
(2.66)
fo f (1 x ) 2
2
ff
f fo
f (1 x )1.75
2
(2.67)
x 2 g 1 x 2 f
dp
2 d
a G
dz
1
dz
(2.68)
1
dz
dp x 2 d g
dz dp p
dx 2 x g 21 x f
1
dz
1 x 2 f
1 2
1 x 2 f
1 2
x 2 g
2
x 2 g
2
(2.69)
2 f foG 2 f
dp
dz
fo G 2
2
2
dx 2 x g 21 x f
d 1 x f x g
dz
1 dx 1 2
2
x 2 d g d 1 x 2 f x 2 g
1 G2
2
dp 1 2
dp
g sin g f 1
(2.70)
So that;
2
2
dx 2 x g 21 x f d 1 x f x g
dp 2 f foG f
fo 2 G 2
2
1 dx 1
D
dz
dz
g sin g f 1
(2.71)
32
fo
2.7.2 The evaluation of the Two-phase Multiplier
flow regime were defined on the basis of the behavior of the flow (viscous or
turbulent) when the phases were considered to pass alone through the channel
The liquid and gas phase pressure drop were considered equal irrespective of
the detail of the particular flow pattern.
dp
dp
dp
gF
fF
F
dz
dz
dz
(2.72)
fF
Df
dz
(2.73)
2 f g gug
dp
gF
Dg
dz
(2.74)
2
Df
4
Af
(2.75)
2
Dg
4
Ag
(2.76)
Using Blasius
n
f u f Df
ff Kf
f
(2.59, 2.67, 2.69, 2.71)
n 2
Df
(2.77)
5 n
(2.78)
33
dp
F
dz
dp
F
dz
n2
D
g
5 n
(2.79)
Lockhart-Martinelli assumption to the case of annular flow, Dividing eq 2.69 by A=D2/4
2
1 D
D
f
f (1 )
2
n2
(2.80)
D
f
n 1
(2.81)
4D
4
D
1 4D2
D
4
D
Thus
D
D
1
D f 4 1
f 1
2
n2
1 n1 1 3
So that;
(2.82)
f 1
2
(2.83)
X2
dp
F
dz
dp
F
dz
(2.84)
Where;
f 1
2
C
1
2
X X
(2.85)
34
g 1 CX X 2
2
Liquid
Turbulent
Viscous
Turbulent
Viscous
Gas
Turbulent
Turbulent
Viscous
Viscous
tt
vt
tv
vv
C
20
12
10
5
dp
dz
dp
2
f
dz f
(2.86)
dp
dz
dp
2
g
dz g
(2.87)
f 1
2
Where
dp
F
dz
C
1
2
X X
dp
F
dz
X2
dp
F
dz
(2.88)
2 f f f G 2 (1 x) 2
dp
F
dz
Dh
2 f g g G 2 x 2
Dh
;
f k 16 Re k
(2.89)
f k 0.079 Re k
0.25
f k 0.046 Re k
0.2
35
Re f
G 1 x Dh
f
Re g
GxDh
g
Re fo
,
Liquid
Turbulen
GDh
f
Laminar
t
Laminar
0.03
0.0015 Re fo
Laminar
Su go
8.7 x10 4 Re fo
Turbulent
Laminar
(2.91)
C
0.39 Re fo
Turbulen
, Suratman number
Gas(Vapor)
Turbulent
g Dh
Su go
0.17
0.59
3.5 x10 5 Re fo
0.10
0.44
Su go
Su go
0.35
Su go
0.36
0.50
0.19
(2.92)
0.14
(2.93)
0.50
(2.94)
0.48
(2.95)
dp
dz
dp
dz
fo
fo
(2.96)
fo
g f go
0.91
0.19
1 g
0.7
Frtp
0.045
We tp
0.035
(2.97)
36
Frtp
GDh
1
G2
G 2 Dh
H
Re go
We
tp
2
x g 1 x f
g
gDh H
H
,
,
,
(2.98)
dz
dp
dz
fo
dp
2
dz
dp
dz
go
dp
1/ 3
x 1 x
dz
fo
x3
go
(2.99)
dp
dz
dp
2
f
dz f
(2.100)
2
f jf f
C
1
1 2
f Dh
X X
,
,
0.557
(2.101)
Ctv 3.627 Re fo
0.174
,
Cvt 6.185 10 2 Re fo
0.726
Ctt 0.048 Re fo
(2.102)
0.451
(2.103)
dp
dz
dp
dz
Bo g Dh / 2
f
g
fo, Friedel
For Bo*<2.5
0.0333 Re fo
Re g
0.09
(2.104)
0.45
1 0.4e
Bo*
(2.105)
37
We tp
0.2
2.5 0.06 Bo
For Bo*2.5
(2.106)
dp
dz
Re f
Re g
dp
2
f f 2 1 C 1 C 1.79
2
Re
dz
f
f
X X
,
,
G 1 x Dh
f
Re g
0.4
1 x
0.5
(2.107)
GxDh
g
(2.108)
1
1 x g
1
x l
(2.109)
1
1 x
1
(2.110)
1 x
1 g
l x
l
1 x
0 .4
g
x
0 .4 0 .6
1 x
1 0 .4
x
(2.111)
38
x 1 x U GU
Co
L
m
G
(2.112)
U GU 0.05 U
Valuable only if
At elevated pressure, Zuber (1967);
Co 1.13
With
U GU
g L G
1.41
2
L
(2.113)
Pr ,Reduced pressure
Except for Pr0.5, where Co=1.2
for Pr >0.5
Co 1.0
U GU
g L G
1.53
2
L
2
2
Amc 1 d mc Ac 1 d c Wg g Qg W f f Q f
4
4
,
,
,
(2.114)
39
Rg
Qgcu Qgcd
Rf
Qgcu Qgcd
Q fcu Q fcd
Q fcu Q fcd
, and
(2.115)
Rg and Rf is dimensionless. If Rg >0, gas phase tend to go to upper channel and vice versa. If
Rg=0, the gas is uniform. Similarly, for Rf is. If Rf >0, liquid phase tend to go to upper
channel and vice versa. If Rf=0, the liquid is uniform
5mm
5mm
8 mm
Equivalent
length
r
4
Su
Sb
(a
)
h
(c)
(b
)
Fig. 2.6 Merged pipe distributor; (a) 2d sketch and Simplified as Incline straight tube,
(b) simplified as converging diverging nozzle and (c) 3d sketch
Because there are no correlations, related to merge pipe distributor.
Three approach
correlations are tested; area changes by Tapucu, 1989, straight incline pipe and Teejunction.
40
Janssen & Kervinen (1964), assuming that the contraction losses are small
compared to the expansion losses.
L
x 2
G 1
p SI 1 2 2
2 L C
C
1 x 2 1
L 2 1 C
1
C
1 x 2
4
3
4
G 3
2C
Where;
2
C
1
(2.116)
41
3 4
A2 A2
A1 A4
A3
A2
and
Assumed as constant void fraction
2
1 Gi 1
pSI
1
2 C
(2.117)
If use Momentum Energy Equation of Hewitt & Hall Taylor (1970) based on Jansen
assumption
2
1 1
1 G1 H 1 1
1
pSI G
2 C 2 32 42
C 3 4
2
1
(2.118)
Where;
A2
A1
A3
A2
, and
Assumed as constant void fraction
G
p SI 1
2
Where
2 1
1
1 H2
2
C C
(2.119)
x2
1 x
G 1 L
2
(2.120)
and
42
x3
1 x
2
2
1 2 L 2
G
3
(2.121)
1
x 1 x
H G
L
(2.122)
p1i ,TP
Hom,i
2
G
i
E ,i
2
2
G1
K1i ,TP G1
2 L
E ,1
(2.123)
1 x 3 x 3
2
2
L 1 G 2
12
(2.124)
L2 Hom,i
Hom,1
1.60 L2 Hom,i
Hom,1
2.57 L2 Hom,i
Hom,1
0.586
(2.125)
0.146
(2.126)
(2.127)
43
W
W
0.477 0.21 i 0.744 i
W1
W1
(2.128)
W
W
1 0.8285 i 0.6924 i
W1
W1
(2.129)
Hom
x 1 x
L
G
(2.130)
References
Collier, J.G., (1981), Convective boiling and condensation, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill,
ISBN: 0070117985.
Thome, J.R., (2010), Engineering data book III, Wolverine Tube, Inc.
ThermopediaTM , A to z guide to thermodynamics, Heat and mass transfer, and fluid
engineering, http://www.thermopedia.com/
Hwang, S.T. and Lahey, R.T., (1988), A study on single- and two-phase pressure drop in
branching conduits, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 1, p. 111125
Tapucu, A., Teyssedou, A., Troche, N. and Merilo, M., (1989), Pressure losses caused by
44
changes in a single channel flow under two-phase flow, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 151, p. 51-64
Kim, S.M. and Mudawar, I., (2012), Universal approach to predicting two-phase frictional
pressure drop for adiabatic and condensing mini/micro-channel flows, Int. J. Heat
and Mass Transfer 55, p. 32463261
Hewitt, G. F. & Hall Taylor, N. S. (1970), Annular Two-phase Flow, Pergamon Press,
Oxford.