Biological Conservation 53 (1990) 213-231

Non-Consumptive Wildlife-Oriented Recreation: A

Conceptual Framework
D a v i d A. Duffus & Philip D e a r d e n
Department of Geography, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700,
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8W 2Y2

(Received 7 June 1989; revised version received 20 December 1989;

accepted 11 January 1990)

ABSTRACT
Recreational non-consumptive use of wildlife has been attract&g &creasing
numbers of people and generating growing economic benefits from tourism
activity. More importantly this type of wildlife interaction has potential
benefits to conservation from the long-term effect of changing attitudes
towards wild animals and natural habitats. It does not, however,fit well into
the existing wildlife management paradigm due to the nature of the final
product, a recreation experience. This paper aims to provide an integrated
framework that illustrates the major components of non-consumptive wildlife
recreation and links between research areas in ecology, animal behaviour,
recreation, tourism and existing wildlife management institutions. The
fundamental purpose of this paper is to cast wildlife conservation in a new
light that recognizes the need to formulate management plans in both a social
and biological context.

INTRODUCTION
Human interaction with wildlife has often entailed the death or removal of
organisms from their natural habitat. Large state-controlled bureaucracies
have evolved in many nations to 'manage' such consumptive uses. The main
function of wildlife management authorities has been to provide for the 'wise
use'-oriented conservation of wild populations according to demandgenerated objectives. In North America this has largely evolved into the
213

Biol. Conserv. 0006-3207/90/$03-50 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, England. Printed
in Great Britain

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David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

management of wildlife populations for recreational consumptive uses, such

as sport hunting and fishing. Less attention has been paid to preservation of
endangered species, subsistence hunting, commercial hunting and capture,
'pest'/predator control, and indirect impacts on wildlife from other activities
such as by-catch in fisheries.
This situation may be changing as wildlife management begins to accept
responsibility for a wider constituency with different ideas, particularly a
more biocentric view of man's role in nature and a movement away from
killing (Scheffer, 1976). The manifestation of such changes can be seen in the
advent of 'non-game' programmes in many locations (e.g. Crawford, 1976;
Kellert, 1984b; Morache, 1984; Marshall, 1985; Thompson, 1987.
Over the past two decades the growth of non-consumptive uses of wildlife
has expanded to the point where a larger proportion of people, with a
concurrently large proportion of economic and, potentially, ecological
impact, have engaged in non-consumptive recreational interaction with
wild species than in traditional wildlife pursuits. Whelan (1988) estimates
that nature-oriented adventure tourism generates a north-south transfer of
US$25 thousand million annually. In North America detailed nationwide
studies and site-specific research have measured substantial economic and
recreational benefits from non-consumptive wildlife use. In 1981 alone, 3-6
million Canadians spent a total of CanS2.1 billion on non-consumptive
wildlife-oriented trips (Filion et al., 1983). In the United States wildlife
viewing as a primary recreational activity increased from 83.2 million to
104-7 million user-days between 1980 and 1985 (US Fish and Wildlife
Service, 1987). Birdwatchers in Point Pelee National Park in Ontario,
Canada, generate Can $6 million annually (Butler in Dodge, 1988), while
whale-watching from Vancouver Island, Canada, generated expenditures
estimated at Can $4.2 million by the authors in 1988.
Expenditures on wildlife-oriented activity only address fairly simple
components of value, such as regional economic impact. The actual total
value of wildlife involves a wide spectrum of market and non-market values,
some of which are conducive to well-established economic valuation
methods and others which evoke argument such as the appropriateness of
economic techniques (Kellert, 1984a; Loomis & Walsh, 1986; Rahmatian,
1986). Studies that have incorporated advanced techniques to appraise total
value of wildlife, especially rare biota (e.g. Stoll & Johnson, 1984; Boyle &
Bishop, 1986), have indicated previously unquantified benefits that are
substantially higher than resource managers have yet accorded wildlife.
N o n - c o n s u m p t i v e wildlife recreation, the topic of this paper, will
undoubtedly require the use of more complex economic treatments to
comprehend the full value of this activity within the sphere of resource
management decision-making.

Wildlife-oriented recreation

215

Non-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation (NCWOR) can be defined

as a human recreational engagement with wildlife wherein the focal
organism is not purposefully removed or permanently affected by the
engagement. This follows from Wagar's (1969) definition of nonconsumptive use and includes his basic precepts that use provides an
experience rather than a product, and that one person's activities do not
detract from the experiences available for another person in the same area.
Some dissension exists with the use of the term 'non-consumptive',
especially when it is confused with the concept of zero impact (e.g. Wilkes,
1979). Certainly, any relatively proximal contact between man and nature
can cause changes to the focal species, the local ecosystem or other
incidentally encountered species. Non-consumptive recreation can involve
many activities with a wide range of levels of organization which will
influence the level and types of impact (Liddle & Scorgie, 1980; Hall &
Dearden, 1984; Boyle & Samson, 1985). In fact, these differences in focus
have been used as a basis for suggestion that non-consumptive uses that
have a high goal orientation, such as specialized wildlife viewing, differ little
from consumptive use (e.g. Applegate & Clark, 1987). While it is recognized
that a continuum (Fig. 1) exists along which all interaction with wildlife can
be viewed, there is, however, a distinct difference in most respects between an
activity that purposely seeks to remove or destroy an organism and one that
does not (Vaske et aL, 1982). For the purposes of a management framework
one of the principal arguments differentiating consumptive and nonconsumptive wildlife use is that the lack of requirement for a sophisticated
population productivity model in the latter allows space for a more balanced
approach between human and ecological dimensions.
In the wide context of human contact with wildlife (Fig. 2) there has been a
plethora of scientific research and conceptual/theoretical work regarding
wild species and habitats. Several sub-disciplines of biological science have
endeavoured to understand the nature of individual species and the complex
interactions between species that form natural communities (Fig. 2, Box (a)).
Although still in a developmental stage, human recreation (Fig. 2, Box (b))
A m o u n t of physical i n t e r a c t i o n
High

Low

Hunting
Culling
Predator
control

Live
capture

Fig.

1.

I
Research

m.

NonConservation Option
consumptive
and
existence
recreational
lobby
and bequest
use
group
value
membership

A c o n t i n u u m of h u m a n - w i l d l i f e interaction.

216

David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP

HUMAN RECREATION

INTERACTION

(b)
(C)

CONSUMPTIVE NON-CONSUMPTIVE
USE ~
~ USE
WILD SPECIES AND
HABITATS

Uses

Consumptive uses
COMMERCIAL HUNTING
SPORT HUNTING
SUBSISTENCE HUNTING
COMMERCIAL FISHING
SPORT FISHING
SUBSISTENCE FISHING
FUR TRAPPING AND
HUNTING
HUNTING FOR ANIMAL
PARTS AND PET TRADE
INDIRECT KILLS THROUGH
OTHER ACTIVITIES
(I:~OLLUTION, BY-CATCH,
ROAD KILLS)
ERADICATION PROGRAMS
FOR ANIMALS WITH REAL
AND PERCEIVED THREATS

(a)

Low Consumptive
Uses
ZOOS AND
ANIMAL PARKS
AQUARIA AND OCEANARIA
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

BIRDWATCHING
WHALE-WATCHING
PHOTOGRAPHIC TRIPS
ORGANIZED AND INDIVIDUAL
NATURE WALKS
COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
AND CINEMATOGRAPHY
SECONDARY WILDLIFE
VIEWING IN PARKS, RESERVES
AND RECREATIONAL AREAS

Fig. 2. The broad context of human-wildlife interaction.

has also been the subject of much research from a variety of single and multidisciplinary sources (Driver & Brown, 1983; Manning, 1986). Work from
these two established areas of research has to some extent been synthesized
(Fig. 2, Box (c)) in a sometimes narrowly construed approach to manage
recreational consumptive interaction between people and wildlife (Todd,
1980). Such studies have typically concentrated on animal population
dynamics and strategies to enhance access to such populations. Only
recently has research begun to document non-consumptive wildlife activity
in any detail (see Boyle & Samson, 1985, for a review). Most of the studies are
empirical in nature (e.g. Tilt, 1985).
The purpose of this paper is to propose a conceptual framework that
identifies the major components of non-consumptive wildlife recreation and
indicates the role of, and relationship between, those components. The

Wildlife-oriented recreation

217

rationale for this is not only to enhance the conceptual clarity and link
existing theoretical structures in diverse bodies of literature to a broader
framework of understanding but also to reinforce the case for the analysis
and management of non-consumptive wildlife pursuits that includes both
the human and ecological dimensions.
The call for social science input into wildlife management in general began
decades ago (e.g. Leopold, 1940; Leopold, 1943 in Flader, 1974) and has
continued sporadically over the interim (e.g. Clarke, 1974; Scheffer, 1976;
Todd, 1980). Research in the early 1970s formalized a growing body of
thought among wildlife managers based on the knowledge of behavioural
aspects of the traditional user group dominated by sport hunters and
fishermen (e.g. Hendee, 1969; Hendee & Potter, 1971; Hendee & Schoenfeld,
1973; Knopf et al., 1973; Potter et al., 1973; Stankey et al., 1973; Hendee,
1974). On a parallel course researchers in the field of outdoor recreation
began to develop theories and methods directed to the psychological
dimensions of their constituency (Clawson & Knetsch, 1966; Driver &
Tocher, 1970; Driver & Knopf, 1977). Recently wildlife managers have
begun exploring the social characteristics of the new constituency, the nonconsumptive user (e.g. Brown et al., 1986; Manfredo & Haight, 1986; Moss et
al., 1986; Decker & Purdy, 1988).
Non-consumptive wildlife management lies at the juncture of these two
areas of research. It depends on the biological sciences to understand the
nature of the support system that presents the opportunity for contact
between the users and the focal species, and the techniques of the social
scientist to understand the interrelated concepts of satisfaction that produce
the recreational benefits. Thus, the non-consumptive framework to be
described can be viewed as a more in-depth examination of the nonconsumptive use element in Box (c) in Fig. 2.

THE C O N C E P T U A L F R A M E W O R K
The proposed framework includes three initial elements: the focal species or
species groups, the human user, and the history of the relationship between
the two (Fig 3). These are presented as individual elements for ease of
description, yet it is recognized that they are interrelated, largely through the
historical aspects of the relationship. These elements combine to produce
NCWOR. The activity is undertaken by a wide variety of recreationists that
interact with each other, and with the site of the activity to produce changes
in both over time. This interaction has considerable management
implications both for the user and the species. Each element of the
framework will now be discussed in turn.

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David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

MANAGEMENT
WILDLIFE USER

" HISTORICAL
RELATIONSHIP

NON-CONSUMPTIVE
WILDLIFE USE " ~

~..~

~..~

"

Time
HABITAT
I
Fig. 3.

GROWTH CURVE j
A
-

\('~

MANAGEMENT )

The core components of non-consumptive wildlife use.

The historical context of human-wildlife relations

History influences the demand for wildlife contact in two major ways, first
through the influence of humans on animal species and their habitats, and
second, via the cultural conditioning of perceptions that have taken place
over the centuries.
The density and habits of almost all wild species have been altered
through human influence over long periods of time. Certain species have
proven susceptible to domestication and their numbers increased far above
natural limits. Much of the earth has been controlled by man to provide
optimal feeding conditions. Vast areas are devoted to raising sheep, cattle
and goats. They are a c o m m o n landscape component in many parts of the
world. By way of contrast many other species have been found to have little
direct economic benefit for society and their numbers have been
dramatically reduced, often due to habitat change generated by the need to
accommodate the domestic species. Thus, the history of contact has
dramatically increased the abundance of some species and led to the
extinction, extirpation and increasing rarity of others. Ironically the latter,
due to their very rarity, are now often accorded the highest values in society.
The desire to view particular animals is fueled by the image humans have
developed over their previous association. Authors such as Appleton (1975)
have suggested that aesthetic pleasure for humans may ultimately be
genetically controlled. Thus, landscapes that are favourable for humans as
organisms often elicit pleasurable feelings and a sense of well-being that may
not be recognized as aesthetic preferences for the landscape. Appleton
argues than in the case of humans such landscapes would contain both
prospect and refuge. Elements of this same reasoning can be applied to

Wildlife-oriented recreation

219

human perceptions of other species that could readily be broken down on

eating preferences: either humans would eat the animals or vice versa. In
either case a feeling of arousal was probably the result, with degree of
arousal highest toward either end of the spectrum, those animals most likely
to eat humans, and those with the highest value as human food.
Interestingly, even now--whether in zoos or in the wild--the species that
often provoke the most stimulation are the predators, lions, tigers, bears and
wolves. The arousal from food-dependent animals has, in many societies,
now been substantially blunted by the abundance of such species through
domestication.
Upon this evolutionary conditioning has been layered cultural, religious,
national, regional and individual variations (Dearden, 1989). Nonetheless
there are some similarities in perceptions of species. Many species have
been recipients of recent changes in attitude from one of a strong and
unidimensional societal consensus, such as a predator (shoot it) or a food
source (eat it), to one of a much broader range of interpretation. Such
changes are often reflected in high profile debates over issues such as the
harp seal hunt off Newfoundland, predator control programmes such as the
wolf kill in British Columbia and controversy over the keeping of species
such as killer whales in aquariums.
The time scale of the history of interaction is also sensitive to the nature of
the organisms under consideration. For example, terrestrial organisms of
the temperate zones of industrialized countries where much of wildlife
science developed have been managed and protected far earlier than
organisms of tropical forests or the open ocean. Bison and whooping crane
were well-known symbols of conservation effort afforded to wild species
much earlier than the bengal tiger, giant panda and humpback whale.
Currently our concern is being increasing directly to even more obscure
species, such as rare prosimians of the disappearing Madagascar forests and
oceanic dolphins, and to protection of more ecologically and politically
complex systems such as tropical rainforests.
Thus, as can be seen in Fig. 3, the historical context mediates the
relationship between the organism and the user. This relationship is often
diffuse and difficult to quantify but provides an essential component of the
context for enlightened management. Authors such as McNeely & Wachtel
(1988) have helped flesh out the historical relationships between specific
animals and humans or in specific regions. Nonetheless the literature is far
from complete in this area.
The wildlife
The focal species or species groups and the requirements of the species for

220

David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

survival form the second foundation of the framework (Fig. 3). Within this
aspect lies a need for sophisticated ecological analysis. Non-consumptive
use of wildlife requires a predictable occurrence of the target species within a
fairly small spatial area. For that reason, established areas of nonconsumptive contact often focus on a location coincident with special life
history requirements of the species. A classic case is the heavy concentration
of brown bear Ursus arctos at Alaska's McNeil River State Game Sanctuary
from late June to mid-August each year. Returning chum salmon at this time
of year must surmount a 100-m stretch of white-water where over 60
individual bears per day may congregate to feed (Bledsoe, 1987). The
spectacle has attracted over 2600 visitors in the past 16 years without a single
maiming incident, despite the fact that the visitors sometimes find
themselves within 5 m of the bears. This relatively benign interaction is often
attributed to the well-fed state of the animals and the closely controlled
lottery system that limits the number of tourists to 10 at a time.
In many cases the priority for analysis and management is developing a
working knowledge of the relationship between the organism and a
particular site. Many baseline studies have analyzed the ecology of large
mammals of the African savannah and forest communities that have
become foci of non-consumptive use (e.g. Schaller, 1963, 1972; Wing & Buss,
1970; Kruuk, 1972; Douglas-Hamilton, 1973; Laws et al., 1975). Some
studies have evolved as a response to increased non-consumptive use, for
example humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in Glacier Bay, Alaska
(Baker et al., 1983; Miles & Malme, 1983; Kreiger & Wing, 1984), and beluga
whales Delphinapterus leucas in the St Lawrence estuary (Sergeant & Hoek,
1988). In one case, the giant tortoises Geochelone gigantea of Aldabra Atoll,
research and experimental translocation of specimens to a more accessible
and manageable site were carried out in response to non-consumptive
demand (Stoddart et al., 1982).
A second and related biological consideration is the establishment of
behavioural and reproduction benchmarks that will allow managers to
recognize when the focal species is being disturbed, and if that disturbance
has potential to harm the individual or the population. These questions are
crucial, yet often represent difficult areas in which to obtain concrete
answers, although a body of research exists on short-term responses. Studies
of ungulate disturbance point to changes in behavior, physiology and
reproduction (Klein, 1971; Wobesor et al., 1976; Rost & Bailey, 1979;
MacArthur et aL, 1982; Valkenburg et al., 1983; Geist et al., 1985; Yarmoloy
et al., 1988). Study of various whale species' response to disturbance have
been less conclusive (Baker et al., 1983; Watkins, 1986).
Often management must proceed before scientifically valid responses to
the harassment question can be brought forth from the research community.
In those cases biological uncertainty plays a major role in the quality of any

Wildlife-oriented recreation

221

management plan and the balance between opinion and fact in the
management equation is often weighted toward opinion. Therefore, the
manager is faced with the potentially politically charged endeavour of
assessing a range of informed opinion regarding specific cases, assessing the
veracity of the scientific 'facts' and developing a management plan.
The wildlife user

The third foundation of the non-consumptive wildlife recreation framework

(Fig. 3) is the wildlife user. This element is composed of individuals who
engage in encountel:s with wild species for the purpose of non-consumptive
recreation, most frequently to view, observe and often to photograph the
organism. These people are engaged in a satisfaction,seeking behaviour,
recreation activity is the means to an end or goal state (Driver & Tocher,
1970; Manning, 1986; Ewart, 1987). They are induced to undertake a
particular activity by a set of antecedent conditions that form an image of
the subject and drive the desire to encounter wildlife under natural
conditions. Personality variables connected to attitude, cognitive style,
environmental stimuli and physiological drives coupled in various ways with
socio-economic status provide the individual with a desire and the means to
pursue wildlife.
The prevailing view is that these psychological variables are part of a
cognitive process that construes the human mind as an informational
environment continually taking in new data and integrating into existing
knowledge (Ulrich, 1983). An alternative framework for response to
environment expresses the possibility that the cognitive component may be
supplanted by an affective response (Zajonc, 1980; Ulrich, 1983). The
significance of this model is that the actual contact with the target species is
dominated by a powerful, pre-cognitive, possibly innate or instinctive,
reaction. The three elements that Ulrich describes for his model that elicit an
affective response are a strong and specific focus on the object, gross
structural properties that are readily recognized, and the element of threat or
tension. All can be applied to many cases of wildlife viewing to some extent.
The deeper psychological dimensions of wildlife encounters are beyond the
scope of this paper (but see Kaplan & Talbot, 1983; Kellert, 1983; Wohlwill,
1983; Almagor, 1985; Finlay et al., 1988, for further treatment of some
concepts), but they are mentioned here to indicate that, in terms of an
ultimate accounting of the benefit of wildlife encounters, there are classes of
value whose ontogeny and outcome are largely unexplored.
Non-consumptive wildlife use

These three foundations, the history, target organism and host ecosystem,

222

David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

and the wildlife user, unite to create a non-consumptive recreational wildlife

use scenario (Fig. 3). These may range from elaborate commercial cruises to
view cetaceans in remote ocean reaches, to individuals birdwatching close to
their homes. Nonetheless recreational activities are seldom static entities.
They exhibit evolution and change both in terms of the nature of the users
and the sites where the activity takes place. Through time, a site particularly
attractive for wildlife viewing may develop a public image through the
growth in publicity and facilities designed to service the visitors who arrive
at the area to encounter wildlife. As the facilities expand, this in turn
influences the types of individuals who visit a site, the expectations, and the
satisfaction derived from the attraction. These processes have been
examined particularly in light of tourism situations with regard to the users
(Cohen, 1972; Plog, 1972; Smith, 1977) and the tourism areas (Butler, 1980).
However, the process is equally applicable to day-visiting outdoor
recreationists and for the purpose of this paper the terms 'tourist' and
'outdoor recreationist' can be used interchangeably. This section of the
paper seeks to draw together and integrate the existing literature regarding
different tourist types and degrees of specialization, and relate them to
changes in destination site characteristics, all within the context of nonconsumptive wildlife-oriented recreation.
Tourists cannot be considered an homogeneous population; even tourists
that may be primarily motivated by the same stimulus, such as wildlife
viewing. Tourist typologies present a sequential change in the type of visitors
to a site that begins with a stage dominated by exploratory users. In the case
of non-consumptive wildlife-oriented recreation this group may be termed
wildlife specialists. These people require little infrastructure or interpretive
facilities, and their presence is usually absorbable by existing social and
ecological systems at the site. They are likely to have pre-knowledge about
the site and constituent wildlife attraction derived from other specialistexplorers and are few enough in number to require little management
intervention. As the awareness of the site and associated activity grows, a
less ambitious user will dominate the group. There will be a concomitant
demand for more facility development, more mediation and increased
pressure on both the social system and the ecosystem of the host area. At the
most mature end of this spectrum lies domination by general tourists, or
wildlife generalists in this context, with little special interest in the site's
attraction, relying heavily on the development of supportive infrastructure.
At this end both the host society and ecosystem may be stressed, requiring
increased management intervention. Such a growth in visitor numbers over
time and changes in those visitors can be seen in Fig. 4.
This classification can be further refined by linking the concept of
sequential change within the user group as described above to wildlife-

Wildlife-oriented recreation

223

LAC I I l .........................

v ~ ( C ~) ' ~ .
E<N

I
T/

GENERALIST

-----~/

LAc.,

E=N/

sE?~ERgsT
J
__.....~,/

~N

~OV~EsT

~V%E

SPECIALIST

GENERALIST
TIME

--

EXPERT
SPECIALIST

NOVICE
NERALlST

"~

Fig. 4.

Leisure specialization continuum

(After Bryan 1977, 1980)

Point of intersection indicates the position on

Butler's curve and the domination by expert (E)
or novice (N) users

The relationship of user specialization and site evolution.

oriented recreationists through Bryan's leisure specialization continuum

(Bryan, 1977, 1979, 1980). Bryan suggests that recreationists may increase
their level of specialization over time, and that change is reflected in
changing equipment, skills, settings and commitment. In the case of a
wildlife-oriented recreationist an individual may begin expressing his or her
interest in wildlife with visits to zoos or other similar captive displays
gradually changing to participation in outdoor activities with some aspect of
wildlife viewing, to specific trips to view wildlife in general local areas, to
specific trips to view particular species. This continuum involves an
increasing commitment of resources. By the end stage this may involve
considerable time, effort and money being invested to travel long distances

224

David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

to see particular species. Some of Bryan's indicators of specialization may be

less relevant to non-consumptive wildlife recreation than other forms of
recreation. Equipment, for example, may not have a great deal of variability
although one might expect wildlife specialists to possess high quality
equipment such as binoculars, spotting scope, camera and lenses. However,
expanding the skills concept to include knowledge about the organism and
habitat, and involvement in conservation efforts, may provide a useful index
of increasing specialization.
Coupled with these changes in the user group are changes in the overall
character of the site toward increased infrastructure. Butler (1980)
developed a model of the evolution of tourist areas which has been used in
diverse applications and is based on a product life cycle roughly following a
logistic curve (e.g. Hovinen, 1981; Keller, 1987; Dearden, 1988). A
framework for understanding, and possibly predicting, evolution of nonconsumptive wildlife use sites would require a functional link between the
wildlife specialization of the user and the changing characteristics of the
encounter area. Figure 4 presents a framework for linking wildlife
specialization to site characteristics by using a combination of Butler's
model of tourist area evolution and Bryan's leisure specialization
continuum. Over time as the number of visitors increases, the proportion of
specialists will decline relative to generalists. The site, in catering to
generalists, will no longer fulfill the expectations of the specialists. Intraactivity conflict may also occur between users of different specialization
levels (e.g. Jacob & Schreyer, 1980). Specialists hence may be displaced to
other, less developed sites. The model suggests that if the dominant level of
specialization among the user group is known, the relative level of maturity
as an attraction can be estimated. This information has considerable value
to managers in at least two ways: as an indication of the need for facility
development (e.g. interpretive sites and visitor services), and as an indication
of the potential rate and timing of growth that may be expected.
The combined model of the interaction between changing users and an
evolving site has not yet been subject to testing, although it has provided a
useful conceptual guideline for research on whale-watching in British
Columbia (Duffus, 1988; Dearden & Duffus, 1989). Initially indices of
specialization require development and refinement and the particular
dimensions of the curve need to be specified. At each stage in the life cycle
described above, change is initiated when the area's existing carrying
capacity is exceeded. An area's continued growth can be attributed to the reestablishment of the evaluative standards, either experiential or physical. In
the case of wildlife viewing, the evaluative standards can change, primarily in
the form of relaxed experiential standards by less demanding visitors, but

Wildlife-oriented recreation

225

the physical or management parameters may be far less flexible (Shelby &
Hiberlein, 1986).
This can be illustrated by reference to Fig. 4. Point A, for example, may
allow a maximum number of viewers with minimum facilities and negligible
impact on the species or habitat. Depending upon the management goals for
the site this point may define the carrying capacity or limits of acceptable
change (LAC I, after Stankey et al., 1985). If the LAC are broadened to
accommodate perhaps reduced wildlife populations (the more wary
individuals in the population may, for example, no longer tolerate human
presence above these numbers), increased facilities and fewer demands upon
the visitor, then the limit (LAC II) may be at B on Fig. 4. Point C may
represent the balance where maximum visitors can be tolerated and still
maintain the activity (LAC III). If this point is passed then visitors may be
reduced in number (point D) due to failure of the site to provide the expected
satisfactions. The ecological carrying capacity may have been so violated at
this point that the chances of encountering the species are considerably
diminished and hence visitors, especially generalist visitors, may not be
willing to make the required investment. Indeed violating LAC III may well
be serious enough to permanently alter the ecological capacity of the site to
provide the recreational experience. It is unlikely in the case of wildlife that
the curve would be symmetrical, allowing the opportunity to violate the
critical threshold levels and yet return to the original situation. Thus, any
increase in visitors following point C, E would in all likelihood represent a
different but perhaps related attraction at the site with less sensitive LAC.
Data from a wide range of sites with various management regimes (e.g.
national parks, marine sites, endangered species habitat) are required to
establish the specific shapes that Butler's curve may take under different
circumstances. Protected areas of various descriptions running from I U C N
Class I to VII categories (Commission on National Parks and Protected
Areas, 1984) have different goals and objectives. Some wildlife sites may
make extensive use of commercial operators (such as whale-watching
cruises) while others on individual foot traffic (e.g. birdwatching in critical
areas). Different species and even different individuals have different
tolerance levels to disturbance. All these conditions will influence the shape
of the curve and the criteria for LAC establishment.
Currently plans that incorporate an ecological basis yet recognize that the
context of the social reality of the local region of non-consumptive use areas
remain rare. Research from national parks and wildlife programmes in Africa
(Western, 1984; Abel & Blaikie, 1986; Anderson & Grove, 1987; Bell, 1987),
India (Panwar, 1984; Saharia, 1984) and Nepal (Mishra, 1984) points to
some emerging themes in planning and some of the difficulties encountered

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David A. Duffus, Philip Dearden

integrating ecological, political and social systems in high profile N C W O R

situations.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper describes the interaction between three foundations for nonconsumptive wildlife-oriented recreation management: the ecology of the
focal species, the recreational user and the historical context of the h u m a n wildlife relationship. This foundation provides the link between the growth
and development of N C W O R sites and a modified model of tourism area
evolution and leisure specialization. The conceptual framework is first and
foremost an indication of the relative roles and interactions among the
components of non-consumptive wildlife use. It is significant to note at how
many places natural and social science knowledge must be successfully
integrated to fully understand non-consumptive wildlife use. Also important
is a distinction between non-consumptive and traditional consumptive
wildlife management based on the different measures of successful
management. Whereas both activities must fundamentally provide a
reasonable chance of encountering wildlife, the results of a successful nonconsumptive encounter exist in the psychological domain of the individual
where they are not as easily measured as game bagged.
The traditional agencies involved in wildlife management may not be
prepared for the depth of social science research required for nonconsumptive users. The need for a total analysis framework is timely, as is
the need for a multi-disciplinary approach. The growing importance of nonconsumptive uses may soon demand increased management intervention to
maintain opportunities without harming wildlife populations to capture the
full conservation value of NCWOR. Increased knowledge of the user in
terms of expectation, motivation and satisfaction will allow more precise
manipulation of the human component of N C W O R to maintain the
ultimate proviso of protection of wildlife.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank World Wildlife Fund Canada for support of
research leading to this article.
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