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Limits
Limits are used to describe how a function behave as the independent variable move toward
2
a certain value. Consider a funtion f ( x ) x 1 x 1 , x 1 and the tables below .
x 1

x
1.1
1.01
1,001
1.0001
1.00001

f ( x)
2.1
2.01
2.001
2.0001
2.00001

x
0.9
0.99
0.999
0.9999
0.99999

Table 1

f ( x)
1.9
1.99
1.999
1.9999
1.99999
Table2

2
lim f ( x ) lim x 1
x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1
lim
x 1
x 1
lim x 1

2
lim f ( x ) lim x 1
x 1 x 1
x 1 x 1
lim
x 1
x 1
lim x 1

x 1

x 1

x 1

x 1

2
2
Since lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) 2 , therefore lim f ( x ) 2 .
x 1

x 1

x 1

The function is undefined at x 1 but the limit does exist.

2
Actually, the graph of f ( x ) x 1 x 1 , x 1 is as shown below.
x 1
y

Definition
I) If the value of f ( x ) approaches the numnber L1 as x approaches c from the
right, we write lim f ( x ) L1 .
xc

II) If the value of f ( x ) approaches the numnber L2 as x approaches c from the

left, we write lim f ( x ) L2 .
xc

III) If the limit from the left is the same as the limit from the right say
lim f ( x ) lim f ( x ) L ( L L2 L1 ) , then we write lim f ( x ) L . Otherwise,
xc

xc

xc

the limit does not exist.

Note : The limit of a function as independent variable approaches a value, actually not the
value of the function at the value of independent variable.

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Example
2x 4

f ( x ) 4
x2 7

if
if
if

x3
x3
x3

lim f ( x ) lim x 2 7 2

x 3

x3

x3

x3

lim f ( x ) lim 2 x 4 2

lim f ( x ) 2

x3

Example
2
f ( x) x
2 x 2

x0

if

x0

if

lim f ( x ) lim 2( x 2) 2

x 0

x0

lim f ( x ) lim 2
x 0
x0 x
lim f ( x ) does not exist

x 0

Example

f ( x)

1
x3
lim 1

x 3

lim f ( x )

x 3

lim x 3

x 3

x 3

lim f ( x )

x 3

-3

lim 1

lim

x 3

x 3

lim f ( x ) does not exist

x 3

Example

f ( x)

lim 1

x 2

lim f ( x )

x2

lim x 2 2

x2

lim 1

x 2

lim f ( x )

x2

x 22

lim x 2 2

x 2

lim f ( x )

x2

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Example { lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) }

x

y
4

lim f ( x ) 1

lim f ( x ) 4

-1

Example { lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) }

x

y
6

lim f ( x ) 6

lim f ( x )

-3

Example { lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) }

x

lim f ( x )

lim f ( x )

-3

Limit (Computational techniques)

lim k k , where k is a constant.

xc

lim k lim k k

lim x c

xc

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Example lim x 3
x3

lim x
x

lim x 0

lim x

x 0

lim 1 1
x 3

x 2

lim 1 0
x

x 3

x 2

lim 1
x

x 0

lim x 2

x0

lim 1 does not exist

x

lim 1
x

x 0

lim 1 1
x
2

lim 1 0
x

Theorem
Let lim stand for one of the limits lim , lim , lim , lim or lim .
x c

lim f ( x ) L2 both exist, then

x c

x c

a)

lim f ( x ) g ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) L1 L2 .

b)

lim f ( x ) g ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) L1 L2 .

c)

lim f ( x ) g ( x ) lim f ( x ) lim g ( x ) L1 L2 .

d)

f ( x ) lim f ( x ) L1
lim

, if L2 0 .

g ( x ) lim g ( x ) L2

e)

lim n f ( x ) n lim f ( x ) n L1 , provided L1 0 if n is even .

If lim f ( x ) L1 and

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Example
a)

b)

lim x 2 4 x 3 lim x 2 4 lim x lim 3 3 2 4( 3) 3 0

x 3

x3

x3

x3

lim 5 x 4
5( 4) 4
lim 5 x 4 x 4

8
lim x 2
4 2
x 4 x 2
x 4

c)

d)

2
x 2 x 2 lim x 2 4
lim x 4 lim
x 2 x2
x2
x2

x2

lim

x 2

1 x

x 2 x 1 does not exist.

because

lim

x 2

1 x

x 2 x 1

1 x

lim

x 2

x 2 x 1

Example Find
3
lim x 8
x2

a)
c)

x 2

b)

lim

x0

3 x 1
lim f ( x ) if f ( x )
2
3( x 1) 2

x 3

x
x 1 1

if

x3

if

x3

Solution
a)
b)
c)

3
x 2 x 2 2 x 22 lim x 2 2 x 22 12
lim x 8 lim
x 2 x 2
x2
x 2

x 2

lim

x 0

x
x
x
lim
x 1 1 lim
x 1 1 x 0 x 1 1
x 1 1 x 0

x11
lim
x
x0

x11 2

lim f ( x ) lim ( 3 x 1) 3( 3) 1 10

x 3

x3

lim f ( x ) lim 3( x 1) 2 2 3( 2) 2 2 10

x 3

x3

lim f ( x ) 10
x3

10

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Example Find
a)

b)

2 3x
lim f ( x ) if f ( x ) 2
4x 3x 1

x 2

x3 - 1
a if f ( x ) 2
ax 2

if

x2

if

x2

if

x 2

if

x 2

and lim f ( x ) exists.

x 2

lim f ( x ) lim (4 x 2 3 x 1) 4( 2) 2 3( 2) 1 9

Solution a)

x 2

x 2

lim f ( x ) lim 2 3 x 2 3( 2) 8 2 2

x 2

x 2

lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x 2

b)

lim f ( x ) exists lim f ( x ) lim f ( x )

x2

x 2

x2

lim (ax 2 2) lim ( x 3 1)

x2

x2

a ( 2) 2 2 ( 2) 3 1
4a 5
a5
4
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Limits for trigonometric functions

Let c is a real number.
a)
d)

lim sin x sin c

b)

lim csc x csc c

e)

xc
xc

lim cos x cos c

c)

lim sec x sec c

f)

xc

xc

lim tan x tan c

xc

lim cot x cot c

xc

Example
a)

lim sin x sin 1

2

x
2

b)

tan
4 1 4
lim tan x
1 1 4
x x 1
4
4
4

c)

sin x cos x
tan x 1 lim
cos x
lim 1 1 2
x sin x cos x
x sin x cos x
x cos x
cos
4
4
4
4
lim

12

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Special Limits

I.

lim sin x 1
x

lim 1 cos x 0
x

II.

x0

x0

Example
a)

b)

c)

lim tan x lim sin x lim sin x lim 1 1

x
x 0 x cos x
x 0 x x 0 cos x

x0

lim sin 4 x lim sin 4 x 4 4 lim sin 4 x 4

x
x
4 x0 4 x
x0

x0

x sin x lim sin x (1 cos x ) lim sin x lim 1 cos x 0

lim sin x cos
x
x0
x0 x x0
x2
x2

x0

13

Example (Using lim 1 0 and

x x

lim 1 0 )
x

a)

3 5
x 3 1
lim 3 x 5 lim
6
2
x 8 6 x
x 8 6
x

c)

4 1
2
x x2
lim 4 x 3 x lim
0
x 2 x 5
x 2 5
2
x

b)

d)

3 2x3
4
lim 3 2 x lim x

x x 1
x 1 1
x

3 2x3
4
lim 3 2 x lim x

x x 1
x 1 1
x

14

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Definition
A line x c is called a vertical asymptote of a function f ( x ) if f ( x ) or f ( x ) as
x c or x c .

A line y L is called a horizontal asymptote of a function f ( x ) if f ( x ) L as x or

x .

Theorem
A line x c is a vertical asymptote of a rational funtion f ( x )

p x
, if x c is a factor of the
q x

denominator q( x ) and not a common factor for p( x ) and q( x ) .

15

Example Find the vertical and horizontal asymptotes if any for the following functions.
a)

f ( x) x 3
x 1

b)

f ( x)

x
x2 4

c)

3
f ( x) x 2 8
x 4

d)

f ( x)

x 1
x3 x2 x 1

Solution
a)

x 1 is the vertical asymptote.

1 3
x 1.
lim x 3 lim
x x 1
x 1 1
x

b)

f ( x)

lim

y 1 is the horizontal astmptote

x
x
, x 2 and x 2 are the vertical asymptotes.
x 2 4 x 2 x 2

1
x lim
x 0 . y 0 is the horizontal astmptote
x 4 x 1 4
x2
2

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c)

3
x 2 x 2 2 x 4
f ( x) x 2 8
x 2 x 2
x 4

x 82
3
x .
lim x 2 8 lim
x x 4
x 1 4
x2

d)

f ( x)

x 2 is the vertical asymptote.

f ( x ) has no horizontal astmptotes

x 1
x 1
x 1

x 3 x 2 x 1 x 2 ( x 1) x 1 ( x 1) x 2 1

f ( x ) has no vertical astmptote

lim

1 1
x 1
x2 x3

lim
0.
x 3 x 2 x 1 x 1 1 1 1
x x2 x3

y 0 is the horizontal astmptote

17

Definition
A function f ( x ) is said to be continuous at x c if the following conditions are satisfied.
a)
b)
c)

f (c ) is defined.
lim f ( x ) exists

x c

lim f ( x ) f (c )

xc

18

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Example Given the graph of f ( x ) .

Determine whether f ( x ) continuous at x c for c 1,4,6 .
Solution

At x 1 , f ( 1) 3 and lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x 1

f ( x ) is discontinuous at x 1 .

At x 4 , f ( 4) 5 and lim f ( x ) 3 .

x4

-1

f ( x ) is discontinuous at x 4 .

-2
-3

At x 6 , f (6) 3 and lim f ( x ) 3 .

x6

f ( x ) is continuous at x 6 .

19

3x 1
2x 6
4 6 x

Example Given f ( x )
3 x 3 2 1

5
21 2 x

x 3

if
if
if
if
if

3 x 2
.
2 x5
x5
x5

Determine whether f ( x ) continuous at x c for c 3,2,5 .

Solution At x 3 , f ( 3) 1 and lim f ( x ) lim 3 x 1 .
x 3
x 3 2 x 6

lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x 3

f ( x ) is discontinuous at x 3 .

At x 2 , f ( 2) 3( 2 3) 2 1 2 ,

x2

lim f ( x ) lim 3( x 3)2 1 2

x 2

x2

lim f ( x ) lim 4 6 x 2 ,

x 2

lim f ( x ) 2 .

x2

f ( x ) is continuous at x 2 .

At x 5 , f ( 5) 5 ,

lim f ( x ) lim 3( x 3) 2 1 11 ,

x 5

x5

lim f ( x ) 11 f (5) .

x 5

lim f ( x ) lim 21 2 x 11.

x 5

x5

f ( x ) is discontinuous at x 5 .
20

10

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Derivative of a function
y

f ( x h)

f ( x h) f ( x )
f ( x)

From the diagram

A
h

Gradiaent AB f ( x h) f ( x )

xh

Gradiaent of the curve at A lim f ( x h) f ( x )

h

h 0

If y f ( x ), then
dy
f ( x h) f ( x )
f , ( x ) lim
.
dx
h
h 0

This process is known as differentiation from the first principles or differentiation using definition.

21

Example Find the derivative of f ( x ) 1 with respect to x from the first principles.
2
x

Solution

dy
f ( x h) f ( x )
f , ( x ) lim
dx
h
h 0

x h2
lim
h 0

12
x

x 2 x h2
lim
h 0 h x h 2 x 2
2
2
h2
lim x x 2 xh
h 0
h x h2 x 2
2
lim 2 xh 2h 2
h 0 h x h x
lim 2 x 2 h 2
h 0 x h x
2 x4 23
x
x

22

11

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Example
Given f ( x ) 2 x 2 x 2 . Find f ' ( x ) from the first principles.

Solution

f , ( x ) lim

h 0

lim

h 0

f ( x h) f ( x )
h

2 x h2 x h 2 2 x 2 x 2
h

2
2
2
lim 2 x 4 xh 2h x h 2 2 x x 2
h
h 0
2
lim 4 xh 2h h
h
h 0
lim 4 x 2h 1
h 0

4x 1

23

Example
1

Given f ( x ) x 2 . Find f ' ( x ) from the first principles.

Solution

f , ( x ) lim

h 0

f ( x h) f ( x )
h

xh x xh x
h
xh x
x

h x
lim
h 0 h x h x
h
lim
h 0 h x h x
1
lim
h 0 x h x
1
2 x
lim

h 0

24

12

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Example Show that d cos x sin x .

dx

Solution

d cos x f ' ( x ) for f ( x ) cos x .

dx

From the first principles

f , ( x ) lim

h 0

f ( x h) f ( x )
h

cos( x h) cos x
h
lim cos x cosh sin x sinh cos x
h
h 0
cos x cosh 1 sin x sinh
lim
h
h 0
cos x cosh 1 sin x sinh

lim

h
h
h 0

cos x cosh 1
sin
x
sinh
lim
lim
h
h
h 0
h 0

cosh 1
cos x lim
sin x lim sinh
h
h 0
h 0 h
cos x (0) sin x (1) sin x
lim

h 0

25

13