Nondestructive testing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analy
sis techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the propertie
s of a material, component or system without causing damage.[1] The terms Nondes
tructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI), and Nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology.[2] Because
NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valua
ble technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troublesh
ooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle,
liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current tes
ting,[1] and low coherence interferometry.[3][4] NDT is commonly used in forensi
c engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum engineering, electrical enginee
ring, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical engineering, medicine
, and art.[1] Innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a prof
ound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasono
graphy, and digital radiography.
Contents [hide]
1
Methods
2
Applications
2.1
Weld verification
2.2
Structural mechanics
2.3
Radiography in medicine
3
Notable events in early industrial NDT
4
Methods and techniques
5
Personnel training, qualification and certification
5.1
Definitions
5.2
Training
5.3
Certification schemes
5.4
Levels of certification
6
Terminology
7
Reliability and statistics
8
See also
9
References
9.1
Bibliography
Methods[edit]
NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent
properties of materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microsco
py to examine external surfaces in detail, although sample preparation technique
s for metallography, optical microscopy and electron microscopy are generally de
structive as the surfaces must be made smooth through polishing or the sample mu
st be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a sample can be examined
with penetrating radiation, such as X-rays, neutrons or terahertz radiation. Sou
nd waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defe
ct and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the unai
ded eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks. One method (liquid penetra
nt testing) involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescent, in fluids for n
on-magnetic materials, usually metals. Another commonly used NDT method used on
ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles (either liquid
or dry dust) that are applied to a part while it is in an externally magnetized
state (magnetic-particle testing). The particles will be attracted to leakage f
ields within the test object, and form on the objects surface. Magnetic particle
testing can reveal surface & some sub-surface defects within the part. Thermoel
ectric effect (or use of the Seebeck effect) uses thermal properties of an alloy
to quickly and easily characterize many alloys. The chemical test, or chemical
spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate
the presence of individual alloying elements. Electrochemical methods, such as e
lectrochemical fatigue crack sensors, utilize the tendency of metal structural m

aterial to oxidize readily in order to detect progressive damage.

Analyzing and documenting a non-destructive failure mode can also be accomplishe
d using a high-speed camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failur
e is detected. Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a sound detector
or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These
high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture some non-destructive
failures.[5] After the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The c
apture images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happen be
fore, during and after the non-destructive event, image by image.
Applications[edit]
NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial acti
vity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. Non-d
estructive testing methods are routinely applied in industries where a failure o
f a component would cause significant hazard or economic loss, such as in transp
ortation, pressure vessels, building structures, piping, and hoisting equipment.
Weld verification[edit]
1. Section of material with a surface-breaking crack that is not visible to the
naked eye.
2. Penetrant is applied to the surface.
3. Excess penetrant is removed.
4. Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible.
In manufacturing, welds are commonly used to join two or more metal parts. Becau
se these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, th
ere is a chance that they may fail if not created to proper specification. For e
xample, the base metal must reach a certain temperature during the welding proce
ss, must cool at a specific rate, and must be welded with compatible materials o
r the joint may not be strong enough to hold the parts together, or cracks may f
orm in the weld causing it to fail. The typical welding defects (lack of fusion
of the weld to the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variation
s in weld density) could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture.
Welds may be tested using NDT techniques such as industrial radiography or indus
trial CT scanning using X-rays or gamma rays, ultrasonic testing, liquid penetra
nt testing, magnetic particle inspection or via eddy current. In a proper weld,
these tests would indicate a lack of cracks in the radiograph, show clear passag
e of sound through the weld and back, or indicate a clear surface without penetr
ant captured in cracks.
Welding techniques may also be actively monitored with acoustic emission techniq
ues before production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly jo
in two materials.[6] In the case of high stress or safety critical welds, weld m
onitoring will be employed to confirm the specified welding parameters (arc curr
ent, arc voltage, travel speed, heat input etc.) are being adhered to those stat
ed in the welding procedure. This verifies the weld as correct to procedure prio
r to nondestructive evaluation and metallurgy tests.
Structural mechanics[edit]
Structure can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifet
ime, e.g. Lithium-ion batteries.[7] Some complex structures, such as the turbo m
achinery in a liquid-fuel rocket, can also cost millions of dollars. Engineers w
ill commonly model these structures as coupled second-order systems, approximati
ng dynamic structure components with springs, masses, and dampers. The resulting
sets of differential equations are then used to derive a transfer function that
models the behavior of the system.
In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic input, such as the tap of a hammer or

a controlled impulse. Key properties, such as displacement or acceleration at di

fferent points of the structure, are measured as the corresponding output. This
output is recorded and compared to the corresponding output given by the transfe
r function and the known input. Differences may indicate an inappropriate model
(which may alert engineers to unpredicted instabilities or performance outside o
f tolerances), failed components, or an inadequate control system.
Radiography in medicine[edit]
Chest radiography indicating a peripheral bronchial carcinoma.
As a system, the human body is difficult to model as a complete transfer functio
n. Elements of the body, however, such as bones or molecules, have a known respo
nse to certain radiographic inputs, such as x-rays or magnetic resonance. Couple
d with the controlled introduction of a known element, such as digested barium,
radiography can be used to image parts or functions of the body by measuring and
interpreting the response to the radiographic input. In this manner, many bone
fractures and diseases may be detected and localized in preparation for treatmen
t. X-rays may also be used to examine the interior of mechanical systems in manu
facturing using NDT techniques, as well.
Notable events in early industrial NDT[edit]
1854 Hartford, Connecticut: a boiler at the Fales and Gray Car works explodes, k
illing 21 people and seriously injuring 50. Within a decade, the State of Connec
ticut passes a law requiring annual inspection (in this case visual) of boilers.
1880 - 1920 The "Oil and Whiting" method of crack detection[8] is used in the ra
ilroad industry to find cracks in heavy steel parts. (A part is soaked in thinne
d oil, then painted with a white coating that dries to a powder. Oil seeping out
from cracks turns the white powder brown, allowing the cracks to be detected.)
This was the precursor to modern liquid penetrant tests.
1895 Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen discovers what are now known as X-rays. In his first p
aper he discusses the possibility of flaw detection.
1920 Dr. H. H. Lester begins development of industrial radiography for metals.
1924
Lester uses radiography to examine castings to be installed in a Boston Edi
son Company steam pressure power plant.
1926 The first electromagnetic eddy current instrument is available to measure m
aterial thicknesses.
1927 - 1928 Magnetic induction system to detect flaws in railroad track develope
d by Dr. Elmer Sperry and H.C. Drake.
1929 Magnetic particle methods and equipment pioneered (A.V. DeForest and F.B. D
oane.)
1930s Robert F. Mehl demonstrates radiographic imaging using gamma radiation fro
m Radium, which can examine thicker components than the low-energy X-ray machine
s available at the time.
1935 - 1940 Liquid penetrant tests developed (Betz, Doane, and DeForest)
1935 - 1940s Eddy current instruments developed (H.C. Knerr, C. Farrow, Theo Zus
chlag, and Fr. F. Foerster).
1940 - 1944 Ultrasonic test method developed in USA by Dr. Floyd Firestone, who
applies for a U.S. invention patent for same on May 27, 1940 and is issued the U
.S. patent as grant no. 2,280,226 on April 21, 1942. Extracts from the first two
paragraphs of this seminal patent for a nondestructive testing method succinctl
y describe the basics of ultrasonic testing. "My invention pertains to a device
for detecting the presence of inhomogeneities of density or elasticity in materi
als. For instance if a casting has a hole or a crack within it, my device allows
the presence of the flaw to be detected and its position located, even though t
he flaw lies entirely within the casting and no portion of it extends out to the
surface. ... The general principle of my device consists of sending high freque
ncy vibrations into the part to be inspected, and the determination of the time
intervals of arrival of the direct and reflected vibrations at one or more stati
ons on the surface of the part." Medical echocardiography is an offshoot of this
technology.[9]

1946 First neutron radiographs produced by Peters.

1950 The Schmidt Hammer (also known as "Swiss Hammer") is invented. The instrume
nt uses the world s first patented non-destructive testing method for concrete.
1950 J. Kaiser introduces acoustic emission as an NDT method.
(Basic Source for above: Hellier, 2001) Note the number of advancements made dur
ing the WWII era, a time when industrial quality control was growing in importan
ce.
1963 Frederick G. Weighart's[10] and James F. McNulty (U.S. radio engineer) s[11]
co-invention of Digital radiography is an offshoot of the pairs development of n
ondestructive test equipment at Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo
, California. See James F. McNulty also at article Ultrasonic testing.
1996 Rolf Diederichs founded the first Open Access NDT Journal in the Internet.
Today the Open Access NDT Database NDT.net
Methods and techniques[edit]
An example of a 3D replicating technique. The flexible high-resolution replicas
allow surfaces to be examined and measured under laboratory conditions. A replic
a can be taken from all solid materials.
NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a p
articular scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into var
ious techniques. The various methods and techniques, due to their particular nat
ures, may lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be of litt
le or no value at all in other applications. Therefore, choosing the right metho
d and technique is an important part of the performance of NDT.
Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT)
Blue Etch Anodize (BEA)
Dye penetrant inspection or Liquid penetrant Testing (PT or LPI)
Electromagnetic testing (ET) or Electromagnetic Inspection (commonly known as "E
MI")
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)
Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD)
Barkhausen testing
Direct current potential drop measurement (DCPD)
Eddy-current testing (ECT)
Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank floors, and wire rope
Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MPI)
Magnetovision
Remote field testing (RFT)
Ellipsometry
Endoscope inspection
Guided wave testing (GWT)
Hardness testing
Impulse excitation technique (IET)
Terahertz nondestructive evaluation(THz)
Infrared and thermal testing (IR)
Thermographic inspection
Infrared thermal microscopy
Laser testing
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry
Holographic interferometry
Low coherence interferometry
Profilometry
Shearography
Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection
Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change)
Bubble testing
Halogen diode leak testing
Hydrogen leak testing

Mass spectrometer leak testing

Tracer-gas leak testing method Helium, Hydrogen and refrigerant gases
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR spectroscopy
Metallographic replicas [12][13]
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
Optical microscopy
Positive Material Identification (PMI)
Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography)
Computed radiography
Digital radiography (real-time)
Neutron Imaging
SCAR (Small Controlled Area Radiography)
X-ray computed tomography (CT)
Resonant Inspection
Resonant Acoustic Method (RAM) [14]
Scanning electron microscopy
Surface Temper Etch (Nital Etch)
Ultrasonic testing (UT)
ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology)
Angle beam testing
Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) (non-contact)
Laser ultrasonics (LUT)
Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes
Phased array ultrasonics
Thickness measurement
Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD)
Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of 3D Elastic Constants (TOF)
Vibration Analysis
Visual inspection (VT)
Pipeline video inspection
Weight and load testing of structures
Corroscan/C-scan
3D Computed Tomography
Industrial CT Scanning
Heat Exchanger Life Assessment System
RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic Testing
Personnel training, qualification and certification[edit]
Successful and consistent application of nondestructive testing techniques depen
ds heavily on personnel training, experience and integrity. Personnel involved i
n application of industrial NDT methods and interpretation of results should be
certified, and in some industrial sectors certification is enforced by law or by
the applied codes and standards.[15]
Definitions[edit]
The following definitions for qualification and certification are given in ISO 9
712:[16]
Certification: "Procedure, used by the certification body to confirm that the qu
alification requirements for a method, level and sector have been fulfilled, lea
ding to the issuing of a certificate".
Qualification: "Demonstration of physical attributes, knowledge, skill, training
and experience required to properly perform NDT tasks".
In US standards and codes, while a very similar definition of qualification is i
ncluded in ASNT SNT-TC-1A, certification is simply defined as: "Written testimon
y of qualification".
In the aerospace sector, EN 4179:2009 contains the following definitions:[17]
Certification: Written statement by an employer that an individual has met the a
pplicable requirements of this standard.

Qualification: The skills, training, knowledge, examinations, experience and vis

ual capability required for personnel to properly perform to a particular level.
Training[edit]
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) training is provided for people working in many in
dustries. It is generally necessary that the candidate successfully completes a
theoretical and practical training program, as well as have performed several hu
ndred hours of practical application of the particular method they wish to be tr
ained in. At this point, they may pass a certification examination. While online
training has become more popular, many certifying bodies will require additiona
l practical training.
Certification schemes[edit]
There are two approaches in personnel certification:[18]
Employer Based Certification: Under this concept the employer compiles their own
Written Practice. The written practice defines the responsibilities of each lev
el of certification, as implemented by the company, and describes the training,
experience and examination requirements for each level of certification. In indu
strial sectors the written practices are usually based on recommended practice S
NT-TC-1A of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing.[19] ANSI standard C
P-189 outlines requirements for any written practice that conforms to the standa
rd.[20] For aviation, space, and defense (ASD) applications NAS 410 sets further
requirements for NDT personnel, and is published by AIA - Aerospace Industries
Association, which is made up of US aerospace airframe and powerplant manufactur
ers. This is the basis document for EN 4179[17] and other (USA) NIST-recognized
aerospace standards for the Qualification and Certification (employer-based) of
Nondestructive Testing personnel. NAS 410 also sets the requirements also for "N
ational NDT Boards", which allow and proscribe personal certification schemes. N
AS 410 allows ASNT Certification as a portion of the qualifications needed for A
SD certification.[21]
Personal Central Certification: The concept of central certification is that an
NDT operator can obtain certification from a central certification authority, th
at is recognized by most employers, third parties and/or government authorities.
Industrial standards for central certification schemes include ISO 9712,[16] an
d ANSI/ASNT CP-106[22] (used for the ASNT ACCP [23] scheme). Certification under
these standards involves training, work experience under supervision and passin
g a written and practical examination set up by the independent certification au
thority. EN 473[24] was another central certification scheme, very similar to IS
O 9712, which was withdrawn when CEN replaced it with EN ISO 9712 in 2012.
In the United States employer based schemes are the norm, however central certif
ication schemes exist as well. The most notable is ASNT Level III (established i
n 1976-1977), which is organized by the American Society for Nondestructive Test
ing for Level 3 NDT personnel.[25] NAVSEA 250-1500 is another US central certifi
cation scheme, specifically developed for use in the naval nuclear program.[26]
Central certification is more widely used in the European Union, where certifica
tions are issued by accredited bodies (independent organizations conforming to I
SO 17024 and accredited by a national accreditation authority like UKAS). The Pr
essure Equipment Directive (97/23/EC) actually enforces central personnel certif
ication for the initial testing of steam boilers and some categories of pressure
vessels and piping.[27] European Standards harmonized with this directive speci
fy personnel certification to EN 473. Certifications issued by a national NDT so
ciety which is a member of the European Federation of NDT (EFNDT) are mutually a
cceptable by the other member societies [28] under a multilateral recognition ag
reement.
Canada also implements an ISO 9712 central certification scheme, which is admini
stered by Natural Resources Canada, a government department.[29][30][31]
The aerospace sector worldwide sticks to employer based schemes.[32] In America

it is based mostly on AIA-NAS-410 [33] and in the European Union on the equivale
nt and very similar standard EN 4179.[17] However EN 4179:2009 includes an optio
n for central qualification and certification by a National aerospace NDT board
or NANDTB (paragraph 4.5.2).
Levels of certification[edit]
Most NDT personnel certification schemes listed above specify three "levels" of
qualification and/or certification, usually designated as Level 1, Level 2 and L
evel 3 (although some codes specify Roman numerals, like Level II). The roles an
d responsibilities of personnel in each level are generally as follows (there ar
e slight differences or variations between different codes and standards):[16][1
7]
Level 1 are technicians qualified to perform only specific calibrations and test
s under close supervision and direction by higher level personnel. They can only
report test results. Normally they work following specific work instructions fo
r testing procedures and rejection criteria.
Level 2 are engineers or experienced technicians who are able to set up and cali
brate testing equipment, conduct the inspection according to codes and standards
(instead of following work instructions) and compile work instructions for Leve
l 1 technicians. They are also authorized to report, interpret, evaluate and doc
ument testing results. They can also supervise and train Level 1 technicians. In
addition to testing methods, they must be familiar with applicable codes and st
andards and have some knowledge of the manufacture and service of tested product
s.
Level 3 are usually specialized engineers or very experienced technicians. They
can establish NDT techniques and procedures and interpret codes and standards. T
hey also direct NDT laboratories and have central role in personnel certificatio
n. They are expected to have wider knowledge covering materials, fabrication and
product technology.
Terminology[edit]
The standard US terminology for Nondestructive testing is defined in standard AS
TM E-1316.[34] Some definitions may be different in European standard EN 1330.
Indication
The response or evidence from an examination, such as a blip on the screen of an
instrument. Indications are classified as true or false. False indications are
those caused by factors not related to the principles of the testing method or b
y improper implementation of the method, like film damage in radiography, electr
ical interference in ultrasonic testing etc. True indications are further classi
fied as relevant and non relevant. Relevant indications are those caused by flaw
s. Non relevant indications are those caused by known features of the tested obj
ect, like gaps, threads, case hardening etc.
Interpretation
Determining if an indication is of a type to be investigated. For example, in el
ectromagnetic testing, indications from metal loss are considered flaws because
they should usually be investigated, but indications due to variations in the ma
terial properties may be harmless and nonrelevant.
Flaw
A type of discontinuity that must be investigated to see if it is rejectable. Fo
r example, porosity in a weld or metal loss.
Evaluation
Determining if a flaw is rejectable. For example, is porosity in a weld larger t
han acceptable by code?
Defect
i.e. does not meet acceptance criteria. Defects are ge
A flaw that is rejectable
nerally removed or repaired.[34]
Reliability and statistics[edit]
Probability of detection (POD) tests are a standard way to evaluate a nondestruc
tive testing technique in a given set of circumstances, for example "What is the

POD of lack of fusion flaws in pipe welds using manual ultrasonic testing?" The
POD will usually increase with flaw size. A common error in POD tests is to ass
ume that the percentage of flaws detected is the POD, whereas the percentage of
flaws detected is merely the first step in the analysis. Since the number of fla
ws tested is necessarily a limited number (non-infinite), statistical methods mu
st be used to determine the POD for all possible defects, beyond the limited num
ber tested. Another common error in POD tests is to define the statistical sampl
ing units (test items) as flaws, whereas a true sampling unit is an item that ma
y or may not contain a flaw.[35][36] Guidelines for correct application of stati
stical methods to POD tests can be found in ASTM E2862 Standard Practice for Pro
bability of Detection Analysis for Hit/Miss Data and MIL-HDBK-1823A Nondestructi
ve Evaluation System Reliability Assessment, from the U.S. Department of Defense
Handbook.
See also[edit]
Underwater diving portal
Destructive testing
Inspection
Maintenance testing
Product certification
Quality control
Risk-based inspection
Failure analysis
Forensic engineering
Materials science
Predictive maintenance
Reliability engineering
Stress testing
Terahertz nondestructive evaluation
Magnetovision
Robotic Non-Destructive Testing
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c Cartz, Louis (1995). Nondestructive Testing. A S M Internati
onal. ISBN 978-0-87170-517-4.
Jump up ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGrawHill. p. 1.1. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
Jump up ^ Dufour, M. L.; Lamouche, G.; Detalle, V.; Gauthier, B.; Sammut, P. (Ap
ril 2005). "Low-Coherence Interferometry, an Advanced Technique for Optical Metr
ology in Industry". Insight - Non-Destructive Testing and Condition Monitoring.
47 (4): 216 219. doi:10.1784/insi.47.4.216.63149. ISSN 1354-2575.
Jump up ^ Losert, Robert. (March 31, 2009). "Solution for NDT Inspection". NDT M
agazine. Retrieved December 15, 2010.
Jump up ^ Bridges, Andrew. "High Speed Cameras for Non-Destructive Testing". NAS
A TechBriefs. Retrieved 1 November 2013.
Jump up ^ Blitz, Jack; G. Simpson (1991). Ultrasonic Methods of Non-Destructive
Testing. Springer-Verlag New York, LLC. ISBN 978-0-412-60470-6.
Jump up ^ Waldmann, T. (2014). "A Mechanical Aging Mechanism in Lithium-Ion Batt
eries". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 161: A1742. doi:10.1149/2.100141
0jes.
Jump up ^ Introduction and History of Penetrant Inspection
Jump up ^ [1] Full Article
Siddharth, S. & Goyal, A. (2007). The origin of echoc
ardiography. Tex Heart Institute J., 34(4), 431-438
Jump up ^ U.S. Patent 3,277,302, titled "X-Ray Apparatus Having Means for Supply
ing An Alternating Square Wave Voltage to the X-Ray Tube", granted to Weighart o
n October 4, 1964, showing its patent application date as May 10, 1963 and at li
nes 1-6 of its column 4, also, noting James F. McNulty s earlier filed co-pending
application for an essential component of invention
Jump up ^ U.S. Patent 3,289,000, titled "Means for Separately Controlling the Fi
lament Current and Voltage on a X-Ray Tube", granted to McNulty on November 29,
1966 and showing its patent application date as March 5, 1963

Jump up ^ ASTM E1351: "Standard Practice for Production and Evaluation of Field
Metallographic Replicas" (2006)
Jump up ^ BS ISO 3057 "Non-destructive testing - Metallographic replica techniqu
es of surface examination" (1998)
Jump up ^ "Fundamentals of Resonant Acoustic Method NDT" (2005)
Jump up ^ "ICNDT Guide to Qualification and Certification of Personnel for NDT"
(PDF). International Committee for NDT. 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c ISO 9712: Non-destructive testing -- Qualification and certi
fication of NDT personnel (2012)
^ Jump up to: a b c d EN 4179: "Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of
personnel for non-destructive testing" (2009)
Jump up ^ John Thompson (November 2006). Global review of qualification and cert
ification of personnel for NDT and condition monitoring. 12th A-PCNDT 2006
AsiaPacific Conference on NDT. Auckland, New Zealand.
Jump up ^ Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Personnel Qualification and Certif
ication in Nondestructive Testing, (2006)
Jump up ^ ANSI/ASNT CP-189: ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of
Nondestructive Testing Personnel, (2006)
Jump up ^ AIA NAS410
Jump up ^ ANSI/ASNT CP-106: "ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification o
f Nondestructive Testing Personnel" (2008)
Jump up ^ "ASNT Central Certification Program", ASNT Document ACCP-CP-1, Rev. 7
(2010)
Jump up ^ EN 473: Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of ND
T personnel. General principles, (2008)
Jump up ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGrawHill. p. 1.25. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
Jump up ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGrawHill. p. 1.26. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
Jump up ^ Directive 97/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29
May 1997 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning press
ure equipment, Annex I, paragraph 3.1.3
Jump up ^ EFNDT/SEC/P/05-006: Agreement for EFNDT multilateral recognition of ND
T personnel certification schemes (2005)
Jump up ^ http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/smm-mms/ndt-end/index-eng.htm : The NDT C
ertifying Agency (CANMET-MTL)
Jump up ^ The relevant national standard for Canada is CAN/CGSB-48.9712-2006 "Qu
alification and Certification of Non-Destructive Testing Personnel.", which comp
lies with the requirements of ISO 9712:2005 and EN 473:2000.
Jump up ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGrawHill. p. 1.27. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
Jump up ^ R. Marini and P. Ranos: "Current Issues in Qualification and Certifica
tion of Non-Destructive Testing Personnel in the Aerospace Industry", ECNDT 2006
- Th.3.6.5
Jump up ^ AIA-NAS-410: "Aerospace Industries Association, National Aerospace Sta
ndard, NAS Certification and Qualification of Nondestructive Test Personnel"
^ Jump up to: a b ASTM E-1316: "Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinat
ions", The American Society for Testing and Materials, in Volume 03.03 NDT, 1997
Jump up ^ T. Oldberg and R. Christensen (1999). "Erratic Measure". 4 (5). NDT.ne
t.
Jump up ^ T. Oldberg (2005). "An Ethical Problem in the Statistics of Defect Det
ection Test Reliability". 10 (5). NDT.net.
Bibliography[edit]
ASTM International, ASTM Volume 03.03 Nondestructive Testing
ASTM E1316-13a: "Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations" (2013)
ASNT, Nondestructive Testing Handbook
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Shull, P.J., Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, Ma

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EN 1330: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Nine parts. Parts 5 and 6 replace
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EN 1330-1: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. List of general terms (1998)
EN 1330-2: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms common to the non-destruc
tive testing methods (1998)
EN 1330-3: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in industrial radiog
raphic testing (1997)
EN 1330-4: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in ultrasonic testin
g (2010)
EN 1330-7: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in magnetic particle
testing (2005)
EN 1330-8: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in leak tightness te
sting (1998)
EN 1330-9: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in acoustic emission
testing (2009)
EN 1330-10: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in visual testing (
2003)
EN 1330-11: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in X-ray diffractio
n from polycrystalline and amorphous materials (2007)
ISO 12706: Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary (2009)
ISO 12718: Non-destructive testing. Eddy current testing. Vocabulary (2008)
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