Basic Coontrol Theory

SC-GCM-49 CM Issue 2 Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited
Block 5 Basic Control Theory
Basic Control Theory Module 5.2
Module 5.2
Basic Control Theory
The Steam and Condensate Loop
5.2.1
Basic Control Theory

Modes of control
An automatic temperature control might consist of a valve, actuator, controller and sensor detecting
the space temperature in a room. The control system is said to be in balance when the space
temperature sensor does not register more or less temperature than that required by the control
system. What happens to the control valve when the space sensor registers a change in temperature
(a temperature deviation) depends on the type of control system used. The relationship between
the movement of the valve and the change of temperature in the controlled medium is known as
the mode of control or control action.
There are two basic modes of control:
o On / Off - The valve is either fully open or fully closed, with no intermediate state.
o
Continuous - The valve can move between fully open or fully closed, or be held at any
intermediate position.
Variations of both these modes exist, which will now be examined in greater detail.
On /off control
Occasionally known as two-step or two-position control, this is the most basic control mode.
Considering the tank of water shown in Figure 5.2.1, the objective is to heat the water in the tank
using the energy given off a simple steam coil. In the flow pipe to the coil, a two port valve and
actuator is fitted, complete with a thermostat, placed in the water in the tank.
Air signal
2-port valve and solenoid
24 Vdc
Steam
Thermostat (set to 60C)
Steam trap set
Condensate
Fig. 5.2.1 On/ off temperature control of water in a tank
The thermostat is set to 60C, which is the required temperature of the water in the tank. Logic
dictates that if the switching point were actually at 60C the system would never operate properly,
because the valve would not know whether to be open or closed at 60C. From then on it could
open and shut rapidly, causing wear.
For this reason, the thermostat would have an upper and lower switching point. This is essential
to prevent over-rapid cycling. In this case the upper switching point might be 61C (the point at
which the thermostat tells the valve to shut) and the lower switching point might be 59C (the
point when the valve is told to open). Thus there is an in-built switching difference in the
thermostat of 1C about the 60C set point.
This 2C (1C) is known as the switching differential. (This will vary between thermostats).
A diagram of the switching action of the thermostat would look like the graph shown in
Figure 5.2.2. The temperature of the tank contents will fall to 59C before the valve is asked to
open and will rise to 61C before the valve is instructed to close.
5.2.2
Off
Valve
closed
Valve
open
On
Off
Switch
on
Switch
off
Switch
off
On
T1
Switch
on
On
T3
T2
Time
Fig. 5.2.2 On/ off switching action of the thermostat
Figure 5.2.2 shows straight switching lines but the effect on heat transfer from coil to water will
not be immediate. It will take time for the steam in the coil to affect the temperature of the water
in the tank. Not only that, but the water in the tank will rise above the 61C upper limit and fall
below the 59C lower limit. This can be explained by cross referencing Figures 5.2.2 and 5.2.3.
First however it is necessary to describe what is happening.
At point A (59C, Figure 5.2.3) the thermostat switches on, directing the valve wide open. It takes
time for the transfer of heat from the coil to affect the water temperature, as shown by the graph
of the water temperature in Figure 5.2.3. At point B (61C) the thermostat switches off and allows
the valve to shut. However the coil is still full of steam, which continues to condense and give up
its heat. Hence the water temperature continues to rise above the upper switching temperature,
and overshoots at C, before eventually falling.
Off
Off
Overshoot
Upper switching
point 61C
Set point 60C
Lower switching
point 59C
T1
On
T2
T3
Operating differential
Switching differential
of thermostat
Tank water temperature
E
On
Time
Fig. 5.2.3 Tank temperature versus time
From this point onwards, the water temperature in the tank continues to fall until, at point D
(59C), the thermostat tells the valve to open. Steam is admitted through the coil but again, it
takes time to have an effect and the water temperature continues to fall for a while, reaching its
trough of undershoot at point E.
The difference between the peak and the trough is known as the operating differential. The
switching differential of the thermostat depends on the type of thermostat used. The operating
differential depends on the characteristics of the application such as the tank, its contents, the
heat transfer characteristics of the coil, the rate at which heat is transferred to the thermostat,
and so on.
Essentially, with on / off control, there are upper and lower switching limits, and the valve is either
fully open or fully closed - there is no intermediate state.
However, controllers are available that provide a proportioning time control, in which it is possible
to alter the ratio of the on time to the off time to control the controlled condition. This
proportioning action occurs within a selected bandwidth around the set point; the set point
being the bandwidth mid point.
5.2.3
If the controlled condition is outside the bandwidth, the output signal from the controller is either
fully on or fully off, acting as an on /off device. If the controlled condition is within the bandwidth,
the controller output is turned on and off relative to the deviation between the value of the
controlled condition and the set point.
With the controlled condition being at set point, the ratio of on time to off time is 1:1, that is,
the on time equals the off time. If the controlled condition is below the set point, the on time
will be longer than the off time, whilst if above the set point, the off time will be longer, relative
to the deviation within the bandwidth.
The main advantages of on / off control are that it is simple and very low cost. This is why it is
frequently found on domestic type applications such as central heating boilers and heater fans.
Its major disadvantage is that the operating differential might fall outside the control tolerance
required by the process. For example, on a food production line, where the taste and repeatability
of taste is determined by precise temperature control, on /off control could well be unsuitable.
By contrast, in the case of space heating there are often large storage capacities (a large area to
heat or cool that will respond to temperature change slowly) and slight variation in the desired
value is acceptable. In many cases on /off control is quite appropriate for this type of application.
If on /off control is unsuitable because more accurate temperature control is required, the next
option is continuous control.
Continuous control
Continuous control is often called modulating control. It means that the valve is capable of moving
continually to change the degree of valve opening or closing. It does not just move to either fully
open or fully closed, as with on-off control.
There are three basic control actions that are often applied to continuous control:
o
Proportional (P)
Integral (I)
Derivative (D)
It is also necessary to consider these in combination such as P + I, P + D, P + I + D. Although it

is possible to combine the different actions, and all help to produce the required response, it is
important to remember that both the integral and derivative actions are usually corrective functions
of a basic proportional control action.
The three control actions are considered below.
Proportional control
This is the most basic of the continuous control modes and is usually referred to by use of the
letter P. The principle aim of proportional control is to control the process as the conditions
change.
This section shows that:
o
The larger the proportional band, the more stable the control, but the greater the offset.
The narrower the proportional band, the less stable the process, but the smaller the offset.
The aim, therefore, should be to introduce the smallest acceptable proportional band that will
always keep the process stable with the minimum offset.
In explaining proportional control, several new terms must be introduced.
To define these, a simple analogy can be considered - a cold water tank is supplied with water
via a float operated control valve and with a globe valve on the outlet pipe valve V, as shown
in Figure 5.2.4. Both valves are the same size and have the same flow capacity and flow
characteristic. The desired water level in the tank is at point B (equivalent to the set point of a
level controller).
It can be assumed that, with valve V half open, (50% load) there is just the right flowrate of
water entering via the float operated valve to provide the desired flow out through the discharge
pipe, and to maintain the water level in the tank at point at B.
5.2.4
Control valve in half open position
Fulcrum
Water in
Fig. 5.2.4 Valve 50% open
Valve
V
Water out
The system can be said to be in balance (the flowrate of water entering and leaving the tank is the
same); under control, in a stable condition (the level is not varying) and at precisely the desired
water level (B); giving the required outflow.
With the valve V closed, the level of water in the tank rises to point A and the float operated
valve cuts off the water supply (see Figure 5.2.5 below).
The system is still under control and stable but control is above level B. The difference between
level B and the actual controlled level, A, is related to the proportional band of the control
system.
Once again, if valve V is half opened to give 50% load, the water level in the tank will return to
the desired level, point B.
Fully closed position
Fulcrum
Water in
Offset
A
B
Fig. 5.2.5 Valve closed
Valve
V
In Figure 5.2.6 below, the valve V is fully opened (100% load). The float operated valve will
need to drop to open the inlet valve wide and admit a higher flowrate of water to meet the
increased demand from the discharge pipe. When it reaches level C, enough water will be entering
to meet the discharge needs and the water level will be maintained at point C.
Fully open position
Fulcrum
Water in
A
Deviation
B
C
Fig. 5.2.6 Valve open
Valve
V
Water out
The system is under control and stable, but there is an offset; the deviation in level between
points B and C. Figure 5.2.7 combines the three conditions used in this example.
5.2.5
The difference in levels between points A and C is known as the Proportional Band or P-band,
since this is the change in level (or temperature in the case of a temperature control) for the
control valve to move from fully open to fully closed.
One recognised symbol for Proportional Band is Xp.
The analogy illustrates several basic and important points relating to proportional control:
o
The control valve is moved in proportion to the error in the water level (or the temperature
deviation, in the case of a temperature control) from the set point.
The set point can only be maintained for one specific load condition.
Whilst stable control will be achieved between points A and C, any load causing a difference
in level to that of B will always provide an offset.
Fulcrum
Proportional
band (Xp)
A
B
C
Fig. 5.2.7 Proportional band
Note: By altering the fulcrum position, the system Proportional Band changes. Nearer the float
gives a narrower P-band, whilst nearer the valve gives a wider P-band. Figure 5.2.8 illustrates why
this is so. Different fulcrum positions require different changes in water level to move the valve
from fully open to fully closed. In both cases, It can be seen that level B represents the 50% load
level, A represents the 0% load level, and C represents the 100% load level. It can also be seen
how the offset is greater at any same load with the wider proportional band.
Fulcrum
Fulcrum
A
B
C
A
B
C
Narrower P-band
Wider P-band
Fig. 5.2.8 Demonstrating the relationship between P-band and offset
The examples depicted in Figures 5.2.4 through to 5.2.8 describe proportional band as the
level (or perhaps temperature or pressure etc.) change required to move the valve from fully
open to fully closed. This is convenient for mechanical systems, but a more general (and more
correct) definition of proportional band is the percentage change in measured value required
to give a 100% change in output. It is therefore usually expressed in percentage terms rather
than in engineering units such as degrees centigrade.
For electrical and pneumatic controllers, the set value is at the middle of the proportional band.
The effect of changing the P-band for an electrical or pneumatic system can be described with a
slightly different example, by using a temperature control.
5.2.6
The space temperature of a building is controlled by a water (radiator type) heating system
using a proportional action control by a valve driven with an electrical actuator, and an
electronic controller and room temperature sensor. The control selected has a proportional band
(P-band or Xp) of 6% of the controller input span of 0 - 100C, and the desired internal space
temperature is 18C. Under certain load conditions, the valve is 50% open and the required
internal temperature is correct at 18C.
A fall in outside temperature occurs, resulting in an increase in the rate of heat loss from the
building. Consequently, the internal temperature will decrease. This will be detected by the
room temperature sensor, which will signal the valve to move to a more open position allowing
hotter water to pass through the room radiators.
The valve is instructed to open by an amount proportional to the drop in room temperature. In
simplistic terms, if the room temperature falls by 1C, the valve may open by 10%; if the room
temperature falls by 2C, the valve will open by 20%.
In due course, the outside temperature stabilises and the inside temperature stops falling. In
order to provide the additional heat required for the lower outside temperature, the valve
will stabilise in a more open position; but the actual inside temperature will be slightly lower
than 18C.
Example 5.2.1 and Figure 5.2.9 explain this further, using a P-band of 6C.
Example 5.2.1 Consider a space heating application with the following characteristics:
1. The required temperature in the building is 18C.
2. The room temperature is currently 18C, and the valve is 50% open.
3. The proportional band is set at 6% of 100C = 6C, which gives 3C either side of the 18C set
point.
Figure 5.2.9 shows the room temperature and valve relationship:
Valve position (% open)
100
90
80
Valve position
70
60
50
Valve position
40
30
20
2C fall
in room
temperature
10
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Set
temperature
22
24
26
6C Proportional band
Temperature inside the building (C)
Fig. 5.2.9 Room temperature and valve relationship - 6C proportional band
As an example, consider the room temperature falling to 16C. From the chart it can be seen that
the new valve opening will be approximately 83%.
5.2.7
With proportional control, if the load changes, so too will the offset:
o
A load of less than 50% will cause the room temperature to be above the set value.
A load of more than 50% will cause the room temperature to be below the set value.
The deviation between the set temperature on the controller (the set point) and the actual room
temperature is called the proportional offset.
In Example 5.2.1, as long as the load conditions remain the same, the control will remain steady
at a valve opening of 83.3%; this is called sustained offset.
The effect of adjusting the P-band
In electronic and pneumatic controllers, the P-band is adjustable. This enables the user to find a
setting suitable for the individual application.
Increasing the P-band - For example, if the previous application had been programmed with a
12% proportional band equivalent to 12C, the results can be seen in Figure 5.2.10. Note that
the wider P-band results in a less steep gain line. For the same change in room temperature the
valve movement will be smaller. The term gain is discussed in a following section.
In this instance, the 2C fall in room temperature would give a valve opening of about 68% from
the chart in Figure 5.2.10.
100
90
Revised
operating
condition
80
70
Initial
operating condition
60
50
Gain line
40
30
2C fall
in room
temperature
20
10
0
10
12
14
16
Actual
temperature
20
22
24
26
18
Set
temperature
12C Proportional band

Fig. 5.2.10 Room temperature and valve relationship - 12C Proportional band
Reducing the P-band - Conversely, if the P-band is reduced, the valve movement per temperature
increment is increased. However, reducing the P-band to zero gives an on /off control. The ideal
P-band is as narrow as possible without producing a noticeable oscillation in the actual room
temperature.
Gain
The term gain is often used with controllers and is simply the reciprocal of proportional band.
The larger the controller gain, the more the controller output will change for a given error. For
instance for a gain of 1, an error of 10% of scale will change the controller output by 10% of scale,
for a gain of 5, an error of 10% will change the controller output by 50% of scale, whilst for a gain
of 10, an error of 10% will change the output by 100% of scale.
The proportional band in degree terms will depend on the controller input scale. For instance,
for a controller with a 200C input scale: An Xp of 20% = 20% of 200C = 40C
An Xp of 10% = 10% of 200C = 20C
5.2.8
Example 5.2.2
Let the input span of a controller be 100C.

If the controller is set so that full change in output occurs over a proportional band of 20% the
controller gain is:

Equally it could be said that the proportional band is 20% of 100C = 20C and the gain is:
&
&
The controller in Example 5.2.1 had a gain of:

&
&

Therefore the relationship between P-band and Gain is:

3EDQG
,QSXWVSDQ&
RU*DLQ
3 EDQG&
*DLQ
DQXPEHU
DQXPEHU
As a reminder:
o A wide proportional band (small gain) will provide a less sensitive response, but a greater
stability.
o
A narrow proportional band (large gain) will provide a more sensitive response, but there is a
practical limit to how narrow the Xp can be set.
Too narrow a proportional band (too much gain) will result in oscillation and unstable control.
For any controller for various P-bands, gain lines can be determined as shown in Figure 5.2.11,
where the controller input span is 100C.
150
140
)RU; S RI*DLQ
130
)RU; S RI*DLQ
120
110
)RU; S RI*DLQ
100
Output
90
)RU; S RI*DLQ
80
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
&
HUURU FKDQJHLQRXWSXW

70
60
50
40
30
in =
=
in
2
10%
Ga
Ga
=5
10
50%
Gain
20
10% 20% 30% 40%

Xp = 20%
Xp = 50%
50%
60% 70% 80%

Scale
90% 100%
Gain
=0
.666
150%
Xp = 100%
Xp = 150%
Fig. 5.2.11 Proportional band and gain
5.2.9
Reverse or direct acting control signal
A closer look at the figures used so far to describe the effect of proportional control shows that the
output is assumed to be reverse acting. In other words, a rise in process temperature causes the
control signal to fall and the valve to close. This is usually the situation on heating controls. This
configuration would not work on a cooling control; here the valve must open with a rise in
temperature. This is termed a direct acting control signal. Figures 5.2.12 and 5.2.13 depict the
difference between reverse and direct acting control signals for the same valve action.
100%
% valve opening
% valve opening
100%
Set
temperature
0%
Set
temperature
0%
Temperature
Temperature
Proportional band
Proportional band
Heating control valve closes

as temperature rises
Cooling control
Valve opens as temperature rises
Fig. 5.2.12 Reverse acting signal
Fig. 5.2.13 Direct acting signal
On mechanical controllers (such as a pneumatic controller) it is usual to be able to invert the output
signal of the controller by rotating the proportional control dial. Thus, the magnitude of the
proportional band and the direction of the control action can be determined from the same dial.
On electronic controllers, reverse acting (RA) or direct acting (DA) is selected through the keypad.
Gain line offset or proportional effect
From the explanation of proportional control, it should be clear that there is a control offset or a
deviation of the actual value from the set value whenever the load varies from 50%.
To further illustrate this, consider Example 5.2.1 with a 12C P-band, where an offset of 2C was
expected. If the offset cannot be tolerated by the application, then it must be eliminated.
This could be achieved by relocating (or resetting) the set point to a higher value. This provides the
same valve opening after manual reset but at a room temperature of 18C not 16C.
100
90
80
Gain line after manual reset
70
Reset operating condition
60
50
Initial operating condition
40
30
20
Initial gain line

2C fall
in room Reset
temperature value
10
0
10
12
14
16
18
Original
set point
20
22
New
set point
24
26
Original proportional band

Fig. 5.2.14 Gain line offset
5.2.10
Manual reset
The offset can be removed either manually or automatically. The effect of manual reset can
be seen in Figure 5.2.14, and the value is adjusted manually by applying an offset to the set
point of 2C.
It should be clear from Figure 5.2.14 and the above text that the effect is the same as increasing
the set value by 2C. The same valve opening of 66.7% now coincides with the room temperature
at 18C.
The effects of manual reset are demonstrated in Figure 5.2.15
Temperature
Offset prior to manual reset
Overshoot
Overshoot
Set
value
Manual reset carried out

Offset eliminated
Time
Fig. 5.2.15 Effect of manual reset
Integral control - automatic reset action
Manual reset is usually unsatisfactory in process plant where each load change will require a
reset action. It is also quite common for an operator to be confused by the differences between:
o
Set value - What is on the dial.
Actual value - What the process value is.
Required value - The perfect process condition.
Such problems are overcome by the reset action being contained within the mechanism of an
automatic controller.
Such a controller is primarily a proportional controller. It then has a reset function added, which
is called integral action. Automatic reset uses an electronic or pneumatic integration routine to
perform the reset function. The most commonly used term for automatic reset is integral action,
which is given the letter I.
The function of integral action is to eliminate offset by continuously and automatically modifying
the controller output in accordance with the control deviation integrated over time. The Integral
Action Time (IAT) is defined as the time taken for the controller output to change due to the
integral action to equal the output change due to the proportional action. Integral action gives a
steadily increasing corrective action as long as an error continues to exist. Such corrective action
will increase with time and must therefore, at some time, be sufficient to eliminate the steady
state error altogether, providing sufficient time elapses before another change occurs. The controller
allows the integral time to be adjusted to suit the plant dynamic behaviour.
Proportional plus integral (P + I) becomes the terminology for a controller incorporating these
features.
5.2.11
The integral action on a controller is often restricted to within the proportional band. A
typical P + I response is shown in Figure 5.2.16, for a step change in load.
Temperature
Step change in load
Overshoot
Set
value
Original proportional band

Integral action begins inside the P-band
Actual value falls quickly and recovers due to proportional action
Time
Fig. 5.2.16 P+I Function after a step change in load
The IAT is adjustable within the controller:

o
If it is too short, over-reaction and instability will result.
If it is too long, reset action will be very slow to take effect.
IAT is represented in time units. On some controllers the adjustable parameter for the integral
action is termed repeats per minute, which is the number of times per minute that the integral
action output changes by the proportional output change.
o
Repeats per minute = 1/(IAT in minutes)
IAT = Infinity Means no integral action
IAT = 0 Means infinite integral action
It is important to check the controller manual to see how integral action is designated.
Overshoot and wind up
With P+ I controllers (and with P controllers), overshoot is likely to occur when there are time
lags on the system.
A typical example of this is after a sudden change in load. Consider a process application where
a process heat exchanger is designed to maintain water at a fixed temperature.
The set point is 80C, the P-band is set at 5C (2.5C), and the load suddenly changes such that
the returning water temperature falls almost instantaneously to 60C.
Figure 5.2.16 shows the effect of this sudden (step change) in load on the actual water temperature.
The measured value changes almost instantaneously from a steady 80C to a value of 60C.
By the nature of the integration process, the generation of integral control action must lag behind
the proportional control action, introducing a delay and more dead time to the response. This
could have serious consequences in practice, because it means that the initial control response,
which in a proportional system would be instantaneous and fast acting, is now subjected to a
delay and responds slowly. This may cause the actual value to run out of control and the system
to oscillate. These oscillations may increase or decrease depending on the relative values of the
controller gain and the integral action. If applying integral action it is important to make sure, that
it is necessary and if so, that the correct amount of integral action is applied.
5.2.12
Integral control can also aggravate other situations. If the error is large for a long period, for
example after a large step change or the system being shut down, the value of the integral can
become excessively large and cause overshoot or undershoot that takes a long time to recover. To
avoid this problem, which is often called integral wind-up, sophisticated controllers will inhibit
integral action until the system gets fairly close to equilibrium.
To remedy these situations it is useful to measure the rate at which the actual temperature is
changing; in other words, to measure the rate of change of the signal. Another type of control
mode is used to measure how fast the measured value changes, and this is termed Rate Action or
Derivative Action.
Derivative control - rate action
A Derivative action (referred to by the letter D) measures and responds to the rate of change of
process signal, and adjusts the output of the controller to minimise overshoot.
If applied properly on systems with time lags, derivative action will minimise the deviation from
the set point when there is a change in the process condition. It is interesting to note that derivative
action will only apply itself when there is a change in process signal. If the value is steady, whatever
the offset, then derivative action does not occur.
One useful function of the derivative function is that overshoot can be minimised especially on
fast changes in load. However, derivative action is not easy to apply properly; if not enough is
used, little benefit is achieved, and applying too much can cause more problems than it solves.
D action is again adjustable within the controller, and referred to as TD in time units:
TD = 0 Means no D action.
TD = Infinity Means infinite D action.
P + D controllers can be obtained, but proportional offset will probably be experienced. It is
worth remembering that the main disadvantage with a P control is the presence of offset. To
overcome and remove offset, I action is introduced. The frequent existence of time lags in the
control loop explains the need for the third action D. The result is a P + I + D controller which,
if properly tuned, can in most processes give a rapid and stable response, with no offset and
without overshoot.
PID controllers
P and I and D are referred to as terms and thus a P + I + D controller is often referred to as a
three term controller.
5.2.13
Summary of modes of control

A three-term controller contains three modes of control:
o
Proportional (P) action with adjustable gain to obtain stability.
Reset (Integral) (I) action to compensate for offset due to load changes.
Rate (Derivative) (D) action to speed up valve movement when rapid load changes take place.
The various characteristics can be summarised, as shown in Figure 5.2.17.
Proportional
plus Integral
P+I
Proportional
plus Derivative
P+D
Temperature
Temperature
Proportional
P
Temperature
On / off
Typical system responses

Temperature
Control mode
Advantages/ disadvantages
Time
Inexpensive
Simple
Operating differential can be

outside of process requirements
Simple and stable
Fairly high initial deviation

(unless a large P-band is chosen),
then sustained offset
Easy to set up
Offset occurs
No sustained offset
Time
Time
n
Time
Temperature
Possible increased overshoot

on start-up
Stable
Some offset
Rapid response to changes
Proportional
plus Integral
plus Derivative
P+I+D
Increase in proportional band

usually required to overcome
instability
Time
n
Will give best control,

no offset and minimal overshoot
More complex to set up manually
but most electronic controllers
have an autotune facility.
More expensive where pneumatic
controllers are concerned
Fig. 5.2.17 Summary of control modes and responses
Finally, the controls engineer must try to avoid the danger of using unnecessarily complicated
controls for a specific application. The least complicated control action, which will provide the
degree of control required, should always be selected.
5.2.14
Further terminology
Time constant
This is defined as: The time taken for a controller output to change by 63.2% of its total due to
a step (or sudden) change in process load.
In reality, the explanation is more involved because the time constant is really the time taken for
a signal or output to achieve its final value from its initial value, had the original rate of increase
been maintained. This concept is depicted in Figure 5.12.18.
Valve movement (% of total)
100%
Actual movement
63.2%
Initial rate of movement
Time constant
0%
Time
Fig. 5.2.18 Time constant
Example 5.2.2 A practical appreciation of the time constant

Consider two tanks of water, tank A at a temperature of 25C, and tank B at 75C. A sensor is
placed in tank A and allowed to reach equilibrium temperature. It is then quickly transferred to
tank B. The temperature difference between the two tanks is 50C, and 63.2% of this temperature
span can be calculated as shown below:
63.2% of 50C = 31.6C
The initial datum temperature was 25C, consequently the time constant for this simple example
is the time required for the sensor to reach 56.6C, as shown below:
25C + 31.6C = 56.6C
Hunting
Often referred to as instability, cycling or oscillation. Hunting produces a continuously changing

deviation from the normal operating point. This can be caused by:
o
The proportional band being too narrow.
The integral time being too short.
The derivative time being too long.
A combination of these.
Long time constants or dead times in the control system or the process itself.
5.2.15
In Figure 5.2.19 the heat exchanger is oversized for the application. Accurate temperature control
will be difficult to achieve and may result in a large proportional band in an attempt to achieve
stability.
If the system load suddenly increases, the two port valve will open wider, filling the heat exchanger
with high temperature steam. The heat transfer rate increases extremely quickly causing the
water system temperature to overshoot. The rapid increase in water temperature is picked up by
the sensor and directs the two port valve to close quickly. This causes the water temperature to
fall, and the two port valve to open again. This cycle is repeated, the cycling only ceasing when
the PID terms are adjusted. The following example (Example 5.2.3) gives an idea of the effects of
a hunting steam system.
Temperature
sensor
Two port
valve
Steam / water
heat exchanger
Small water
system
Steam
Pump
Condensate
Fig. 5.2.19 Hunting
Example 5.2.3 The effect of hunting on the system in Figure 5.2.19
Consider the steam to water heat exchanger system in Figure 5.2.19. Under minimum load
conditions, the size of the heat exchanger is such that it heats the constant flowrate secondary
water from 60C to 65C with a steam temperature of 70C. The controller has a set point of 65C
and a P-band of 10C.
Consider a sudden increase in the secondary load, such that the returning water temperature
almost immediately drops by 40C. The temperature of the water flowing out of the heat
exchanger will also drop by 40C to 25C. The sensor detects this and, as this temperature is
below the P-band, it directs the pneumatically actuated steam valve to open fully.
The steam temperature is observed to increase from 70C to 140C almost instantaneously. What
is the effect on the secondary water temperature and the stability of the control system?
As demonstrated in Module 13.2 (The heat load, heat exchanger and steam load relationship),
the heat exchanger temperature design constant, TDC, can be calculated from the observed
operating conditions and Equation 13.2.2:
7'&
Where:
TDC =
=
Ts
T1
=
T2
=
5.2.16
7V 7
7V 7
Equation 13.2.2
Temperature Design Constant

Steam temperature
Secondary fluid inlet temperature
Secondary fluid outlet temperature
In this example, the observed conditions (at minimum load) are as follows:
7KHLQOHWZDWHUWHPSHUDWXUH7
&
7KHRXWOHWZDWHUWHPSHUDWXUH7
&
6WHDPWHPSHUDWXUH7V
&
7'&
7'&
7'&
7'&
7V 7
7V 7

When the steam temperature rises to 140C, it is possible to predict the outlet temperature from
Equation 13.2.5:
76 7
7'&
7 76
Equation 13.2.5
Where:
Ts
= 140C
T1
= 60C - 40C = 20C
TDC = 2

7

7

7 &
The heat exchanger outlet temperature is 80C, which is now above the P-band, and the sensor
now signals the controller to shut down the steam valve.
The steam temperature falls rapidly, causing the outlet water temperature to fall; and the steam
valve opens yet again. The system cycles around these temperatures until the control parameters
are changed. These symptoms are referred to as hunting. The control valve and its controller are
hunting to find a stable condition. In practice, other factors will add to the uncertainty of the
situation, such as the system size and reaction to temperature change and the position of the
sensor.
Hunting of this type can cause premature wear of system components, in particular valves and
actuators, and gives poor control.
Example 5.2.3 is not typical of a practical application. In reality, correct design and sizing of the
control system and steam heated heat exchanger would not be a problem.
Lag
Lag is a delay in response and will exist in both the control system and in the process or system
under control.
Consider a small room warmed by a heater, which is controlled by a room space thermostat. A
large window is opened admitting large amounts of cold air. The room temperature will fall but
there will be a delay while the mass of the sensor cools down to the new temperature - this is
known as control lag. The delay time is also referred to as dead time.
Having then asked for more heat from the room heater, it will be some time before this takes
effect and warms up the room to the point where the thermostat is satisfied. This is known as
system lag or thermal lag.
5.2.17
Rangeability
This relates to the control valve and is the ratio between the maximum controllable flow and the
minimum controllable flow, between which the characteristics of the valve (linear, equal percentage,
quick opening) will be maintained. With most control valves, at some point before the fully
closed position is reached, there is no longer a defined control over flow in accordance with the
valve characteristics. Reputable manufacturers will provide rangeability figures for their valves.
Turndown ratio
Turndown ratio is the ratio between the maximum flow and the minimum controllable flow. It
will be substantially less than the valves rangeability if the valve is oversized.
Although the definition relates only to the valve, it is a function of the complete control system.
5.2.18
Questions
1. In an on / off control the upper limit is 80C and the lower limit 76C.
What term is used for the 4C difference?
a| Offset
b| Deviation
c| Switching differential
d| Proportional band
2. In an on / off application the upper switching point is 50C and the lower switching point
is 48C. The process temperature actually overshoots to 52C and undershoots to 46C.
What term is used to describe the 46 - 52C range?
a| Operating differential
b| Switching differential
c| Controlled condition
d| Sustained deviation
3. A controller is adjusted to give a larger proportional band. What is the likely effect?
a| Stable process conditions with a larger offset
b| Unstable process conditions with a smaller or offset
c| Unstable process conditions with a larger offset
d| Stable process conditions with a smaller offset
4. A pneumatic pressure controller on a pressure reducing application has proportional

action only. It has a set point of 4 bar g and a proportional band of 0.4 bar.
What position will the valve be in at 4 bar g, and at what sensed pressure will the
valve be wide open?
a| Closed and 3.6 bar
b| 50% open and 3.6 bar
c| 100% open and 4 bar
d| 50% open and 3.8 bar
5. Which of the following is true of a proportional control?

a| The valve is moved in proportion to the time the error occurs
b| The set point can be maintained for all load conditions
c| Proportional control will tend to give an offset
d| Proportional control will never result in an offset
6. A proportional temperature controller provides a direct acting signal to an actuator.

What is the effect on the controller output of a rise in process temperature?
a| The signal will fall
b| The gain line will be relocated
c| The proportional band will be reduced
d| The signal will increase
Answers
1: c, 2: a, 3: a, 4: d, 5: c, 6: d
5.2.19
5.2.20

Basic Coontrol Theory

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SC-GCM-49 CM Issue 2 Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Basic Control Theory

Steam trap set

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Set point 60C

Tank water temperature

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

It is also necessary to consider these in combination such as P + I, P + D, P + I + D. Although it

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Control valve in half open position

Fig. 5.2.4 Valve 50% open

Fig. 5.2.5 Valve closed

Fig. 5.2.6 Valve open

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Fig. 5.2.8 Demonstrating the relationship between P-band and offset

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Valve position (% open)

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

The effect of adjusting the P-band

Valve position (% open)

12C Proportional band

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Let the input span of a controller be 100C.

Therefore the relationship between P-band and Gain is:

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10% 20% 30% 40%

60% 70% 80%

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Reverse or direct acting control signal

Heating control valve closes

Fig. 5.2.12 Reverse acting signal

Fig. 5.2.13 Direct acting signal

Gain line offset or proportional effect

Valve position (% open)

Gain line after manual reset

Reset operating condition

Initial operating condition

Initial gain line

Original proportional band

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 5 Basic Control Theory

Basic Control Theory Module 5.2

Offset prior to manual reset

Manual reset carried out

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