Relation Between Mud Volcanoes and Its

Geological Structures
Author : Miftakhur Rahmat (3714100052)
Department of Geophysical Engineering
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember Surabaya

Introduction
The term mud volcano refers to
topographical expressions of naturally
occurring volcanoshaped cone formations
created by geologically excreted liquefied
sediments and clay-sized fragments, liquids
and gases. Ejected materials often are a mud
slurry of fine solids suspended in liquids
which may include water and hydrocarbon
fluids. The bulk of released gases are
methane, with some carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. Mud volcanoes are associated with
subduction zones and about 700 have been
identified. Temperatures are much cooler in
these processes than found at igneous
volcanoes. The largest mud volcano
structures are 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) in
diameter and reach 700 metres (2,300 ft) in
height.
Mud volcanoes are most abundant in areas
with rapid sedimentation rates, active
compressional tectonics, and the generation
of hydrocarbons at depth. Typically they are
also found in tectonic subduction zones,
accretionary wedges, passive margins within
deltaic systems and in active hydrothermal
areas, collisional tectonic areas, convergent
orogenic belts and active fault systems,
fault-related folds, and anticline axes. These
structures act as preferential pathways for

deep formation fluids to reach the surface.

(see Pitt and Hutchinson, 1982, Higgins and
Saunders, 1974; Guliyiev and Feizullayev,
1998; Milkov, 2000; Dimitrov, 2002; Kopf,
2002, Mazzini, 2009). The existence of mud
volcanoes are controlled by tectonic activity
where fluid escapes from areas undergoing
complex crustal deformation as a result of
transpressional and transtensional tectonics.
Collisional
plate
interactions
create
abnormal
pressure
condition
and
consequently overpressured buildup of deep
sedimentary sediment which in turn result in
formation of diapirs. Over pressured zones
typically are under-compacted sedimentary
layers which have lower density than the
overlying rock units, and hence have an
ability to flow. They are the product of rapid
deposition where the connate water is
trapped, unable to escape as the surrounding
rock compacts under the lithostatic pressure
caused by overlying sedimentary layers. In
thick, rapidly deposited shale dominant
sedimentary sequence, the low and reduced
porosity and permeability due to compaction
inhibit the expulsion of water out of the
shale. As burial continues, fluid pressure
increases in response to the increasing
weight of the overburden. This Nonequilibrium compaction is believed to be the
dominant mechanism in formation of
overpressured sediments. Over pressure

however can also result from maturing

organic rich predominantly clay sediments
which are generating methane and other
heavier gases that are still trapped within the
sedimentary
sequences.
The
above
geological elements that result in diapirsm
and mud volcano is often known as
elisional basin mainly characterized by

rapid deposition of thick young sediments,

presence of abnormally high formation
pressure or overpressures fluids, undercompacted sediments, petroleum generation,
compressional setting, high seismicity and
occurrence of faults (see Milkov, 2000, and
Kholodov, 1983).

Structures of Mud Volcano

Figure 1. Mud Volcano structure at Azerbaijan

Figure 2. Basic Structure of Mud Volcano

The mud volcano is formed by the escaping

natural gas that rises to the surface when it
finds a conduit (strike slip fault) and carries
mud which has a lower density (and
typically found as low velocity interval) than
the surrounding sedimentary succession.
Fluid, gas, and surface water are ejected in a
cone shape like a mountain and forms

craters, mud pools (salses) and cones

(gryphons). Tectonic movement is very
influential, as well as rapidly deposited
sediments and burial of organic rich
sediments. Strike-slip faults in active
tectonic regions are the most ideal place for
the formation of mud volcanoes.

Grown Stage of Mud Volcano

Figure 3. Grown stage of Mud Volcano

The main driving engine of the eruptions is
overpressured methane rising from source
rocks and hydrocarbon reservoirs at greater
depths. Other known overpressure buildup
mechanisms that contribute to the
brecciation of the deep sedimentary units
include for example the dewatering of thick
clay-rich
sedimentary
units,
and
geochemical reactions in sedimentary units

with high temperature gradients. These

fluids overpressured fluids gather along
morphological discontinuities and favorable
geological structures (e.g. fault planes,
anticline axes, preexisting deformations).
During this overpressure buildup a dome or
diapir-shaped
feature
of
brecciated
sedimentary units forms in the subsurface.
The rise of the fluids and the growth if this

diapir is partly self-sustained by buoyancy

and by the constantly increasing volume of
fluids at shallower depth.

Mud Volcanoes occurences

1. Azerbaijan.
Mud volcanoes are one of the visible signs
of the presence of oil and gas reserves
hidden deep beneath land and sea in the
Caspian region. Gas seeps are a related
phenomenon and occur when a pocket, filled
largely methane gas under the ground, finds
a
passage
to
the
surface.
One such famous gas seep is Yanardagh
(Fire Mountain) on the Absheron Peninsula
where a continuous fire burns along a
hillside. People often go there to see these
dancing
flames
which
never
get
extinguished and enjoy a cup of tea at the
nearby caf. It's a fascinating phenomenon
to watch, especially at dusk. It's easy to
understand how such eternal fires, fueled
from the earth itself, became objects of
worship.
The appearance of the Zoroastrians in
Azerbaijan almost 2,000 years ago is closely
connected with these geological phenomena,
and, according to one theory, the name
"Azerbaijan" itself was derived from the
word for "fire" in Persian. The cult of fire
worship was paramount throughout the
history of pre-Islam in this region.
2. Sidoarjo Mud Volcano
Since it roared to life in May 2006, a mud
volcano near Indonesia's coastal city of

Sidoarjo has swallowed homes, rice paddies,

factories, and roads, killing 15 people,
displacing 40,000, and harming the
livelihoods of many more. As the ongoing
eruption nears its 5th anniversary, observers
wonder whether it will ever stop. The
answer: Not anytime soon. A new study
predicts the volcano will continue spewing
significant amounts of mud for another 2
decades. A second study forecasts that it
could grind on as long as 87 years.
The mud volcano has inflicted a punishing
blow to the region of Java island 700
kilometers east of the capital, Jakarta.
Nicknamed
Lusi,
a
contraction
of lumpur(Indonesian
for
mud)
and
Sidoarjo, the volcano has so far disgorged
144 million cubic meters of mud, some of
which now covers an area roughly twice the
size of New York City's Central Park. Much
of the mud has been diverted to a nearby
river, where it has formed a new 83 hectare
island and extended a natural delta.
Compensation and mitigation have cost at
least $767 million, according to Humanitus,
a
nongovernmental
organization
in
Melbourne, Australia, that is studying the
disaster's social impact. That is a fraction of
the real economic toll, which is still being
tallied.

References
http://folk.uio.no/adrianom/et%20al
%20Mazzini%20et
%20al/Mazzini_2009_MPG_MV_processes.
pdf
http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2011/02/in
donesias-infamous-mud-volcano-couldoutlive-all-us

http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/azerbaija
n/mud-volcanoes.html

Mud Volcano and its Evolution, Bambang P

Istadi.