Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Author links open the overlay panel. Numbers correspond to the affiliation list which can be
exposed by using the show more link.
D. Bhattacharyya , P.D. Smith, S.K. Thadakamalla, I.F. Collins
Services on Demand
Article
English (pdf)
English (epdf)
Article references
Automatic translation
Indicators
Cited by SciELO
Access statistics
Related links
Share
More
More
Permalink
Materials Research
Print version ISSN 1516-1439
On-line version ISSN 1980-5373
Mat.Res.vol.18no.4SoCarlosJuly/Aug.2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-1439.000314
ARTICLES
Microstructural and Micromechanical Effects of Cold Rollforming on High Strength Dual Phase Steels
Meritxell Ruiz-Andres a , Ana Conde a , Juan de Damborenea a ,
Ignacio Garcia a *
a
ABSTRACT
In this work correlation between the 1000 MPa dual phase (DP) steel microstructure and the
strain gained after roll-forming process have been studied by both microstructural and
micromechanical analysis. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) inspection in the bent
area reveals changes in the ferrite-martensitic microstructure. The plastic deformation of DP
steels originates defects at the edges of bent sheet make them partly responsible for the
damage caused. In addition, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) measurements have
been carried out for an in-depth characterization after roll-forming. A high density of
misorientation of the crystal lattice within the ferrite strained grains is observed, mainly
concentrated in the ferrite/martensite grain boundaries. Furthermore, the ultramicrohardness
tests exhibit little dependence between mechanical parameters and the material properties.
Key words: dual phase steel; roll-forming; EBSD; ultramicrohardness; microstructure
1 INTRODUCTION
High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, specifically dual phase (DP) steels, are widely
used in the automotive industry due to the necessity of improving fuel efficiency1-3, with
its subsequent energy saving and environmental protection4. In addition, these DP steels
have been developed to increase the highly demanding collision safety standards5 in the
vehicle body frame parts like bumper beam, door beam and panel reinforcement.
DP steels are characterized by a microstructure consisting of about 75-85% ferrite phase
with the remainder being a mixture of the martensite and lower amounts of other such
as bainite and retained austenite6,7.
Such a structure leads to different unique properties, as high tensile strength, low yield
strength ratio followed by continuous yielding behavior (no-yield point elongation), high
work-hardening rate at early stages of plastic deformation as well as good ductility 8-10.
Furthermore, the absence of the yield point elongation provides DP steels with a high
crash resistance, good formability and excellent surface finish11.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The chemical composition of the commercial high strength dual phase DP1000 used is
given in Table 1. The 1.5mm thick DP1000 sheet was roll-forming in hat-section
geometry profile by Autotech Engineering (AIE, Gestamp R&D). The roll-forming
direction was parallel to the rolling direction of the sheet and performed at a feed rate of
50 m/min. Hat-section was formed by 6-stages, in which the arrangements of the roll
bend angles were varied over 15 30 45 60 75 90.
Table 1 Chemical composition of DP1000 dual phase steel (wt.%).
DP1000
Mn
Si
Mo
Cr
Nb
Ni
Fe
0.067
2.29
0.38
0.25
0.020
0.037
0.025
<0.02
Balanced
Specimens were taken from a DP1000 sheet after being processed revealing the LT-ST
plane (Figure 1).
Figure 1 DP1000 specimen (a) Hat-section profile; (b) Scheme main directions.
The specimens analysed are presented in Figure 2. One of specimens was taken from an
area free from any strain - blank specimen-. Three specimens were taken from the bent
area characterized by three distinctive regions: the outer edge, the middle zone and the
inner edge.
Figure 2 Details of DP1000 specimen (a) selected areas to analysis; (b) representative studied
regions in the bent area.
Metallographic specimens were prepared according to standard procedures. They were
mounted in an epoxy resin, ground down through successive grades of SiC paper to
2000 grade, degreased with alkaline cleaner and rinsed in tap water followed by
deionized water and finally polished with diamond paste of 3 and 1 m.
For scanning electron microscopy (SEM) inspections, the specimens were etched with 2%
Nital solution for 15 s, given that Nital preferentially etches ferrite and outlines their
grain boundaries leaving martensite undissolved.
In order to calculate the volume fraction of ferrite and martensite phases, metallographic
analysis were conducted by using an image software analysis. Using a commercial
imaging software (Analysisdocu) the martensite and ferrite phases were automatically
distinguished by adjusting the contrast and colour, so martensite grains turn black, while
ferrite grains turn white.
Finally, for Electron Back Scatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis, the specimens were
mounted in epoxy resin, grounded in SiC and polished with diamond paste of 3 and 1 m
as it was above described. After this stage the specimens were automatically polished
with colloidal silica for 30 s. Then, the specimens were rinsed in distilled water, soaked in
ethanol and dried in direct warm air. Immediately after, the specimens were etched with
2% Nital solution for 15 s.
SEM images and EBSD scans were carried out in a field emission gun scanning electron
microscopy (FEG-SEM) J8M6500F JEOL equipped with energy-dispersive spectroscopy
(EDS) facilities. A statistically relevant area of 322 x 257 m was scanned using step size
of 0.1 m. The EBSD raw data were post-processed in detail by making use of the HKL
Analysis Software. Grain boundaries were characterized by a misorientation larger than
5 between among neighbouring measurements points.
Several parameters on the basis of EBSD, such as the image quality (IQ), the inverse
pole figure (IPF) and the kernel average misorientation (KAM) maps are powerful tools in
order to characterize the material. However, the similarity between the crystalline
structure of the microconstituents in dual-phase steels -ferrite (bcc) and martensite (bct,
with a low tretagonality)- limits the software in order to distinguish between both
phases, specifically when ferrite is highly strained20. In this work, it has been indexed
ferrite as the main phase. Consequently, the Kikuchi diffraction patterns that differ from
the ferrite crystalline structure (bcc) will be considered not indexed, given as a dark
point and related to strained ferrite, martensite phase or grain boundaries.
Hardness measurements were performed by a NanoTest 550 Micro Materials Ltd
nanoindenter, using a Berkovich diamond tip. Tests were carried out at two indentation
depths of 500 nm and 5000 nm. The local hardness and elastic modulus results were
estimated from the loading and unloading curves using the standard Oliver-Pharr
methodology21.
3 RESULTS
3.1 SEM characterization
Figure 3 clearly shows that the microstructure of DP1000 steel is comprised by harden
island-shaped martensite inclusions randomly distributed (bright contrast) and a soft
ferrite matrix (dark contrast). Figure 3a reveals the microstructure corresponding to the
blank specimen. This DP1000 specimen analysed is characterized by a 26.5 vol.% of
martensite phase. Ferrite grains size range from 1.2 m to 5 m, approximately.
Figure 3 SEM images of DP1000 specimens etched with 2% Nital at 3000x (a) blank area; (b) outer
bent edge; (c) middle bent zone; (d) inner bent edge.
The SEM images gathered in Figure 3b-dcorrespond to the microstructure in the bent
area; outer edge, middle zone and inner edge, respectively. The microstructure
corresponding to the outer edge in the bent area, Figure 3b, shows elongated ferrite
grains, with the long axis parallel to the bending direction. The length of these ferrite
grains vary from 3m to 10 m, approximately. Conversely, the martensitic islands
appear not to be deformed, but it is noteworthy the presence of some voids (A). These
voids appear preferentially localized around the martensite particles as result of the
stress concentration and deformation mismatch22,23. Other voids initiation (B) appears in
the ferrite/martensite grain boundary and are considered a normal separation of both
phases22.
Moving throughout the bent area, towards the inner edge, the appearance of the ferrite
grains is less elongated and the presence of voids disappears. The microstructure
corresponding to the middle region of the bent area (Figure 3c) is comprised by ferrite
grains apparently not deformed, keeping similar microstructure as in the blank specimen
(Figure 3a). Finally, at the compressed inner edge of the bent specimen, Figure 3d, the
ferrite grains vary their size and morphology into smaller and more equiaxed grains. In
this region voids are not distinguished.
3.2 EBSD measurements
EBSD enables an exhaustive study related to the crystallographic orientations based on
the Kikuchi diffraction patterns from the surface of the specimens24-26. Besides lattice
rotation and lattice strain at the surface of very small volumes of material can be
measured11, 27.
Figure 4 depicts representative EBSD image quality maps (IQ) corresponding to the
studied areas, where ferrite has been indexed as the main phase. The IQ maps describe
the grain structure of the different phases24. Due to overlapping diffraction signals,
coming from two grains at a grain boundary, the contrast in the Kikuchi pattern faint or
is even inexistent. As a consequence, a low value in the IQ map leads to a dark grain
boundary or as a noticeable dark grain, constituting the martensite phase or highly
strained ferrite20.
Figure 4 IQ maps of DP1000 specimens in (a) blank area; (b) outer bent edge; (c) middle bent zone;
(d) inner bent edge.
These maps reveal the very low quality of the EBSD patterns as black regions. Figure 4bd present a noticeable difference in dark regions regarding the IQ map in the blank
specimen (Figure 4a). These dark areas suggest extremely strained ferrite phase as a
result of a high level of residual stresses due to the bending process. Also, martensite
islands could appear as black.
Furthermore IQ maps have been successfully used to determine the volume fraction of
the microstructural constituents of several alloys, such as AHSS steels and aluminium
alloys24. In the present work, the volume fraction of the phases varies depending on the
region analysed, that is, blank specimen or bent regions.
Figure 5 show the volume fraction calculated as a function of these areas. The volume
fraction for high IQ values, related to the ferrite phase, is higher than the volume
fraction for the so-called low IQ values, related to grain boundaries, strained ferrite and
martensite. It is noteworthy that the average volume fraction of the low IQ values,
related to the non-indexed areas (grain boundaries, martensite and deformed ferrite)
slightly increases regarding the blank specimens. This is consequence of the increase of
the strained ferrite at the extremely deformed regions (outer and inner edges). A volume
fraction of the low IQ values about 25% has been found in the outer and inner bent
areas, while in the blank specimen the volume fraction is about 16%. In the middle area
is observed a similar low IQ value to the blank specimen coincidently with the neutral
line which separates the areas submitted to tensile and compressive strains in the outer
and inner areas respectively.
analysis performed in the areas labelled as 1 and 2 in the blank specimen. These
histograms show significant changes of the misorientation distribution. While in Figure
6e, no differences in the orientation of the lattice are perceived, in Figure 6f there is an
abrupt increase of the misorientation suggesting the proximity to low IQ values that in
this case, blank specimen, should correspond to the proximity of a martensite phase.
Figure 6 IPF maps of DP1000 specimens in (a) blank area; (b) outer bent edge; (c) middle bent zone;
(d) inner bent edge; (e)-(h) misorientation profiles of the selected grains taken from the same areas.
The histograms corresponding to selected grains within the bent area are shown
in Figure 6g and h. In particular these histograms are associated to specific grains in the
outer edge (3) and inner edge (4), respectively. Such values could be consequence
either of the presence of martensite next to these grains or highly strained ferrite grains.
Figure 7 depicts the representative EBSD KAM maps, corresponding to the areas above
studied. The misorientation between a data point and its neighbours is analysed by the
KAM maps. Furthermore, these maps indicate the dislocation density28 and the strain
distribution on individual measurement points29. In this work KAM scans were measured
calculating each point by considering up to its 3rd neighbours and without taking into
account any misorientation higher than 5, since this value was chosen to elucidate
between grain boundaries and internal misorientation.
Figure 7 KAM maps of DP1000 specimens in (a) blank area; (b) outer bent edge; (c) middle bent
zone; (d) inner bent edge.
The illustrated colour typed code determines the degree of local crystalline
misorientation within each grain. Blue colour corresponds to the grains without any
misorientation, while red colour would corresponds to the maximum. As it can be seen
in Figure 7a, the blank specimen shows low misorientation. This specimen is
characterized by low KAM values -green colour- visible at the ferrite-martensite
interfaces. However, it is clearly observed that the KAM distribution shifts to higher
values as the plastic deformation proceeds.
Figure 7b-d reveal an evident increase of the local crystalline misorientation, higher
areas coloured in green. In these figures, it is seen that the plastic deformation occurs in
the outer and inner edges regarding the blank specimen, varying substantially within the
ferrite grain as result of the deformation. In particular, note that the ferrite with the
highest level of misorientation -green to red colour- tends to concentrate at the
ferrite/martensite grain boundaries.
3.3 Ultramicrohardness
Figure 8 shows an optical micrograph depicting representative ultramicrohardness
indentations displayed in the DP1000 steel. Higher magnifications of several selected
indentations, corresponding to two different indentation depths of 500 nm and 5000 nm,
are shown in Figure 9a and b, respectively. These SEM images show that the higher the
indentation depth, the larger the Berkovich indentation. In addition, it is clearly observed
that each indentation encompass both ferrite and martensite phases.
Figure 9 SEM images of Berkovich indentations in DP1000 at indentation depths (a) 500 nm; (b)
5000 nm. Representative P-h curve at (c) 5000 nm.
Figure 9c presents a typical load versus displacement curve at the indentation depths of
5000 nm, respectively. The curve exhibits a parabolic behaviour in the loading section
and a power-law behavior in the unloading one21. The elastic recovery exhibited during
the unloading section is small, as expected in metal alloys30-32.
Figure 10 shows the hardness obtained for the DP1000 blank and bent specimens at the
two analysed indentation depths of 500 nm and 5000 nm. This depicts that the values
obtained at lower indentation depth are slightly higher. This response is classically
observed for the known indentation size effect33. Particularly, in dual-phase steels these
size effects usually result from the strain gradient induced by several sources related to
the microstructure -natural hardening of ferrite and reinforcement by martensite-, the
applied deformation field and /or the specimen size34. As shown in the literature34,
nanohardness measurements in dual-phase steels (e.g. with 26% content of martensite)
show different intrinsic hardness values, i.e. 2.96 0.47 GPa for ferrite, and 6.99 5.75
GPa for martensite. Therefore, current results obtained at an indentation depth of 500
nm show an average hardness value dominated by the martensite phase. This might be
a direct consequence of the relationship between the indentation size and the martensite
grain size.
4 DISCUSSION
The deformation behaviour of dual phase steels is considered to be quite complex.
However, despite the lack of understanding of the interactions between the present
constituents and their influence on mechanical properties some generalization has been
made in the literature6. In general, localized plastic strain is resulting from the
incompatible deformation between the soft ferritic matrix and the harder martensite
phase8,35, which have dissimilar properties. This plastic deformation process is initially
related to the dislocation density in the ferrite phase36. In the low strain range -during
the first stages deformation- the work-hardening rate is considerably high as a
consequence of rapid dislocation multiplication and the back stresses resulting from the
strain incompatibility37.
Then, when the ferrite phase reaches its maximum strained capacity (in the high strain
range), ferrite matrix transfers strain across the ferrite-martensite interface, leading to
the onset of a plastic deformation in the martensite grains6,36. Subsequently, the workhardening rate of the dual phase steel diminishes37.
Ashby38 stated that the compatible deformation of a soft matrix which contains hard
particles requires the generation of plasticity gradients, such as statistically stored
(SSDs) and geometrically necessary dislocations (GNDs), within the more deformable
phase. The SSDs are created by simple work hardening of ferrite39, while the GNDs
emerge from the necessity to maintain both ferrite and martensite in contact during
plastic deformation40. This theory has been widely used to explain dislocation movements
and deformation of dual-phase steels38,41,42.
Speich & Miller43 ascertained this statement in dual-phase steels. Also, the original
Bergstrm dislocation theory44, but adjusted for dual-phase steels45, is employed in order
to justify the plastic deformation process in these steels. However, according to this
theory, the deformation is considered to be entirely supported by the ferrite phase,
conversely to several authors6,36 who consider plastic deformation in martensite.
In this work, SEM images (Figure 3) confirm that the ultrafine grained DP1000 steel
deformation mainly takes place in the ferrite phase. As a result, an elongated ferritic
microstructure is observed in the outer edges from the bent area and compressed ferrite
grains in the inner edges.
Moreover the presence of several voids in the specimen after the roll-forming process is
also worth to note, specifically in the outer edges (Figure 3b). It is well known that the
5 CONCLUSIONS
In the present work the microstructure and micromechanical analysis of ultrafine grained
DP1000 steel have been performed for two different representative areas of a constant
hat-section profile obtained by means of continuous roll-forming process with a high feed
rate with the aim of providing responses to the behaviour of this high strength low alloy
steel for the automotive industry.
Meanwhile in not deformed specimens the microstructure of the DP steel reveals weak
misorientation within the ferrite grains, the microstructure corresponding to the bent
area exhibits variations depending on the particular analysed region. The specimens
from the edges of the bent specimen -outer and inner- exhibit a severe plastic
deformation mainly localized within the ferritic matrix and in the vicinity of the
ferrite/martensite grain boundaries. As a result, high misorientation is noticed,
suggesting a large density of dislocation in these deformed zones. Stretched ferrite
grains are found in the outer edges whereas compressed ferrite grains are observed in
the inner edge. The presence of several voids in the outer edge also indicates evident
damage resulting from the plastic deformation undergone in the roll forming process.
The hardness measurements appear to indicate that the plastic deformation possess
certain effects on the DP steel surface hardness.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding by Ministerio de Economa y
Competitividad under project Innpacto IPT-020000-2010-020 and project CONSOLIDERINGENIO 2010 CSD 2008-0023 FUNCOAT.
REFERENCES
Meng Q, Li J and Zheng H. High-efficiency fast-heating annealing of a cold-rolled dualphase steel. Materials & Design. 2014; 58:194197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.01.055. [ Links ]
Han Q, Kang Y, Zhao X, L C and Gao L. Microstructure and Properties of Mo Microalloyed
Cold Rolled DP1000 Steels. Journal of Iron and Steel Research International. 2011;
18(5):52-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1006-706X(11)60065-4. [ Links ]
Cui X, Zhang H, Wang S, Zhang L and Ko J. Design of lightweight multi-material
automotive bodies using new material performance indices of thin-walled beams for the
material selection with crashworthiness consideration. Materials & Design. 2011;
32(2):815-821. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2010.07.018. [ Links ]
Wang W, Li M, Zhao Y and Wei X. Study on stretch bendability and shear fracture of 800
MPa dual phase steel sheet. Materials & Design. 2014; 56:907913. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.12.004. [ Links ]
Futarama Y, Miura M and Tsunezawa M. Characteristics of Highly Formable 590-980MPa
Grade Hot-dip Galvannealed Steel Sheets for Automobiles. Kobelco Technology Review.
2011; 30:80-84. [ Links ]
Rashid MS. Dual Phase Steels. Annual Review of Materials Science. 1981; 11(1):245266.http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ms.11.080181.001333. [ Links ]
Hayat F and Uzun H. Effect of Heat Treatment on Microstructure, Mechanical Properties
and Fracture Behaviour of Ship and Dual Phase Steels. Journal of Iron and Steel
Research International. 2011; 18(8):65-72.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1006706X(11)60106-4. [ Links ]
Wu-Rong W, Chang-Wei H, Zhong-Hua Z and Xi-Cheng W. The limit drawing ratio and
formability prediction of advanced high strength dual-phase steels. Materials & Design.
2011; 32(6):3320-3327.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2011.02.021. [ Links ]
Ozturk F, Toros S and Kilic S. Tensile and Spring-Back Behavior of DP600 Advanced High
Strength Steel at Warm Temperatures. Journal of Iron and Steel Research International.
2009; 16(6):41-46.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1006-706X(10)60025-8. [ Links ]
Gillard AJ, Golovashchenko SF and Mamutov AV. Effect of quasi-static prestrain on the
formability of dual phase steels in electrohydraulic forming. Journal of Manufacturing
Processes. 2013; 15(2):201-218.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2012.12.005.
[ Links ]
Ramazani A, Mukherjee K, Scwedt A, Goravanchi P, Prahl U and Bleck W. Quantification
of the effect of transformation-induced geometrically necessary dislocations on the flowcurve modelling of dual-phase steels. International Journal of Plasticity. 2013; 43:128152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2012.11.003. [ Links ]
Larraaga J, Galdos L, Uncilla L and Etxaleku A. Development and validation of a
numerical model for sheet metal forming. International Journal of Material Forming.
2010; 3(1):151-154.http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12289-010-0729-9. [ Links ]
Erdogan M and Tekeli S. The effect of martensite particle size on tensile fracture of
surface-carburised AISI 8620 steel with dual phase core microstructure. Materials &
Design. 2002; 23(7):597-604.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3069(02)00065-1.
[ Links ]
Abouei V, Saghafian H, Kheirandish S and Ranjbar K. An investigation of the wear
behaviour of 0.2% C dual phase steels. Journal of Materials Processing Technology.
2008; 203(1-3):107-112.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.09.044. [ Links ]
Luo M and Wierzbicki T. Numerical failure analysis of a stretch-bending test on dualphase steel sheets using a phenomenological fracture model. International Journal of
Solids and Structures. 2010; 47(22-23):30843102.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2010.07.010. [ Links ]
Wang W and Wei X. The effect of martensite volume and distribution on shear fracture
propagation of 600-1000MPa dual phase sheet steels in the process of deep drawing.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences. 2013; 67(0):100107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2012.12.011. [ Links ]
Mishra A and Thuillier S. Investigation of the rupture in tension and bending of DP980
steel sheet. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences. 2014; 84(0):171181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2014.04.023. [ Links ]
Wang Z, Zhao A, Zhao Z, Ye J, Chen J and He J. Precipitation Behavior and textural
evolution of cold-rolled high strength deep drawing dual-phase steels. Journal of Iron
and Steel Research International. 2013; 20(12):61-68.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1006706X(13)60217-4. [ Links ]
Hassannejadasl A, Green DE, Golovashchenko SF, Samei J and Maris C. Numerical
modelling of electrohydraulic free-forming and die-forming of DP590 steel. Journal of
Manufacturing Processes. 2014; 16(3):391404.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.04.004. [ Links ]
Dillien S, Seefeldt M, Allain S, Bouaziz O and Van Houtte P. EBSD study of the
substructure development with cold deformation of dual phase steel. Materials Science
and Engineering A. 2010; 527(4-5):947953.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2009.09.009. [ Links ]
Oliver WC and Pharr GM. Measurements of hardness and elastic modulus by
instrumented indentation: Advances in understanding and refinements to methodology.
Journal of Materials Research. 2004; 19(1):320.http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.2004.19.1.3. [ Links ]
Kadkhodapour J, Butz A, Ziaei-Rad S and Schmauder S. A micro mechanical study on
failure initiation of dual phase steels under tension using single crystal plasticity model.
International Journal of Plasticity. 2011; 27(7):11031125. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2010.12.001. [ Links ]
Kadkhodapour J, Butz A and Ziaei-Rad S. Mechanisms of void formation during tensile
testing in a commercial, dual-phase steel. Acta Materialia. 2011; 59(7):25752588. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2010.12.039. [ Links ]
Randle V. Electron backscatter diffraction: strategies for reliable data acquisition and
processing. Materials Characterization. 2009; 60(9):913922. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2009.05.011. [ Links ]
Randle V and Engler O. Introduction to texture analysis: macrotexture, microtexture and
orientation mapping. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2010. 488 p. [ Links ]
Britton TB, Maurice C, Fortunier R, Driver JH, Day AP, Meaden G, et al. Factors affecting
the accuracy of high resolution electron backscatter diffraction when using simulated
patterns. Ultramicroscopy. 2010; 110(12):14431453. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ultramic.2010.08.001. PMid:20888125. [ Links ]
Ohashi T, Barabash RI, Pang JWL, Ice GE and Barabash OM. X-ray micro-diffraction and
strain gradient crystal plasticity studies of geometrically necessary dislocations near a Ni
bicrystal grain boundary. International Journal of Plasticity. 2009; 25(5):920941. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2008.04.009. [ Links ]
Li H, Hsu E, Szpunar J, Utsunomiya H and Sakai T. Deformation mechanism and texture
and microstructure evolution during high-speed rolling of AZ31B Mg sheets. Journal of
Materials Science. 2008; 43(22):7148-7156.http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-0083021-3. [ Links ]
Wright SI, Nowell MM and Field DP. A review of strain analysis using electron backscatter
diffraction. Microscopy and Microanalysis. 2011; 17(3):316329. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1431927611000055. PMid:21418731. [ Links ]
Khan MK, Hainsworth SV, Fitzpatrick ME and Edwards L. A combined experimental and
finite element approach for determining mechanical properties of aluminium alloys by
nanoindentation. Computational Materials Science. 2010; 49(4):751760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2010.06.018. [ Links ]
Liu Z, Sun J and Shen W. Study of plowing and friction at the surfaces of plastic
deformed metals. Tribology International. 2002; 35(8):511522. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-679X(02)00046-4. [ Links ]
Chang SH, Chen JZ, Hsiao SH and Lin GW. Nanohardness, corrosion and protein
adsorption properties of CuAlO2 films deposited on 316L stainless steel for biomedical
applications. Applied Surface Science. 2014; 289(0):455461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2013.11.004. [ Links ]
Nix WD and Gao H. Indentation size effects in crystalline materials: A law for strain
gradient plasticity. Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids. 1998; 46(3):411425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5096(97)00086-0. [ Links ]
Delinc M, Jacques PJ and Pardoen T. Separation of size-dependent strengthening
contributions in fine-grained Dual Phase steels by nanoindentation. Acta Materialia.
2006; 54(12):3395-3404.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2006.03.031. [ Links ]
Imandoust A, Zarei-Hanzaki A, Heshmati-Manesh S, Moemeni S and Changizian P.
Effects of ferrite volume fraction on the tensile deformation characteristics of dual phase
twinning induced plasticity steel. Materials & Design. 2014; 53:99105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.06.033. [ Links ]
Sun S and Pugh M. Properties of thermomechanically processed dual-phase steels
containing fibrous martensite. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2002; 335(1-2):298308. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01942-6. [ Links ]
Calcagnotto M, Adachi Y, Ponge D and Raabe D. Deformation and fracture mechanisms in
fine- and ultrafine-grained ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels and the effect of aging.
Acta Materialia. 2011; 59(2):658-670.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2010.10.002.
[ Links ]
Ashby MF. The deformation of plastically non-homogeneous materials. Philosophical
Magazine. 1970; 21(170):399-424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14786437008238426.
[ Links ]
Demir E, Raabe D, Zaafarani N and Zaefferer S. Investigation of the indentation size
effect through the measurement of the geometrically necessary dislocations beneath
small indents of different depths using EBSD tomography. Acta Materialia. 2009;
57(2):559-569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2008.09.039. [ Links ]
Calcagnotto M, Ponge D, Demir E and Raabe D. Orientation gradients and geometrically
necessary dislocations in ultrafine grained dual-phase steels studied by 2D and 3D EBSD.
Materials Science and Engineering A. 2010; 527(10-11):27382746. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2010.01.004. [ Links ]
Mughrabi H. On the current understanding of strain gradient plasticity. Materials Science
and Engineering: A. 2004; 387-389:209213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2004.01.086. [ Links ]
e-mail: igarcia@cenim.csic.es
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited.
Optimization of bending sequence in roll forming using neural network and genetic
algorithm
Authors
Authors and affiliations
Hong-Seok ParkEmail author
Tran-Viet Anh
1.
1.
Article
First Online:
01 September 2011
DOI: 10.1007/s12206-011-0533-6
Cite this article as:
Park, H. & Anh, T. J Mech Sci Technol (2011) 25: 2127. doi:10.1007/s12206011-0533-6
2Citations
417 Views
Abstract
In the roll forming process, the bending sequence plays a major role in the product quality.
The optimal bending sequence results in the smallest number of passes and the flawless
process. This paper presents a new optimization procedure of bending sequence in a roll
forming process. The multilayer perceptron is used to build the neural network (NN), which
models the variation of longitudinal strain in process while the genetic algorithm (GA) is
employed to optimize the bending sequence. The data used for training the network is
automatically obtained by the integration between CAD and CAE. The values of peak
longitudinal strains are maximized while the number of passes is reduced to the smallest and
the constraint conditions being set on the maximal longitudinal strain to avoid buckling. The
overbending at final pass after spring back is also considered in this paper. Two roll forming
processes are optimized in order to prove applicability and efficiency of the optimization
procedure. This method maintains the longitudinal strain less than the buckling limit, whereas
reducing the number of passes to the smallest. Thus, the advantages of the proposed method
show the high applicability in designing and optimizing the bending sequence in the roll
forming process.
Keywords
Park Hong Seok received his M.S. degree in 1987 from RWTH Aachen,
Germany, and Ph.D. in 1992 from the University of Hannover, Germany. He
is currently a Professor at the School of Mechanical and Automotive
Engineering, University of Ulsan, Korea. His current interests concern
collaborative design for concurrent engineering, application area of
CAD/CAM, and knowledge management systems.
Tran Viet Anh received his B.Sc. degree in 2009 from Ho Chi Minh
University of Technology, VietNam, and M.S. in 2011, from the University of
Ulsan, Korea. His research interests concern fracture mechanics, composite
material, neural network, genetic algorithm and other evolutionary
algorithms.
References
1.
[1]
K. Salonitis, J. Paralikas and G. Chryssolouris, Roll forming of AHSS: Numerical
simulation and investigation of effects of main process parameters on
quality, 1st International Conference of Engineering Against Fracture, Patras,
Greece (May 2008).
2.
[2]
M. Farzin, M. S. Tehrania and E. Shamelia, Determination of buckling limit of
strain in cold roll forming by the finite element analysis, Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, 125126 (2002) 626632.CrossRef
3.
[3]
G. Zeng, S. H. Li, Z. Q. Yu and X. M. Lai, Optimization design of roll profiles for
cold roll forming based on response surface method, Materials & Design, 30
(2008) 19301938.CrossRef
4.
[4]
J. Paralikas, K. Salonitis and G. Chryssolouris, Optimization of roll forming process
parameters a semi-empirical approach. The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 47 (2009) 10411052.CrossRef
5.
[5]
H. S. Park and T. V. Anh, Optimization of process parameters for minimizing the
spring back angle in roll forming process, Korean Society of Mechanical
Engineering Conference(2-2010) 105107.
6.
[6]
[7]
A. Downes and P. Hartley, Using an artificial neural network to assist roll design in
cold roll-forming processes, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 177
(2006) 319322.CrossRef
8.
[8]
J. Paralikas, K. Salonitis and G. Chryssolouris, Investigation of the roll forming
process parameters effect on the quality of an AHSS open profile, International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 44 (2009) 223237.CrossRef
9.
[9]
Y. Ledoux, P. Sebastian and S. Samper, Optimization method for stamping tools
under reliability constraints using genetic algorithms and finite element
simulations, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 210 (2010) 474
486.CrossRef
10.
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
G. T. Halmos, Roll forming handbook, CRC Taylor & Francis, New York (2005) 5645-73.CrossRef
wjbotta@ufscar.br