Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Business Research

Where is Islamic marketing heading?

A commentary on Jafari and Sandikci's (2015) Islamic consumers,
markets, and marketing
Noha El-Bassiouny
Marketing, Faculty of Management Technology, The German University in Cairo (GUC), Main Entrance Al Tagamoa Al Khames, New Cairo City 11835, Egypt

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 1 April 2015
Received in revised form 1 May 2015
Accepted 1 May 2015
Available online 4 June 2015
Keywords:
Islamic marketing
Marketing
Culture
Religion
Research approaches
Marginalization

a b s t r a c t
Developments in the growing eld of Islamic marketing raise scholarly interest into its foundational principles
and the many directions the eld is taking. Guided by the diversity in general marketing thought and the related
literature, as well as the abundant research approaches investigating the socio-religious and societal aspects of
marketing, this article raises critical questions around the emerging eld of Islamic marketing. The article is a rejoinder to Jafari and Sandikci's (2015) commentary on El-Bassiouny (2014) offering a critical account of Islamic
marketing in an effort to guide the eld's development trajectories and engage in intellectual dialogue with
interested scholars, practitioners, and educators.
2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In A History of Schools of Marketing Thought, Shaw and Jones
(2005) highlight the different paradigms governing the marketing discipline and their development, including the exchange school, macromarketing, marketing management, consumer behavior, and others.
The reader appreciates the diversity within the discipline and the
dynamic developments, trajectories, and approaches underlying
marketing thought. Scholars delve into the interdisciplinary overlaps
between marketing and psychology; marketing and sustainability
(Hamed, El-Bassiouny, & Terns, 2015; Varey, 2011); marketing
and public policy (Wilkie & Moore, 2003); and marketing and religion
(e.g., Kuzma, Kuzma, & Kuzma, 2009; Lindridge, 2005; Mittelstaedt &
Mittelstaedt, 2005; Wilkes, Burnett, & Howell, 1986). These intersections and diversity in the schools of marketing thought have resulted
in emerging elds that aim to advance the discipline, while contributing
and relating to the reality of our times. For instance, the discourse
on sustainability marketing is gaining strong momentum (Belz &
Peattie, 2009; Martin & Schouten, 2012; Schaefer & Crane, 2005).
Those who watched the documentaries Confessions of a Shopaholic
and Supersize Me can also relate to the modern shades, shadows,

E-mail address: Noha.elbassiouny@guc.edu.eg.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.05.012
0148-2963/ 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

and projections of consumption (Bruckheimer & Hogan, 2009;

Spurlock & Spurlock, 2004). Roberto, Pomeranz, and Fisher
(2014) lament the hazards of unhealthy food consumption (cf.
Ammar, El-Bassiouny, & Hawash, 2015). Adib and El-Bassiouny
(2012), Buckingham (2000), and Hawkes (2004), among others,
address some of the problems related to young consumers (cf.
El-Bassiouny, Taher, & Abou-Aish, 2008, 2011). Kotler (2011) highlights the environmental imperative in marketing. Additionally,
marketing scholarship generally reects these trends in unrestricted
ways (Abela, 2006; Abela & Murphy, 2008; Mick, 2006, 2007; Mick,
Broniarczyk, & Haidt, 2004).
Yet, despite the growth in critical marketing studies and trajectories such as public policy and marketing (Burton, 2001; Tadajewski &
Saren, 2008; Wilkie & Moore, 2003), macro-marketing (Shultz,
2007; Wilkie & Moore, 2006; Witkowski, 2010), and sustainability
marketing (Belz & Peattie, 2009; Schrader, 2007), the discussions
are still conned to the groups of scholars advocating them (Shultz,
2007; Wilkie & Moore, 2003). This restriction includes the discourse
on religion and marketing, though recent issues have led to calls in
leading marketing journals for more research in this eld
(e.g., Benton, 2014; Engelland, 2014). Publications represent different religious paradigms and approaches, including Islam and Islamic marketing, an emerging sub-discipline that caters to the growing
needs of Islamic consumers, which is the focus of this article
(Alserhan, 2011; El-Bassiouny, 2014; Jamal & Sharifuddin, 2015;
Saeed, Ahmed, & Mukhtar, 2001; Wilson & Liu, 2011).

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N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

According to Sandikci and Jafari (2013, p. 411), in recent years,

Islam has become highly visible in media, politics, and the marketplace.
The increasing popular and academic attention to Islam is partly driven
by the events of 9/11 and the related imperative to better understand
Muslims (cf. El-Bassiouny, 2014; Esposito & Mogahed, 2007;
Hofmann, 2001). However, approaches driving this understanding
differ in much the same way as the approaches governing global marketing paradigms and thought differ. Mirroring the diversity in scholarship, research approaches, and methods, researchers delving into
Islamic marketing have also been diverse. Jafari and Sandikci (2015),
however, propose that the eld be guided by cultural interpretivist
encounter-oriented studies of Islamic consumers and marketspaces
(see also previous communication of these views in Jafari (2012) and
Sandikci (2011)). The authors critique El-Bassiouny (2014), as an example of most of the works in this eld, for proposing (in the authors' perceptions) a more exceptionalist values-based religion-oriented
approach. Such critique is welcomed, and indeed the advancement of
growing disciplines requires such critical discourse. Jafari and Sandikci
(2015) are acknowledged for their well-reected commentary that
aims to create dialogue and advance the eld of Islamic marketing.
Yet, key questions must be raised in this process. This commentary is
thus structured as follows. First, questions underlying religion, morality,
and sustainable society in marketing and the related literature are
raised. Second, in an effort to guide scholarship in Islamic marketing,
the development praxis of the Islamic marketing eld is critically
addressed. This is followed by briey highlighting the different philosophical approaches to knowledge and research inquiry potentially
guiding Islamic marketing studies. Finally, concluding remarks are
offered supporting Jafari and Sandikci (2015) in opening new doors to
scholarship in this eld and harnessing the potential benets that this
has for marketing scholarship and practice.
2. Religion, morality, and sustainable society
At the World Economic Forum (WEF), 2010, faith was raised as an
important component governing values for the post-crisis economy.
The report notes:
The current economic crisis should warn us to fundamentally rethink the development of the moral framework and the regulatory
mechanisms that underpin our economy, politics, and global interconnectedness. It would be a wasted opportunity for all of us if we
pretended that the crisis was simply a momentary hurdle. If we
want to keep society together, then a sense of community and
solidarity are more important now than ever before (World
Economic Forum (WEF), 2010, p. v)
This perspective resonates in popular movies and documentaries
like Too Big to Fail (Swerdlow & Hanson, 2011) and Inside Job (Marrs.
et al., 2010), which continue to provoke discussion around the moralities underlying the global nancial system during the events of the nancial crisis (Vsquez, 2008; Wallis, 2010; Wuthnow, 2004). On the
other hand, scholars like Reuben (1996) note the marginalization of
morality in intellectual thought. Ghoshal (2005) questions the immorality of amorality in business education in general. The discussions in
the Journal of Business Ethics and others reect the continuous global
scholarly discourse around morality in management, which occasionally borrow from hypothetical theories such as that in John Rawl's A Theory of Justice (Doorn, 2010). In marketing, Kotler, Kartajaya, and
Setiawan (2010, p. 20) reect that supplying meaning is the future
value proposition in marketing and that marketing 3.0 (of the future)
is values-driven within a global and culturally-diverse society (cf.
Varey, 2011). Marketing consultancies also conrmed this when they
emphasized that Muslim consumers, for example, seek brands that
embrace the values that are important to them: humility, transparency,
purity and togetherness; brands that shape the communities they serve

and demonstrate a higher purpose that goes beyond product delivery

(Khan & Janmohamed, 2011, no page).
Considerable research examines the overlaps between religions as
sources of wisdom, morality, and sustainability (Minton & Kahle,
2013; Nasr, 1997; Tucker, 2008; Tucker & Grim, 2001). Scholars examine the many facets of how religion impacts behavior in the marketplace
(Delener, 1994; Fam, Waller, & Erdogan, 2004; Lever & Miele, 2012;
Minton & Kahle, 2013), and how different faiths shape or could shape
management and marketing in practice and their implications
(Friedman, 2000, 2001). This inuential intellectual discourse has traditionally aimed to offer understanding, wisdom, and guidance, though
has not traditionally been perceived as exceptionalist or as dichotomizing the other. Likewise, Islam is guided by a well-articulated moral
code of conduct (e.g., Quran 6:119). Recent works in the emerging domain of Islamic marketing (Alserhan, 2010, 2011; El-Bassiouny, 2014;
Koku & Jusoh, 2015; Wilson, 2012, among others) rely on this notion
based on guidance from previous publications in the eld (e.g., Saeed
et al., 2001). In much the same ways that marketing scholars have
attempted to dene marketing and macro-marketing in terms of societal ends, and sustainability marketing in terms of the sustainability
discourse, scholars within the growing eld of Islamic marketing have
also attempted to dene Islamic marketing by referring to the relevant
precepts of Islam. The following quotes are from Wilson's (2012, p. 6)
denition: An acknowledgement of a God-conscious approach to marketing: from a marketer's and/or consumer's perspective, which draws
from the drivers or traits associated with Islam; a school of thought
which has a moral compass which tends toward the ethical norms
and values of Islam and how Muslims interpret these, from their varying
cultural lenses; a multi-layered, dynamic and three-dimensional phenomenon of Muslim and non-Muslim stakeholder engagement, which
can be understood by considering the creation of explicit and/or implicit
signaling cultural artifacts facilitated by marketing; And so, Islamic
marketing is denitely more than simply meat and money (Wilson &
Liu, 2010). Muslims, like any other consumer segment or sub-culture,
love fashion, entertainment, cosmetics and holidays but most importantly exhibit unique and identiable homogenous traits.
According to El-Bassiouny (2014), Islam is a global religion and way
of life that goes beyond geo-political connes, and because the Islamic
ideology is a paradigm that transcends all acts of life, Muslim believers
naturally expect that business conduct, and hence marketing as well,
will be impacted by the precepts of their faith. If marketers are to relate
more effectively to Muslim consumers, then some study of the distinctive aspects of Islam are warranted (p. 43). This is relevant because
congruence should exist between belief and action in much the same
ways we expect consumer attitudes to match their behaviors
(Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004). According to the tri-component attitude
model, attitudes have a cognitive, affective, and conative/behavioral
component, i.e., a positive answer to an attitude intention question
impacts in a positive way on the actual brand purchase . Consumers
generally have favorable attitudes toward those brands/issues that
they believe have an adequate level of attributes that they evaluate as
positive . (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004, p. 252284). Some recent experimental consumer research examines factors affecting consumers'
emotional versus rational decision-making processes (Hong & Chang,
2015). The attitudebehavior congruency is more pertinent in Islam
since, from that perspective, man is God's (Allah's) trustee and is thus
entrusted with the amanah (trust) of preserving His wisdom and
guidance (Quran 33:72). In that sense, actions that are inconsistent
with beliefs present an irrational predicament, and the Quran clearly
stipulates that belief should be mirrored in action when addressing believers as those who believe and perform good deeds (e.g., Quran 2:82
and 103:3 among other verses). In addition, according to developmental
psychology literature, the moral behavior of older children, adolescents,
and adults is more likely to be consistent with their moral judgments,
providing room for tentative predictions from attitudinal dispositions
to actual behavior (Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990, p. 457).

N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

Occasionally, however, a dichotomy exists between the widely held

beliefs and actions of followers of a certain religious faith, with similar
dichotomies reported in mainstream marketing literature. For example,
some studies show that despite anti-smoking campaigns and hazardous
labels on cigarette packs, consumers exhibit higher cigarette consumption (Lindstrom, 2009). While it is worth studying both beliefs and
attitudes versus actual behaviors in terms of relating attitudes to behaviors, scholars must not overlook or underestimate the importance of
identifying the religious ethos. In examining consumerism, Sandikci
and Jafari (2013, p. 414) highlight that the emphasis on consumption
and market dynamics in studying Muslim societies coincides with the
general increase in consumerism in many of these countries, along
with neoliberal restructuring. The authors reect that the rise of
Islamic fashions, leisure spaces, coffee shops, media, and brands
attracted the attention of marketing scholars as well (p. 414). However,
while consumption is warranted, it is critical to understand that
according to Islamic texts, extravagant consumption is not (Quran
7:31). The get-rich-quick mindset contradicts the Islamic value of
contentment (Nadwi, 2006), which shows some similarities with
recent marketing scholarship addressing concerns around overconsumption (e.g., Kjellberg, 2008; Minton & Kahle, 2013; Peattie &
Peattie, 2009; Scott, Martin, & Schouten, 2014; Varey, 2011). Should
this be overlooked in Islamic marketing research for the hypothetical
and perceptual fear of singularity and exceptionalism? Should it be
omitted in studies relating Islam and Islamic precepts to markets, marketing, and consumption? Should we simplistically render and reduce
any presentation of Islamic tenets relevant to the consumptionscape
as apologetic and exceptionalist (Jafari, 2012), essentialist
(Sandikci, 2011), political fundamentalist, showing unreexive
commitment, or all simultaneously (Jafari & Sandikci, 2015)? A focus
on cultural artifacts per se would hamper the potential benets from religious wisdom (in general) in advancing scholarship in terms of the
sustainable society discussions. For example, the relationship between
sustainable consumption, ecological friendliness, and the halal has
been reected in the recent term eco-halal (Eco-Halal: How Food
Brands can Market to Muslims?, 2012). Ogilvy's Noor Brand Index
ranking global brands based on Muslim consumer perceptions also
relates Islamic shari'ah values to sustainability (Ogilvy Publishes Index
of Muslim Friendly Brands, 2010). These discussions merge religionbased ethos, its applications in practice, and the sustainability marketing discourse.
The current literature focusing on sustainability and marketing
raises a similarly important and analogous question: whether overconsuming sustainable brands is sustainable. In much the same way
that Mick, Bateman, and Lutz (2009) question the foundations of
consumer wisdom, we can also inquire whether over-consumption of
sustainable brands is consistent with Islamic wisdom. In that
sense, understanding Islamic marketing in the context of scripture,
and not just the practice (without undermining the importance of also
understanding the various cultural faces of practice), is more relevant
to the discussions around a sustainable society. A guiding question,
therefore, is whether Islamic marketing as a domain should be based
primarily around religion or culture.
3. Developments in Islamic marketing: religion- or cultureoriented?
According to Sandikci and Jafari (2013, p. 414), Islamic marketing
and its scholarship have two main approaches: one focusing on managerial perspectives in terms of Muslims as a consumer segment in business practice (e.g., El-Bassiouny, 2014; Esso & Dibb, 2004), and second
taking more of a critical cultural perspective (e.g., Karababa & Ger,
2011; Sobh, Belk, & Gressel, 2012). While it may initially be unclear
why the division is necessary (in that it creates polarity and holds the
implicit assumption of otherness), both are important and together
serve the development and explanation of the different faces and

571

complexities of Islamic marketing and consumption. Outside of either

managerial or cultural approaches, Islamic marketing includes many
studies relating marketing and consumption phenomena to Islamic precepts (e.g., El-Bassiouny, 2014; Kadirov, 2014; Koku & Jusoh, 2015;
Wilson, 2012; see also studies in extant literature such as Williams &
Zinkin, 2010). These studies are religion-oriented (exceptionalist, reductionist, essentialist, and ethnocentric, as collectively described
by the authors in this and previous works, cf. Jafari, 2012; Sandikci,
2011), and which Jafari and Sandikci (2015) consider the bulk of the
studies in the eld of Islamic marketing that El-Bassiouny (2014) exemplies. Studies in Islamic marketing have also related to religion
and stretched with culture, i.e., combined elements of both (e.g., Jamal
& Sharifuddin, 2015). Jafari (2012, p. 28), however, discusses critical
views against theology-oriented studies by reducing all research referring to Islamic jurisdiction as monotonously described with reference to the traditional dogmatic frameworks (e.g., Halal/Haram) and
considers this a monotonous connement of Islam within rigid
boundaries (p. 267). Such compartmentalization of Islamic concepts
and totalitarian conclusion is offered in aggregate and in the extreme
without examining the diversity inherent to the Islamic jurisdiction,
its multiple schools of thought, its underlying inter-relationships with
the many other tenets in Islam (e.g., morality/akhlaq, creed/aqidah),
and the dynamic nature of this discourse in relation to culture. A
detailed discussion of such inter-relationships is beyond the scope of
this work.
Jafari and Sandikci (2015) also clearly echo the cultural experiential
approach to Islamic marketing and interpret what they term managerial perspectives to Islamic marketing as depicting a monolithic view
of Muslims and a dichotomy between Islam and the West. Three critical points are important to note here. First, from an Islamic point of
view, the main reference for Muslim adherents is the Holy Quran and
Prophetic traditions (Asad, 1986; Jafari, 2012). In that sense, religion
guides Muslims, not culture. According to Wilson and Liu (2011), the
religion of Islam and its scripture represent a divine standard, yet its
interpretation and the associated scholarship are not divine and are
subject to culture. Islamic wisdom is guided by Divine knowledge that
transcends the boundaries of time and space. Islam aims at setting
moral standards that do not benet one country or culture at certain
points in time (refer to El-Bassiouny, 2014 for a brief description of
the precepts of the Islamic faith in the context of Islamic marketing).
There is wide room and exibility in the cultural variations and applications of Islamic scripture, yet this is maintained by both the spirit/objectives of Islamic legislation and the boundaries of halal/lawful and
haram/prohibited as general categories reected in Islamic marketing
practice regardless of researchers' personal convictions. For instance,
the halal industry is recently estimated at $2.3 trillion (Wilson, 2014).
Objective research, therefore, cannot overlook this fact.
Mirroring the basics of Islamic creed (aqidah) of God-consciousness
and individual accountability, Islamic consumers should engage in a continuous self-reective process about their consumption styles and habits
in terms of Islam's values, and Islamic marketing scholarship should aid
in this critical self-reective process. However, this self-reective process
is essentially non-judgmental, since Islam holds that the scale of superiority, judgment, and forgiveness is only with the Creator, and diversity is a
basic principle in the Islamic creed (Qur'an 11:1189).
According to El-Bassiouny (2014, p. 44), as an aside, the application
of (the Islamic) paradigm in reality is tainted with the different colors of
culture and is subject to the imperfections pertinent to the very nature
of human beings. Surely, Muslims as human beings living within circles
of peers, families, friends, and colleagues, subject to local and global
trajectories can (and will) have different manifestations of their Islamic
religiosity, yet separating the scripture from the practice underlies a
metaphysical separation of the Islam in Islamic marketing. This
separation contradicts the history of scholarship and scientic progress related to Islam and Islamic civilizations that have reconciled
the occident and the orient in terms of theological Islam, Islamic

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N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

history, science, and Islamic cultural artifacts (Guessoum, 2010;

Hirschman, 2013).
Secondly, marketing basics highlight the importance of understanding different consumer segments and relating to their needs (Kotler and
Armstrong, 2006). Mirroring the holistic view of Islamic legislation
through its prime underpinning objectives (maqasid ash-shari'ah) and
seeing Islam not only as a culture but as creed (aqidah), worship
(ebadat), interactions (mu'amalaat), and morality (akhlaq), ElBassiouny (2014) attempted to set a humble precedent aimed at
presenting a macro-marketing view (see p. 46) of the potential implications of Islamic marketing according to the macro-level and integrated
approach of the spirit and heart of Islam; namely the sources and
goals of Islamic shari'ah (refer to Fig. 1 for an illustration of the broad
objectives/maqasid of Islamic legislation and Fig. 2 for an overall
depiction of the transcendental values integration model discussed
in El-Bassiouny, 2014). It is imperative to highlight that the maqasid
ash-shari'ah represent shari'ah's objectives and not shari'ah itself in
the aggregate monolithic sense (as Jafari & Sandikci, 2015 contend).
No manuscript can capture shari'ah (all Islamic legislation and jurisdiction) in its wholeness, complexity, and varied interpretations in relation
to all aspects of life. The maqasid ash-shari'ah of preservation of self,
intellect, posterity, wealth, and faith represent the soul of Islamic legislation that permeate its inherent value system, and offer a broad framework for actions and deeds consistent with its morals, priorities, and
ideals. The ultimate aim of the maqasid, is achieving falah (felicity

and success) in both the mundane and eternal lives. Ogilvy & Mather
veried through application the importance of considering foundational
values when addressing Muslim consumers and this underpinned the
launch of Ogilvy Noor, where reports reveal that the global Muslim consumer segment is looking into products and brands that match shari'ah
values (Ogilvy & Mather's Research Reveals Rise of New Muslim
Consumer Segment, 2010). Practical reports also highlighted that
shari'ah represents a moral compass for Muslim consumers in addition to its legislative aspect (Do Muslim consumers want shariah, and
what does it mean anyway?, 2013).
Third, the fact is that Islam is part of the West (also a contested
term depicting a broad category for research simplicitycf. Ferguson,
2011) and its cultural fabric, and Muslims have been living in the
West for decades without a solidied demarcation based on voicing or
practicing their faith, though they have experienced occasional tension
(Jamal & Shukor, 2014; Smith, 2010). Since Islam is not just a religion,
but a way of life guided by a values-based approach (Saeed et al.,
2001), and a transcendental tradition beyond an internal spiritual
state per se (Alom & Haque, 2011), understanding its adherents' practices based on its original sources is necessary. This view also includes
culturally-oriented studies notwithstanding those that investigate
problematic products and servicescapes from the Islamic point of
view (e.g., alcohol, pork, gambling). In that sense, the marginalization
of Islamic consumers in the consumptionscape naturally does not lie
in the presence of all products in countries with Muslims or in the

Invigoration of the
human self (Nafs)

Dignity,
Self-respect,
human
brotherhood
and social
equality
(1)

Justice
(2)

Need
fulfillment
(8)

Employment and
selfemploymen
t
(9)

Wealth (Mal)

Spiritual
and Moral
Uplift
(3)

Equitable
distributio
n of
income
and
wealth
(10)

Security
of Life,
property
and honor
(4)

Freedom
(5)

Education
(6)

Good
governance
(7)

Marriage
and proper
upbringing
of children
(11)

Family
and social
solidarity
(12)

Minimization of
crime and
anomie
(13)

Mental
peace and
happiness
(14)

Intellect (Aql)

Posterity (Nasl)

Faith (Din)

Human well-being (Falah)

Fig. 1. The objectives of Islamic legislation (Maqasid Ash-shari'ah).

Source: Chapra, Khan, and Al Shaikh-Ali (2008).

N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

573

Islamic Religiosity
(adapted from Krauss et al., 2005)

Religious Personality
(Worship/Preservation of Shariah
Objectives)
General Worship ('Ebadaat/relations
with creator),
Special Worship (Muamalat/
relations with creation)

Islamic Worldview
(Tawhidic /God -Consciousness/Life
Purpose)
Aqidah Foundation
Knowledge/ Beliefs and the Six
Articles of Faith

Marketing Implications
- Intrinsic Motivations and Extrinsic/Manifest
Behavior (Individual/Consumer Ethics, Halal
Consumption and Social Responsibility)
- Decreased Materialism (Prioritization of Values)
- Decreased Consumerism

Individual
Consumer

- Islamic Code of Ethics (holistic view of Shariah).

- Comprehension of Islamic Religiosity Impact on
Consumer Behavior (High Consumer Involvement).
- Comprehension of Muslim Segment Needs.
- Importance of Social and Cause-Related Marketing.
- Marketing Organizational Practice (e.g. Shura).
- Islamic Marketing Consulting Service.
- Co-creation Business Models

Professional
Marketer &
Regulatory Bodies

- Islamic Perspective incorporation in Marketing

Education (Intellectual Islamism).

Educator

Transcendental Values Integration

Fig. 2. The transcendental values integration model conceptualizing Islamic religiosity and its marketing implications.

presence of cross-cultural and mutually-benecial trade between countries (as Jafari & Sandikci, 2015 contend), but in contested products and
services and in the presence of halal options for these prohibited/problematic products and services that cater to the needs of diverse Muslim
audiences (such as the mandatory presence of alcohol in all 5-star hotel
rooms, even in Muslim-majority countries/geographies). From the Islamic shari'ah perspective, everything is considered halal unless Islamic
texts clearly prohibit an action or product/service (Wilson & Liu, 2010,
p. 108). Various studies address the importance of catering to the
needs of Muslim consumers and the provision of better logistical and
other support systems for halal products (cf. Tieman, Ghazali, & Van
der Vorst, 2013 for a comparative study between Malaysia and the
Netherlands; Bonne, Vermeir, Bergeaud-Blackler, & Verbeke, 2007 for
a study on halal consumption in France; Alhabshi, 2013 for a study on
halal food dilemmas in Canada; Wan-Hassan & Awang, 2009 for a
study on the problems faced by Muslim travelers seeking halal foods
in New Zealand; and Yusof & Shutto, 2014 for a study on the
overlooked halal segment in Japan). Hence, Muslims are no longer
an ethnic minority (religion being one of the objective characteristics

of dening ethnicity according to Burton (2005), cited in El-Bassiouny

(2015, p. 110)), but rather a global and viable one-billion-plus consumer segment. For example, there were an estimated 17 million Muslims in
Western Europe alone in 2010 (Ferguson, 2011, p. 290). According to
Ferguson (2011, p. 267), religion and the importance of God are also
highest of all in the Muslim countries of the Middle East. The practical
implications are veried by the compounding growth in the global halal
industry (Lever & Miele, 2012). Recent studies have also highlighted the
importance of halal labeling (Bonne & Verbeke, 2008; Jamal &
Sharifuddin, 2015; Sahin, Pekkirbizli, Kayser, & Theuvsen, 2014). If we
include the consideration of halal products as humane and healthy
(El-Bassiouny, 2014, p. 47; Ismaeel & Blaim, 2012), this market could
also include non-Muslim consumer segments, thus becoming even
more viable.
Prior literature investigates non-Muslims' interest in halal products
(e.g., Ahmad, Sidek, Adi, Jusoh, & Soon, 2013; Haque, Sarwar, Yasmin,
Tarofder, & Hossain, 2015; Ismail & Nasiruddin, 2014; Mathew,
Abdullah, & Ismail, 2014). Simultaneously, practitioners have also capitalized on that trend by pitching their products' value propositions

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N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

toward health-conscious consumers as certied humane (e.g., Clark,

2013; see also Sadaf Mission Statement, 2015, addressing a global audience on all continents and offering both kosher and halal certied
products). It is true that some companies encountered some public
backlash from offering halal products (El-Bassiouny, 2014; Jafari &
Sandikci, 2015), yet other companies targeted by anti-halal movements
have harnessed the opportunity costs of their halal offerings and
effectively dealt with the situation using their successful business
operations and their belief in the value of multiculturalism and diversity
(e.g., Mackenzie, 2014). Halal Muslim food organizations also monitor
products for non-halal ingredients to educate interested consumers
(Muslim Consumer Group, 2015). Hence, improving the understanding
of Islamic consumers and broadening the appeal of the halal concept
could decrease anti-halal movements and would serve both the social
and economic interests of retailers, as well as integrate Islamic
consumers into the mainstream retail sector rather than relegating
it to the margins in local halal grocery shops and butcheries (Jafari
& Sandikci, 2015, p. 3). A recent empirical report by Ogilvy Noor also
supports the practical importance of not marginalizing Muslim
consumers:
Ogilvy Noor research reveals that 86% of American Muslim consumers believe that American companies need to make more of
an effort to understand Muslim values, but at exactly the same time
they are feeling largely ignored by American brands and companies,
with 98% feeling that American brands don't actively reach out to
Muslim consumers. This despite these consumers showing the potential to be an extremely loyal customer base, with over 80% saying
that they would prefer to buy brands that support Muslim identity
through promotion and celebration of religious festivals, for example. And it's not just that these are great consumers to have on your
side it's also that they can be potentially vastly damaging to have
against you. When faced with a brand that has offended Muslims,
almost 99% of consumers said that they would stop using it, 65% doing so even if the available alternatives were not as good. To make
matters even more alarming, a full 83% feel it is their responsibility
to inform all their friends and family of what they know of the
brand's behavior. At Ogilvy Noor, we believe the best and, indeed,
only way to avoid such a situation is to start with a deep and
thorough understanding of Muslim consumer values and of how
these values affect daily consumption behavior. Only with this kind
of empathy can brands begin to appeal to Muslim consumers on
their terms, whether global or American. Almost 75% of our respondents want brands to make Muslims feel like an integral part of the
wider community, not a marginal group. American Muslim
consumers feel a deep need for inclusion in the fabric of American
life, especially in such troubled times, and believe that brands and
corporate America have a responsibility towards promoting that inclusivity (Hussain, 2010, p. 3 cf. Key Statistics section on p. 25).
In that sense, Islamic marketing represents the manifestation of
Jafari and Sandikci's (2015, p. 3) notion of the intricate geopolitics of
marginalization in the marketplace, notwithstanding the need to
address this marginalization through concerted interdisciplinary
research programs (as Jafari & Sandikci, 2015, p. 3 recommend), especially ones targeting the reactionary or proactive behavioral instances of
marginalized (religious) communities. Could the Islamic marketing
discourse, then, be alienated from the discussion?
At the same time, while occasional extravagance in Islamic branding
does occur (e.g., Rolls-Royce with Islamic Flavor, 2014), generalizations
about the phenomenon of Islamic branding should be done with
caution, reexivity, and thorough empirical research (cf. Jamal &
Sharifuddin, 2015; Sahin et al., 2014 for the importance and market
relevance of halal branding in the UK and Germany, respectively).
Studies could also be done in partnership with specialized practitioners,
such as Ogilvy Noor or other global rms, such as Latham & Watkins

Islamic Finance services (Latham and Watkins Islamic Finance

Practice, 2015).
At the research level, much of the empirical research into Islamic
marketing is guided by variations in research approaches. For example,
ethnography is normally associated with cultural studies and is based
on qualitative research inquiry (e.g., Moufahim, 2013), representing
the interpretivist view of scientic study. A critical reection on the
choice of philosophical paradigms advancing the eld is warranted.
4. Interpretivist versus positivist research approaches or mixed
methods?
Mapping out the territory of Islamic marketing is compounded not
only by the perceived presence of different research streams, but
also by different research approaches, epistemologies, and methodologies that have ontological bases; a cultural interpretivist approach, and
a quasi-positivistic approach. Both are well-used in marketing journals
to varying degrees, though the logical empiricist approach is by far the
most widely-used in marketing research (Arndt & Angelmar, 1983).
The development of Islamic marketing thought also relates to the
foundational aspects of the development of general marketing thought.
Day and Wensley (1983) have postulated that research development in
a eld is guided by its underlying paradigms that set the tone for the relevant and critical questions to address. Much of the classical ongoing
debate in the eld of marketing theory development comes from the
differentiation between the logical empiricism paradigm (positivism)
and the relativism paradigm with no consensus among scientists in
the eld (Arndt, 1985; Hunt, 1983, 1990; cf. Fig. 3 developed by
Anderson (1983) for the logical empiricism research process). Scholars
also frequently combine positivist and interpretive consumer research
based on the merits and research relevance of both approaches
(Schiffman & Kanuk, 2004), using Deshpande's (1983) suggested
mixed research method. Some recent publications in Business & Society
call for an investigation into new research approaches and methodologies to advance discussions and set novel research agendas (Crane,
Henriques, Husted, & Matten, 2015).
Islamic marketing, as a new eld of inquiry, is not immune from
these scholarly discussions, nor should it be. The emerging eld benets
from various research approaches and the diversity and proliferation of
various endeavors and philosophical paradigms (Koku & Jusoh, 2015,
p. 12). Koku and Jusoh (2015, p. 12) also believe that the ultimate

Perceptual Experiences

Image of Real -World

Structure

Negative
Feedback

A Priori Model or Theory

Hypotheses

Empirical
Tests

Not Confirmed

Confirmed
Tentatively Accept a
Priori Model or Theory
Fig. 3. The logical empiricist model of the scientic method.
Source: Anderson (1983).

N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

goal (of the discourse on theory building in Islamic marketing) should

be a position where a collection of all the logical statements on Islamic
marketing could be integrated well enough to make predictions or develop hypotheses that could be empirically tested. In that sense, conceptual models such as El-Bassiouny (2014), Wilson (2012), and
others should be seen as metaphor(s) of reality and metaphors cannot
capture realities in their full complexity (Arndt, 1985, p. 17). This
note should also guide future scholarship, research operationalization,
and construct measurements in Islamic marketing. In acknowledgment
of the diversity in Islamic marketing scholarship, the leading specialized
Islamic marketing journal, the Journal of Islamic Marketing (JIMA), has
published both positivist and interpretive research approaches relevant
to a variety of industries (e.g., Abd Rahman, Asrarhaghighi, & Abd
Rahman, 2015; Farrag & Hassan, 2015; Hamed & El-Bassiouny, 2013;
Hammad, El-Bassiouny, Paul, & Mukhopadhyay, 2014; Tieman, 2015;
Wilson & Liu, 2011). Recently, the JIMA has risen to Q2 and achieved a
ranking of 64 out of 158 on SCImago Journal and Country Rankings for
Marketing (2013) rankings for marketing journals.
If we take a contested construct as an example, religiosity is a
complex phenomenon (e.g., El-Bassiouny, 2014, p. 46), yet in Measures
of Religiosity edited by Hill and Hood (1999), scholars have attempted to
quantify this complexity, and relate it to Judeo-Christian religious paradigms (cf. Wilkes et al., 1986). Proposing a measurement of Islamic religiosity based on worldview and commitment (as depicted by Krauss,
Hamzah, & Juhari, 2005; cf. Jamal & Sharifuddin, 2015; Worthington
et al., 2003) is thus accepted as a starting point for conceptualizing
and capturing part of the complexity of this phenomenon inherent to
the specics of Islamic creed (aqidah). Invariably, all scientic research
is a simplication of reality. No claims by any scholar can be made to the
singularity of all Muslim consumers and or to capturing all complexities within the overlaps between a religion as profound as Islam and a
eld as diverse as marketing (see Fig. 4 for a summary conceptualization of the varied interactions and research approaches in Islamic
marketing).
Building on the ethos of religion, morality, and sustainable society,
and seconding Ghoshal's (2005) view that general amorality in business
eventually leads to immorality, questioning relativism's effectiveness as
an absolute dogma is warranted. Scholars must critically reect on the
value of extreme relativism in guiding how religious discourse in general, and the values-based Islamic approach specically, can propel
(Islamic) marketing, if at all.

5. Concluding remarks
Islamic marketing, guided by the precepts of the Islamic faith, is
a complex and multi-dimensional phenomenon that has been
investigated by many researchers using a variety of approaches, yet remains largely under-researched. Engaging in anti-monolithic scholarly

Culture-Oriented

Religion-Oriented

Islamic
Marketing

Interpretivist-Oriented

Positivist-Oriented

Fig. 4. Balanced dynamic Islamic marketing development praxis.

575

discussions such as this commentary, Jafari and Sandikci (2015), and

others echo the healthy spirit of self-critique and the progress of knowledge despite the daunting task of relating Islam and marketing. Setting
limitations on scholarly and philosophical approaches or on the
religious or cultural basis of investigation not only impedes the overall
development and advancement of the eld, but also questions the potential for faith-based sustainability marketing discussions. This rhetoric
underpins the key assumptions of El-Bassiouny (2014) and similar
efforts.
Future research approaches in the area of Islamic marketing need to
balance the richness of culture with the richness in Islam. For example,
future studies can examine culturally-oriented studies relevant to the
research propositions set in the transcendental values integration
model (El-Bassiouny, 2014 and Fig. 2), or other models in this or related
elds using a variety of research approaches. Studies can also look into
building models-in-contexts to predict behavioral tendencies with respect to particular marketing mix elements (Woodside, 2015). According to El-Bassiouny (2014, p. 45), due to the pluralistic and dynamic
nature of Islam, the relationship between Islam and marketing and the
marketing implications of the proposed model are also dynamic
and multi-dimensional, and for simplicity purposes, (were) depicted
in the form of research propositions . As is customary in empirical
studies, further research can verify or reject these propositions in the
context of differing cultures, the values of urbanization, and other inuences within the consumption sphere. According to El-Bassiouny
(2014, p. 46), Islamic application is affected by cultural interpretation and hence is culture-specic . Hence, the current propositions
should be studied in different contexts and cultures within the
Islamic world.
Studies should aim to identify and relate commonalities between
Islamic marketing and other areas of marketing and related elds, including sustainability, societal marketing, macromarketing, critical
studies, ethics, and others (e.g., El-Bassiouny, 2014, p. 43). Crosscountry studies have already been conducted to assess trans-national
cosmopolitan consumer segments and habits, and do not imply a singular or monolithic identity. These studies are common in marketing
research. For example, Ethical Consumer conducts studies pertinent to
ethical consumerism worldwide (e.g., Where are the Ethical
Consumers in Japan?, 2015). Parallelism with such studies and the
quest for commonality will enhance the dialogue and work to develop
knowledge. According to El-Bassiouny (2014, p. 47), cross-cultural understanding can lead to an emphasis on commonalities and result in
synergy. Acknowledging that the consumptionscape is not static, but
rather a dynamic process involving transformation (e.g., Abou-Yousef
et al., accepted for publication; Hammad & El-Bassiouny, 2015), research propositions could also be revisited at different points in time
using both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. The transcendental values integration model is only a starting point intending to
guide the discussion and highlight its relevance to different stakeholders: consumers, marketers, educators, and professional bodies.
Variations could evolve with variations in time, place, and marketspace,
as contested by Jafari and Sandikci (2015). While Islam is divine, its
man-made interpretations and reexivities are not.
Historical trajectories could impact research in Islamic marketing
(e.g., Hirschman, 2013). According to Guessoum (2010, p. 928), historically, Muslims subjected science to the Islamic mindset (as cited in
El-Bassiouny, 2015; cf. Hofmann, 2001). While there is collectivity in the
spirit of Islam (e.g., Jamal & Sharifuddin, 2015) and religion in general
(e.g., Vsquez, 2008), the view of a unied Islamic community
(ummah) for the purpose of Islamic marketing, is more on a spiritual
and moral level because of the shared values inherent in the Islamic
creed, regardless of whether it is a reality on a geo-political level. Recent
research has also looked into the relevance of spirituality and morality
in marketing (Vitell et al., 2015).
The primary aim of scientic research is to create new channels of
inquiry and open new doors to question underlying paradigms, which

576

N. El-Bassiouny / Journal of Business Research 69 (2016) 569578

is pertinent to all scientic endeavors and, therefore, does not imply

moral superiority. Inspired by the concern for societal welfare in the
macromarketing school of (marketing) thought, and echoing George
Fisk's (2001) imaginary hopes and aspirations that the purpose of
macro-marketing is to save the world (Witkowski, 2010, p. 4), adding
collectively is potent.

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